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 Solution Manual for Computer Security Principles and Practice 3rd Edition by
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability are three key objectives that form the heart of computer security. These
three are often referred to as the CIA triad.

Data integrity assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and authorized manner
whereas system integrity assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired manner, free from
deliberate or
inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system.

Passive attacks have to do with eavesdropping on, or monitoring, transmissions. Electronic mail, file transfers, and
client/server exchanges are examples of transmissions that can be monitored. Active attacks include the
modification of transmitted data and attempts to gain unauthorized access to computer systems.

Passive attacks: release of message contents and traffic analysis. Active attacks: masquerade, replay, modification of
messages, and denial of service.

Authentication: The assurance that the communicating entity is the one that it claims to be.
Access control: The prevention of unauthorized use of a resource (i.e., this service controls who can have access to
a resource, under what conditions access can occur, and what those accessing the resource are allowed to do).
Data confidentiality: The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure.
Data integrity: The assurance that data received are exactly as sent by an authorized entity (i.e., contain no
modification, insertion, deletion, or replay).
Nonrepudiation: Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a communication of having
participated in all or part of the communication.

-1-
Availability service: The property of a system or a system resource being accessible and usable upon demand by an
authorized system entity, according to performance specifications for the system (i.e., a system is available if it
provides services according to the system design whenever users request them).
Network attack surface refers to vulnerabilities over an enterprise network, wide- area network or the Internet
whereas Software attack surface refers to vulnerabilities
in application, utility or operating system code.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Apart from the card and USN, if the student needs to enter a pass key to access the information, then the system
must keep the pass key confidential, both in the host system and during transmission for a transaction. It must
protect the integrity of student records. Availability of the host system is important for maintaining the reputation of
the Institution. The availability of SIS machines is of less concern.
The system has high requirements for integrity on individual data packet, as lasting damage can incur by
occasionally losing a data packet. The integrity of routing algorithm and routing tables is also critical. Without
these, the routing function would be defeated. A network routing system must also preserve the confidentiality of
individual data packets, preventing one from accessing the contents of another.

a. The system will have to assure confidentiality if it is being used to publish corporate proprietary material.
The system will have to assure integrity if it is being used to laws or regulations.
The system will have to assure availability if it is being used to publish a daily paper. Example from [NRC91].

a. An organization managing public information on its web server determines that there is no potential impact from
a loss of confidentiality (i.e., confidentiality requirements are not applicable), a moderate potential impact from a
loss of integrity, and a moderate potential impact from a loss of availability.
A law enforcement organization managing extremely sensitive investigative information determines that the
potential impact froma loss of confidentiality is high, the potential impact from a loss of integrity is moderate, and
the potential impact from a loss of availability is moderate.
A financial organization managing routine administrative information (not privacy-related information) determines
that the potential

-2-
impact from a loss of confidentiality is low, the potential impact from a loss of integrity is low, and the potential
impact from a loss of availability is low.
The management within the contracting organization determines that: (i) for the sensitive contract information, the
potential impact from a loss of confidentiality is moderate, the potential impact from a loss of integrity is moderate,
and the potential impact from a loss of availability is low; and (ii) for the routine administrative information (non-
privacy-related information), the potential impact from a loss of confidentiality is low, the potential impact from a
loss of integrity is low, and the potential impact from a loss of availability is low.
The management at the power plant determines that: (i) for the sensor data being acquired by the SCADA system,
there is no potential impact from a loss of confidentiality, a high potential impact from a loss of integrity, and a high
potential impact from a loss of availability; and (ii) for the administrative information being processed by the
system, there is a low potential impact from a loss of confidentiality, a low potential impact from a loss of integrity,
and a low potential impact from a loss of availability. Examples from FIPS 199.

a. At first glance, this code looks fine, but what happens if IsAccessAllowed fails? For example, what happens if the
system runs out of memory, or object handles, when this function is called? The user can execute the privileged task
because the function might return an error such as ERROR NOT ENOUGH MEMORY.
b. x
DWORD dwRet = IsAccessAllowed(...); if (dwRet == NO_ERROR) {
// Secure check OK.
// Perform task.
} else {
// Security check failed.
// Inform user that access is denied.
}

In this case, if the call to IsAccessAllowed fails for any reason, the user is denied access to the privileged operation.

-3-
 Open Safe

Pick Lock Learn Cut Open Safe Install

Combination Improperly

Find Writ- ten Get Combo

Combo from Target

Threaten Blackmail Eavesdrop Bribe

Listen to Get Target to

Conversation State Combo
We present the tree in text form; call the company X:
Survivability Compromise: Disclosure of X proprietary secrets OR 1. Physically scavenge discarded items from X
OR 1. Inspect dumpster content on-site
2. Inspect refuse after removal from site
Monitor emanations from X machines
AND 1. Survey physical perimeter to determine optimal monitoring position
Acquire necessary monitoring equipment
Setup monitoring site
Monitor emanations from site
Recruit help of trusted X insider OR 1. Plant spy as trusted insider
Use existing trusted insider
Physically access X networks or machines
OR 1. Get physical, on-site access to Intranet
Get physical access to external machines
Attack X intranet using its connections with Internet
OR 1. Monitor communications over Internet for leakage
Get trusted process to send sensitive information to attacker over Internet
Gain privileged access to Web server
Attack X intranet using its connections with public telephone network (PTN) OR 1. Monitor communications over
PTN for leakage of sensitive information

-4-
Gain privileged access to machines on intranet connected via Internet

-5-
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
Cryptanalysis, one of the approaches to attack symmetric encryption, relies on the nature of the encryption
algorithm plus some knowledge of the general characteristics of the plaintext or even some sample plaintext-
ciphertext pairs.

Brute-force attack, on the other hand, tries every possible key on a piece of ciphertext until an intelligible translation
into plaintext is obtained.

In block cipher encryption, the input is processed one block of elements at a time, producing an output block for
each input block whereas stream encryption processes the input elements continuously,
producing output one element at a time, as it goes along.

(1) a strong encryption algorithm; (2) Sender and receiver must have
obtained copies of the secret key in a secure fashion and must keep the key secure.

The two important aspects of data authentication are: (i) to verify that the contents of the message have not been
altered and (ii) that the source is authentic.
One-way hash function is an alternative to Message Authentication Code (MAC). Like MAC, one- way hash
function too accepts a variable-size message as input and produces a fixed-size message digest as output. It differs
from MAC in several aspects, for instance, it does not take a secret key as
input like MAC. Moreover, the messages are typically padded out to an integer multiple of some fixed length (e.g.,
1024 bits) and the padding includes the value of the length of the original message in bits. The length field is a
security measure to increase the difficulty for an attacker to produce an alternative message with the same hash
value.
(a) A hash code is computed from the source message, encrypted using symmetric encryption and a secret key, and
appended to the message. At the
receiver, the same hash code is computed. The incoming code is decrypted using the same key and compared with
the computed hash code. (b) This is the same procedure as in (a) except that public-key encryption is used; the
sender encrypts the hash code with the sender's private key, and the receiver decrypts the hash code with the
sender's public key. (c) A secret value is appended to a message and then a hash code is calculated using the
message plus secret value as input. Then the message (without the secret value) and the hash code are transmitted.
The receiver appends the same secret value to the message and computes the hash value over the message plus
secret value. This is then compared to the received hash code.
1. H can be applied to a block of data of any size.
H produces a fixed-length output.
H(x) is relatively easy to compute for any given x, making both hardware and software implementations practical.
For any given value h, it is computationally infeasible to find x such that H(x) = h.
For any given block x, it is computationally infeasible to find y ≠ x
with H(y) = H(x).

-6-
It is computationally infeasible to find any pair (x, y) such that H(x)
= H(y).

Plaintext: This is the readable message or data that is fed into the algorithm as input. Encryption algorithm: The
encryption algorithm performs various transformations on the plaintext. Public and private keys: This is a pair of
keys that have been selected so that if one is used for encryption, the other is used for decryption. The exact
transformations performed by the encryption algorithm depend on the public or private key that is provided as input.
Ciphertext: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext and the key. For a given
message, two different keys will produce two different ciphertexts. Decryption algorithm: This algorithm accepts
the ciphertext and the matching key and produces the original plaintext.

Encryption/decryption: The sender encrypts a message with the recipient's public key. Digital signature: The
sender "signs" a message with its private key. Signing is achieved by a cryptographic algorithm applied to the
message or to a small block of data that is a function of the message. Key exchange: Two sides cooperate to
exchange a session key. Several different approaches are possible, involving the private key(s) of one or both
parties.

The key used in conventional encryption is typically referred to as a secret key. The two keys used for public-key
encryption are referred to as the public key and the private key.

No, digital signatures do not provide confidentiality, i.e., the message being sent is safe from alteration but not safe
from eavesdropping.

A pubic-key certificate consists of a public key plus a User ID of the key owner, with the whole block signed by a
trusted third party. Typically, the third party is a certificate authority (CA) that is trusted by the user community,
such as a government agency or a financial institution.

Several different approaches are possible, involving the private key(s) of one or both parties. One approach is
Diffie-Hellman key exchange. Another approach is for the sender to encrypt a secret key with the recipient's public
key.

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

-7-
Yes. The eavesdropper is left with two strings, one sent in each direction, and their XOR is the secret key.

a.
2 8 10 7 9 6 3 1 4 5
C R Y P T O G A H I
B E A T T H E T H I
R D P I L L A R F R
O M T H E L E F T O
U T S I D E T H E L
Y C E U M T H E A T
R E T O N I G H T A
T S E V E N I F Y O
U A R E D I S T R U
S T F U L B R I N G
T W O F R I E N D S

4 2 8 10 5 6 3 7 1 9
N E T W O R K S C U

T R F H E H F T I N
B R O U Y R T U S T
E A E T H G I S R E
H F T E A T Y R N D
I R O L T A O U G S
H L L E T I N I B I
T I H I U O V E U F
E D M T C E S A T W
T L E D M N E D L R
A P T S E T E R F O

ISRNG BUTLF RRAFR LIDLP FTIYO NVSEE TBEHI HTETA EYHAT

TUCME HRGTA IOENT TUSRU IEADR FOETO LHMET NTEDS IFWRO
HUTEL EITDS

The two matrices are used in reverse order. First, the ciphertext is laid out in columns in the second matrix, taking
into account the order dictated by the second memory word. Then, the contents of the second matrix are read left to
right, top to bottom and laid out in columns in the first matrix, taking into account the order dictated by the first
memory word. The plaintext is then read left to right, top to bottom.
Although this is a weak method, it may have use with time-sensitive information and an adversary without
immediate access to good cryptanalysis t(e.g., tactical use). Plus it doesn't require anything more than paper and
pencil, and can be easily remembered.

-8-
a. Let -X be the additive inverse of X. That is -X X = 0. Then: +
P = (C –K1
+ 0
b. First, calculate –C'. Then –C' = (P' K0 ) (– K1). We then have: +
C –C' = (P K0) + K 0 )
However, the operations + +or distributive
associative

with one another, so it is not possible to solve this equation for K0.

a. The constants ensure that encryption/decryption in each round is different.

-9-
First two rounds:
L0 R0

K0

<<4

Delta1

K1

>>5

L1 R1
K2

<<4

Delta2

K3

>>5

-10-
L2 R2

-11-
First, let's define the encryption process:
L2 = L0 R2 = R0 [(+R0 << 4) K2] 1+ >> 5) K1+]
[(L+2 << 4) >> 5) K+
3]

Now the decryption process. The input is the ciphertext (L2, R2), and the output is the plaintext (L0, R0). Decryption
is essentially the same
as encryption, with the subkeys and delta values applied in reverse order. Also note that it is not necessary to use
subtraction because there is an even number of additions in each equation.

R0 = R2 L0 = L2 [(L+2 << 4) K2 2 K0] >> 5)

[(+R0 << 4) 1+ >> 5) K1+]

+

-12-
d.
L0 R0

K0

<<4

Delta1

K1

>>5

L1 R1
K2

<<4

Delta2

K3

>>5

L2 R2
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
latter, as the known, is used to explain the former as the unknown. The
Ātman under the name of the Eternal (aksharam) is thus described in the
Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad (III. viii. 8, 11):—

“It is not large, and not minute; not short, not long; without blood, without fat;
without shadow, without darkness; without wind, without ether; not adhesive, not
tangible; without smell, without taste; without eyes, ears, voice, or mind; without
heat, breath, or mouth; without personal or family name; unaging, undying,
without fear, immortal, dustless, not uncovered or covered; with nothing before,
nothing behind, nothing within. It consumes no one and is consumed by no one. It
is the unseen seer, the unheard hearer, the unthought thinker, the unknown knower.
There is no other seer, no other hearer, no other thinker, no other knower. That is
the Eternal in which space (ākāça) is woven and which is interwoven with it.”

Here, for the first time in the history of human thought, we find the
Absolute grasped and proclaimed.

A poetical account of the nature of the Ātman is given by the Kāṭhaka

Upanishad in the following stanzas:—

That whence the sun’s orb rises up,

And that in which it sinks again:
In it the gods are all contained,
Beyond it none can ever pass (iv. 9).

Its form can never be to sight apparent,

Not any one may with his eye behold it:
By heart and mind and soul alone they grasp it,
And those who know it thus become immortal (vi. 9).

Since not by speech and not by thought,

Not by the eye can it be reached:
How else may it be understood
But only when one says “it is”? (vi. 12).

The place of the more personal Prajāpati is taken in the Upanishads by the
Ātman as a creative power. Thus the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (I. iv.) relates that in
the beginning the Ātman or the Brahma was this universe. It was afraid in
its loneliness and felt no pleasure. Desiring a second being, it became man
and woman, whence the human race was produced. It then proceeded to
produce male and female animals in a similar way; finally creating water,
fire, the gods, and so forth. The author then proceeds in a more exalted
strain:—

“It (the Ātman) is here all-pervading down to the tips of the nails. One does not
see it any more than a razor hidden in its case or fire in its receptacle. For it does
not appear as a whole. When it breathes, it is called breath; when it speaks, voice;
when it hears, ear; when it thinks, mind. These are merely the names of its
activities. He who worships the one or the other of these, has not (correct)
knowledge.... One should worship it as the Self. For in it all these (breath, etc.)
become one.”

In one of the later Upanishads, the Çvetāçvatara (iv. 10), the notion, so
prominent in the later Vedānta system, that the material world is an illusion
(māyā), is first met with. The world is here explained as an illusion
produced by Brahma as a conjuror (māyin). This notion is, however,
inherent even in the oldest Upanishads. It is virtually identical with the
teaching of Plato that the things of experience are only the shadow of the
real things, and with the teaching of Kant, that they are only phenomena of
the thing in itself.

The great fundamental doctrine of the Upanishads is the identity of the

individual ātman with the world Ātman. It is most forcibly expressed in a
frequently repeated sentence of the Chhāndogya Upanishad (vi. 8–16):
“This whole world consists of it: that is the Real, that is the Soul, that art
thou, O Çvetaketu.” In that famous formula, “That art thou” (tat tvam asi),
all the teachings of the Upanishads are summed up. The Bṛihadāraṇyaka (I.
iv. 6) expresses the same doctrine thus: “Whoever knows this, ‘I am
brahma’ (aham brahma asmi), becomes the All. Even the gods are not able
to prevent him from becoming it. For he becomes their Self (ātman).”

This identity was already recognised in the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa (X. vi. 3):
“Even as the smallest granule of millet, so is this golden Purusha in the
heart.... That self of the spirit is my self: on passing from hence I shall
obtain that Self.”

We find everywhere in these treatises a restless striving to grasp the true

nature of the pantheistic Self, now through one metaphor, now through
another. Thus (Bṛih. Up. II. iv.) the wise Yājnavalkya, about to renounce the
world and retire to the forest, replies to the question of his wife, Maitreyī,
with the words: “As a lump of salt thrown into the water would dissolve and
could not be taken out again, while the water, wherever tasted, would be
salt, so is this great being endless, unlimited, simply compacted of
cognition. Arising out of these elements, it disappears again in them. After
death there is no consciousness;” for, as he further explains, when the
duality on which consciousness is based disappears, consciousness must
necessarily cease.

In another passage of the same Upanishad (II. i. 20) we read: “Just as the
spider goes out of itself by means of its thread, as tiny sparks leap out of the
fire, so from the Ātman issue all vital airs, all worlds, all gods, all beings.”

Here, again, is a stanza from the Muṇḍaka (III. ii. 8):—

As rivers flow and disappear at last

In ocean’s waters, name and form renouncing,
So, too, the sage, released from name and form,
Is merged in the divine and highest spirit.

In a passage of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (III. vii.) Yājnavalkya describes the

Ātman as the “inner guide” (antaryāmin): “Who is in all beings, different
from all beings, who guides all beings within, that is thy Self, the inward
guide, immortal.”

The same Upanishad contains an interesting conversation, in which King

Ajātaçatru of Kāçi (Benares) instructs the Brahman, Bālāki Gārgya, that
Brahma is not the spirit (purusha) which is in sun, moon, wind, and other
natural phenomena, or even in the (waking) soul (ātman), but is either the
dreaming soul, which is creative, assuming any form at pleasure, or, in the
highest stage, the soul in dreamless sleep, for here all phenomena have
disappeared. This is the first and the last condition of Brahma, in which no
world exists, all material existence being only the phantasms of the
dreaming world-soul.

Of somewhat similar purport is a passage of the Chhāndogya (viii. 7–12),

where Prajāpati is represented as teaching the nature of the Ātman in three
stages. The soul in the body as reflected in a mirror or water is first
identified with Brahma, then the dreaming soul, and, lastly, the soul in
dreamless sleep.

How generally accepted the pantheistic theory must have become by the
time the disputations at the court of King Janaka took place, is indicated by
the form in which questions are put. Thus two different sages in the
Bṛihadāraṇyaka (iii. 4, 5) successively ask Yājnavalkya in the same words:
“Explain to us the Brahma which is manifest and not hidden, the Ātman that
dwells in everything.”

With the doctrine that true knowledge led to supreme bliss by the
absorption of the individual soul in Brahma went hand in hand the theory of
transmigration (saṃsāra). That theory is developed in the oldest
Upanishads; it must have been firmly established by the time Buddhism
arose, for Buddha accepted it without question. Its earliest form is found in
the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa, where the notion of being born again after death
and dying repeatedly is coupled with that of retribution. Thus it is here said
that those who have correct knowledge and perform a certain sacrifice are
born again after death for immortality, while those who have not such
knowledge and do not perform this sacrifice are reborn again and again,
becoming the prey of Death. The notion here expressed does not go beyond
repeated births and deaths in the next world. It is transformed to the
doctrine of transmigration in the Upanishads by supposing rebirth to take
place in this world. In the Bṛihadāraṇyaka we further meet with the
beginnings of the doctrine of karma, or “action,” which regulates the new
birth, and makes it depend on a man’s own deeds. When the body returns to
the elements, nothing of the individuality is here said to remain but the
karma, according to which a man becomes good or bad. This is, perhaps,
the germ of the Buddhistic doctrine, which, though denying the existence of
soul altogether, allows karma to continue after death and to determine the
next birth.

The most important and detailed account of the theory of transmigration

which we possess from Vedic times is supplied by the Chhāndogya
Upanishad. The forest ascetic possessed of knowledge and faith, it is here
said, after death enters the devayāna, the “path of the gods,” which leads to
absorption in Brahma, while the householder who has performed sacrifice
and good works goes by the pitṛiyāṇa or “path of the Fathers” to the moon,
where he remains till the consequences of his actions are exhausted. He
then returns to earth, being first born again as a plant and afterwards as a
man of one of the three highest castes. Here we have a double retribution,
first in the next world, then by transmigration in this. The former is a
survival of the old Vedic belief about the future life. The wicked are born
again as outcasts (chaṇḍālas), dogs or swine.

The account of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka (VI. ii. 15–16) is similar. Those who
have true knowledge and faith pass through the world of the gods and the
sun to the world of Brahma, whence there is no return. Those who practise
sacrifice and good works pass through the world of the Fathers to the moon,
whence they return to earth, being born again as men. Others become birds,
beasts, and reptiles.

The view of the Kaushītaki Upanishad (i. 2–3) is somewhat different. Here
all who die go to the moon, whence some go by the “path of the Fathers” to
Brahma, while others return to various forms of earthly existence, ranging
from man to worm, according to the quality of their works and the degree of
their knowledge.

The Kāṭhaka, one of the most remarkable and beautiful of the Upanishads,
treats the question of life after death in the form of a legend. Nachiketas, a
young Brahman, visits the realm of Yama, who offers him the choice of
three boons. For the third he chooses the answer to the question, whether
man exists after death or no. Death replies: “Even the gods have doubted
about this; it is a subtle point; choose another boon.” After vain efforts to
evade the question by offering Nachiketas earthly power and riches, Yama
at last yields to his persistence and reveals the secret. Life and death, he
explains, are only different phases of development. True knowledge, which
consists in recognising the identity of the individual soul with the world
soul, raises its possessor beyond the reach of death:—

When every passion vanishes

That nestles in the human heart,
Then man gains immortality,
Then Brahma is obtained by him (vi. 14).

The story of the temptation of Nachiketas to choose the goods of this world
in preference to the highest knowledge is probably the prototype of the
legend of the temptation of Buddha by Māra or Death. Both by resisting the
temptation obtain enlightenment.

It must not of course be supposed that the Upanishads, either as a whole or

individually, offer a complete and consistent conception of the world
logically developed. They are rather a mixture of half-poetical, half-
philosophical fancies, of dialogues and disputations dealing tentatively with
metaphysical questions. Their speculations were only later reduced to a
system in the Vedānta philosophy. The earliest of them can hardly be dated
later than about 600 B.C., since some important doctrines first met with in
them are presupposed by Buddhism. They may be divided chronologically,
on internal evidence, into four classes. The oldest group, consisting, in
chronological order, of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, Chhāndogya, Taittirīya,
Aitareya, Kaushītaki, is written in prose which still suffers from the
awkwardness of the Brāhmaṇa style. A transition is formed by the Kena,
which is partly in verse and partly in prose, to a decidedly later class, the
Kāṭhaka, Īçā, Çvetāçvatara, Muṇḍaka, Mahānārāyaṇa, which are metrical,
and in which the Upanishad doctrine is no longer developing, but has
become fixed. These are more attractive from the literary point of view.
Even those of the older class acquire a peculiar charm from their liveliness,
enthusiasm, and freedom from pedantry, while their language often rises to
the level of eloquence. The third class, comprising the Praçna,
Maitrāyaṇīya, and Māṇḍūkya, reverts to the use of prose, which is,
however, of a much less archaic type than that of the first class, and
approaches that of classical Sanskrit writers. The fourth class consists of the
later Atharvan Upanishads, some of which are composed in prose, others in
verse.

The Aitareya, one of the shortest of the Upanishads (extending to only

about four octavo pages), consists of three chapters. The first represents the
world as a creation of the Ātman (also called Brahma), and man as its
highest manifestation. It is based on the Purusha hymn of the Rigveda, but
the primeval man is in the Upanishad described as having been produced by
the Ātman from the waters which it created. The Ātman is here said to
occupy three abodes in man, the senses, mind, and heart, to which
respectively correspond the three conditions of waking, dreaming, and deep
sleep. The second chapter treats of the threefold birth of the Ātman. The
end of transmigration is salvation, which is represented as an immortal
existence in heaven. The last chapter dealing with the nature of the Ātman
states that “consciousness (prajnā) is Brahma.”

The Kaushītaki Upanishad is a treatise of considerable length divided into

four chapters. The first deals with the two paths traversed by souls after
death in connection with transmigration; the second with Prāṇa or life as a
symbol of the Ātman. The last two, while discussing the doctrine of
Brahma, contain a disquisition about the dependence of the objects of sense
on the organs of sense, and of the latter on unconscious life (prāṇa) and
conscious life (prajnātmā). Those who aim at redeeming knowledge are
therefore admonished not to seek after objects or subjective faculties, but
only the subject of cognition and action, which is described with much
power as the highest god, and at the same time as the Ātman within us.

The Upanishads of the Sāmaveda start from the sāman or chant, just as
those of the Rigveda from the uktha or hymn recited by the Hotṛi priest, in
order, by interpreting it allegorically, to arrive at a knowledge of the Ātman
or Brahma. The fact that the Upanishads have the same basis, which is,
moreover, largely treated in a similar manner, leads to the conclusion that
the various Vedic schools found a common body of oral tradition which
they shaped into dogmatic texts-books or Upanishads in their own way.
Thus the Chhāndogya, which is equal in importance, and only slightly
inferior in extent, to the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, bears clear traces, like the latter,
of being made up of collections of floating materials. Each of its eight
chapters forms an independent whole, followed by supplementary pieces
often but slightly connected with the main subject-matter.

The first two chapters consist of mystical interpretations of the sāman and
its chief part, called Udgītha (“loud song”). A supplement to the second
chapter treats, among other subjects, of the origin of the syllable om, and of
the three stages of religious life, those of the Brahman pupil, the
householder, and the ascetic (to which later the religious mendicant was
added as a fourth). The third chapter in the main deals with Brahma as the
sun of the universe, the natural sun being its manifestation. The infinite
Brahma is further described as dwelling, whole and undivided, in the heart
of man. The way in which Brahma is to be attained is then described, and
the great fundamental dogma of the identity of Brahma with the Ātman (or,
as we might say, of God and Soul) is declared. The chapter concludes with a
myth which forms a connecting link between the cosmogonic conceptions
of the Rigveda and those of the law-book of Manu. The fourth chapter,
containing discussions about wind, breath, and other phenomena connected
with Brahma, also teaches how the soul makes its way to Brahma after
death.

The first half of chapter v. is almost identical with the beginning of chapter
vi. of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka. It is chiefly noteworthy for the theory of
transmigration which it contains. The second half of the chapter is
important as the earliest statement of the doctrine that the manifold world is
unreal. The sat by desire produced from itself the three primary elements,
heat, water, food (the later number being five—ether, air, fire, water, earth).
As individual soul (jīva-ātman) it entered into these, which, by certain
partial combinations called “triplication,” became various products (vikāra)
or phenomena. But the latter are a mere name. Sat is the only reality, it is
the Ātman: “Thou art that.” Chapter vii. enumerates sixteen forms in which
Brahma may be adored, rising by gradation from nāman, “name,” to
bhūman, “infinity,” which is the all-in-all and the Ātman within us. The first
half of the last chapter discusses the Ātman in the heart and the universe, as
well as how to attain it. The concluding portion of the chapter distinguishes
the false from the true Ātman, illustrated by the three stages in which it
appears—in the material body, in dreaming, and in sound sleep. In the latter
stage we have the true Ātman, in which the distinction between subject and
object has disappeared.

To the Sāmaveda also belongs a very short treatise which was long called
the Talavakāra Upanishad, from the school to which it was attached, but
later, when it became separated from that school, received the name of
Kena, from its initial word. It consists of two distinct parts. The second,
composed in prose and much older, describes the relation of the Vedic gods
to Brahma, representing them as deriving their power from and entirely
dependent on the latter. The first part, which is metrical and belongs to the
period of fully developed Vedānta doctrine, distinguishes from the qualified
Brahma, which is an object of worship, the unqualified Brahma, which is
unknowable:—

To it no eye can penetrate,

Nor speech nor thought can ever reach:
It rests unknown; we cannot see
How any one may teach it us.

The various Upanishads of the Black Yajurveda all bear the stamp of
lateness. The Maitrāyaṇa is a prose work of considerable extent, in which
occasional stanzas are interspersed. It consists of seven chapters, the
seventh and the concluding eight sections of the sixth forming a
supplement. The fact that it retains the orthographical and euphonic
peculiarities of the Maitrāyaṇa school, gives this Upanishad an archaic
appearance. But its many quotations from other Upanishads, the occurrence
of several late words, the developed Sānkhya doctrine presupposed by it,
distinct references to anti-Vedic heretical schools, all combine to render the
late character of this work undoubted. It is, in fact, a summing up of the old
Upanishad doctrines with an admixture of ideas derived from the Sānkhya
system and from Buddhism. The main body of the treatise expounds the
nature of the Ātman, communicated to King Bṛihadratha of the race of
Ikshvāku (probably identical with the king of that name mentioned in the
Rāmāyaṇa), who declaims at some length on the misery and transitoriness
of earthly existence. Though pessimism is not unknown to the old
Upanishads, it is much more pronounced here, doubtless in consequence of
Sānkhya and Buddhistic influence.

The subject is treated in the form of three questions. The answer to the first,
how the Ātman enters the body, is that Prajāpati enters in the form of the
five vital airs in order to animate the lifeless bodies created by him. The
second question is, How does the supreme soul become the individual soul
(bhūtātman)? This is answered rather in accordance with the Sānkhya than
the Vedānta doctrine. Overcome by the three qualities of matter (prakṛiti),
the Ātman, forgetting its real nature, becomes involved in self-
consciousness and transmigration. The third question is, How is deliverance
from this state of misery possible? This is answered in conformity with
neither Vedānta nor Sānkhya doctrine, but in a reactionary spirit. Only those
who observe the old requirements of Brahmanism, the rules of caste and the
religious orders (āçramas), are declared capable of attaining salvation by
knowledge, penance, and meditation on Brahma. The chief gods, that is to
say, the triad of the Brāhmaṇa period, Fire, Wind, Sun, the three
abstractions, Time, Breath, Food, and the three popular gods, Brahmā,
Rudra (i.e. Çiva), and Vishṇu are explained as manifestations of Brahma.

The remainder of this Upanishad is supplementary, but contains several

passages of considerable interest. We have here a cosmogonic myth, like
those of the Brāhmaṇas, in which the three qualities of matter, Tamas,
Rajas, Sattva, are connected with Rudra, Brahmā, and Vishṇu, and which is
in other respects very remarkable as a connecting link between the
philosophy of the Rigveda and the later Sānkhya system. The sun is further
represented as the external, and prāṇa (breath) as the internal, symbol of the
Ātman, their worship being recommended by means of the sacred syllable
om, the three “utterances” (vyāhṛitis) bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svar, and the famous
Sāvitrī stanza. As a means of attaining Brahma we find a recommendation
of Yoga or the ascetic practices leading to a state of mental concentration
and bordering on trance. The information we here receive of these practices
is still undeveloped compared with the later system. In addition to the three
conditions of Brahma, waking, dreaming, and deep sleep, mention is made
of a fourth (turīya) and highest stage. The Upanishad concludes with the
declaration that the Ātman entered the world of duality because it wished to
taste both truth and illusion.

Older than the Maitrāyaṇa, which borrows from them, are two other
Upanishads of the Black Yajurveda, the Kāṭhaka and the Çvetāçvatara. The
former contains some 120 and the latter some 110 stanzas.

The Kāṭhaka deals with the legend of Nachiketas, which is told in the
Kāṭhaka portion of the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, and a knowledge of which it
presupposes. This is indicated by the fact that it begins with the same words
as the Brāhmaṇa story. The treatise appears to have consisted originally of
the first only of its two chapters. For the second, with its more developed
notions about Yoga and its much more pronounced view as to the unreality
of phenomena, looks like a later addition. The first contains an introductory
narrative, an account of the Ātman, of its embodiment and final return by
means of Yoga. The second chapter, though less well arranged, on the whole
corresponds in matter with the first. Its fourth section, while discussing the
nature of the Ātman, identifies both soul (purusha) and matter (prakṛiti)
with it. The fifth section deals with the manifestation of the Ātman in the
world, and especially in man. The way in which it at the same time remains
outside them in its full integrity and is not affected by the suffering of living
beings, is strikingly illustrated by the analogy of both light and air, which
pervade space and yet embrace every object, and of the sun, the eye of the
universe, which remains free from the blemishes of all other eyes outside of
it. In the last section Yoga is taught to be the means of attaining the highest
goal. The gradation of mental faculties here described is of great interest for
the history of the Sānkhya and Yoga system. An unconscious contradiction
runs through this discussion, inasmuch as though the Ātman is regarded as
the all-in-all, a sharp contrast is drawn between soul and matter. It is the
contradiction between the later Vedānta and the Sānkhya-Yoga systems of
philosophy.

According to its own statement, the Çvetāçvatara Upanishad derives its

name from an individual author, and the tradition which attributes it to one
of the schools of the Black Yajurveda hardly seems to have a sufficient
foundation. Its confused arrangement, the irregularities and arbitrary
changes of its metres, the number of interpolated quotations which it
contains, make the assumption likely that the work in its present form is not
the work of a single author. In its present form it is certainly later than the
Kāṭhaka, since it contains several passages which must be referred to that
work, besides many stanzas borrowed from it with or without variation. Its
lateness is further indicated by the developed theory of Yoga which it
contains, besides the more or less definite form in which it exhibits various
Vedānta doctrines either unknown to or only foreshadowed in the earlier
Upanishads. Among these may be mentioned the destruction of the world
by Brahma at the end of a cosmic age (kalpa), as well as its periodic
renewal out of Brahma, and especially the explanation of the world as an
illusion (māyā) produced by Brahma. At the same time the author shows a
strange predilection for the personified forms of Brahma as Savitṛi, Īçāna,
or Rudra. Though Çiva has not yet become the name of Rudra, its frequent
use as an adjective connected with the latter shows that it is in course of
becoming fixed as the proper name of the highest god. In this Upanishad we
meet with a number of the terms and fundamental notions of the Sānkhya,
though the point of view is thoroughly Vedāntist; matter (prakṛiti), for
instance, being represented as an illusion produced by Brahma.

To the White Yajurveda is attached the longest, and, beside the

Chhāndogya, the most important of the Upanishads. It bears even clearer
traces than that work of being a conglomerate of what must originally have
been separate treatises. It is divided into three parts, each containing two
chapters. The last part is designated, even in the tradition of the
commentaries, as a supplement (Khila-kāṇḍa), a statement fully borne out
by the contents. That the first and second parts were also originally
independent of each other is sufficiently proved by both containing the
legend of Yājnavalkya and his two wives in almost identical words
throughout. To each of these parts (as well as to Book x. of the Çatapatha
Brāhmaṇa) a successive list (vaṃça) of teachers is attached. A comparison
of these lists seems to justify the conclusion that the first part (called
Madhukāṇḍa) and the second (Yājnavalkya-kāṇḍa) existed during nine
generations as independent Upanishads within the school of the White
Yajurveda, and were then combined by a teacher named Āgniveçya; the
third part, which consists of all kinds of supplementary matter, being
subsequently added. These lists further make the conclusion probable that
the leading teachers of the ritual tradition (Brāhmaṇas) were different from
those of the philosophical tradition (Upanishads).

Beginning with an allegorical interpretation of the most important sacrifice,

the Açvamedha (horse-sacrifice), as the universe, the first chapter proceeds
to deal with prāṇa (breath) as a symbol of soul, and then with the creation
of the world out of the Ātman or Brahma, insisting on the dependence of all
existence on the Supreme Soul, which appears in every individual as his
self. The polemical attitude adopted against the worship of the gods is
characteristic, showing that the passage belongs to an early period, in which
the doctrine of the superiority of the Ātman to the gods was still asserting
itself. The next chapter deals with the nature of the Ātman and its
manifestations, purusha and prāṇa.

The second part of the Upanishad consists of four philosophical

discussions, in which Yājnavalkya is the chief speaker. The first (iii. 1–9) is
a great disputation, in which the sage proves his superiority to nine
successive interlocutors. One of the most interesting conclusions here
arrived at is that Brahma is theoretically unknowable, but can be
comprehended practically. The second discourse is a dialogue between King
Janaka and Yājnavalkya, in which the latter shows the untenableness of six
definitions set up by other teachers as to the nature of Brahma; for instance,
that it is identical with Breath or Mind. He finally declares that the Ātman
can only be described negatively, being intangible, indestructible,
independent, immovable.

The third discourse (iv. 3–4) is another dialogue between Janaka and
Yājnavalkya. It presents a picture of the soul in the conditions of waking,
dreaming, deep sleep, dying, transmigration, and salvation. For wealth of
illustration, fervour of conviction, beauty and elevation of thought, this
piece is unequalled in the Upanishads or any other work of Indian literature.
Its literary effect is heightened by the numerous stanzas with which it is
interspersed. These are, however, doubtless later additions. The dreaming
soul is thus described:—
 Leaving its lower nest in breath’s protection,
And upward from that nest, immortal, soaring,
Where’er it lists it roves about immortal,
The golden-pinioned only swan of spirit (IV. iii. 13).

It roves in dream condition up and downward,

Divinely many shapes and forms assuming (ib. 14).

Then follows an account of the dreamless state of the soul:—

As a falcon or an eagle, having flown about in the air, exhausted folds together its
wings and prepares to alight, so the spirit hastes to that condition in which,
asleep, it feels no desire and sees no dream (19).

This is its essential form, in which it rises above desire, is free from evil and
without fear. For as one embraced by a beloved woman wots not of anything
without or within, so also the soul embraced by the cognitional Self wots not of
anything without or within (21).

With regard to the souls of those who are not saved, the view of the writer
appears to be that after death they enter a new body immediately and
without any intervening retribution in the other world, in exact accordance
with their intellectual and moral quality.

As a caterpillar, when it has reached the point of a leaf, makes a new beginning
and draws itself across, so the soul, after casting off the body and letting go
ignorance, makes a new beginning and draws itself across (IV. iv. 3).

As a goldsmith takes the material of an image and hammers out of it another

newer and more beautiful form, so also the soul after casting off the body and
letting go ignorance, creates for itself another newer and more beautiful form,
either that of the Fathers or the Gandharvas or the Gods, or Prajāpati or
Brahma, or other beings (IV. iv. 4).

But the vital airs of him who is saved, who knows himself to be identical
with Brahma, do not depart, for he is absorbed in Brahma and is Brahma.
 As a serpent’s skin, dead and cast off, lies upon an ant-hill, so his body then lies;
but that which is bodiless and immortal, the life, is pure Brahma, is pure light (IV.
iv. 7).

The fourth discourse is a dialogue between Yājnavalkya and his wife

Maitreyī, before the former, about to renounce the world, retires to the
solitude of the forest. There are several indications that it is a secondary
recension of the same conversation occurring in a previous chapter (II. iv.).

The first chapter of the third or supplementary part consists of fifteen

sections, which are often quite short, are mostly unconnected in matter, and
appear to be of very different age. The second chapter, however, forms a
long and important treatise (identical with that found in the Chhāndogya)
on the doctrine of transmigration. The views here expressed are so much at
variance with those of Yājnavalkya that this text must have originated in
another Vedic school, and have been loosely attached to this Upanishad
owing to the peculiar importance of its contents. The preceding and
following section, which are connected with it, and are also found in the
Chhāndogya, must have been added at the same time.

Not only is the longest Upanishad attached to the White Yajurveda, but also
one of the very shortest, consisting of only eighteen stanzas. This is the Īçā,
which is so called from its initial word. Though forming the last chapter of
the Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā, it belongs to a rather late period. It is about
contemporaneous with the latest parts of the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, is more
developed in many points than the Kāṭhaka, but seems to be older than the
Çvetāçvatara. Its leading motive is to contrast him who knows himself to
be the same as the Ātman with him who does not possess true knowledge. It
affords an excellent survey of the fundamental doctrines of the Vedānta
philosophy.

A large and indefinite number of Upanishads is attributed to the Atharva-

veda, but the most authoritative list recognises twenty-seven altogether.
They are for the most part of very late origin, being post-Vedic, and, all but
three, contemporaneous with the Purāṇas. One of them is actually a
Muhammadan treatise entitled the Alla Upanishad! The older Upanishads
which belong to the first three Vedas were, with a few exceptions like the
Çvetāçvatara, the dogmatic text-books of actual Vedic schools, and
received their names from those schools, being connected with and
supplementary to the ritual Brāhmaṇas. The Upanishads of the Atharva-
veda, on the other hand, are with few exceptions like the Māṇḍūkya and the
Jābāla, no longer connected with Vedic schools, but derive their names
from their subject-matter or some other circumstance. They appear for the
most part to represent the views of theosophic, mystic, ascetic, or sectarian
associations, who wished to have an Upanishad of their own in imitation of
the old Vedic schools. They became attached to the Atharva-veda not from
any internal connection, but partly because the followers of the Atharva-
veda desired to become possessed of dogmatic text-books of their own, and
partly because the fourth Veda was not protected from the intrusion of
foreign elements by the watchfulness of religious guilds like the old Vedic
schools.

The fundamental doctrine common to all the Upanishads of the Atharva-

veda is developed by most of them in various special directions. They may
accordingly be divided into four categories which run chronologically
parallel with one another, each containing relatively old and late
productions. The first group, as directly investigating the nature of the
Ātman, has a scope similar to that of the Upanishads of the other Vedas, and
goes no further than the latter in developing its main thesis. The next group,
taking the fundamental doctrine for granted, treats of absorption in the
Ātman through ascetic meditation (yoga) based on the component parts of
the sacred syllable om. These Upanishads are almost without exception
composed in verse and are quite short, consisting on the average of about
twenty stanzas. In the third category the life of the religious mendicant
(sannyāsin), as a practical consequence of the Upanishad doctrine, is
recommended and described. These Upanishads, too, are short, but are
written in prose, though with an admixture of verse. The last group is
sectarian in character, interpreting the popular gods Çiva (under various
names, such as Īçāna, Maheçvara, Mahādeva) and Vishṇu (as Nārāyaṇa and
Nṛisiṃha or “Man-lion”) as personifications of the Ātman. The different
Avatārs of Vishṇu are here regarded as human manifestations of the Ātman.
The oldest and most important of these Atharvan Upanishads, as
representing the Vedānta doctrine most faithfully, are the Muṇḍaka, the
Praçna, and to a less degree the Māṇḍūkya. The first two come nearest to
the Upanishads of the older Vedas, and are much quoted by Bādarāyaṇa and
Çankara, the great authorities of the later Vedānta philosophy. They are the
only original and legitimate Upanishads of the Atharva. The Muṇḍaka
derives its name from being the Upanishad of the tonsured (muṇḍa), an
association of ascetics who shaved their heads, as the Buddhist monks did
later. It is one of the most popular of the Upanishads, not owing to the
originality of its contents, which are for the most part derived from older
texts, but owing to the purity with which it reproduces the old Vedānta
doctrine, and the beauty of the stanzas in which it is composed. It
presupposes, above all, the Chhāndogya Upanishad, and in all probability
the Bṛihadāraṇyaka, the Taittirīya, and the Kāṭhaka. Having several
important passages in common with the Çvetāçvatara and the
Bṛihannārāyaṇa of the Black Yajurveda, it probably belongs to the same
epoch, coming between the two in order of time. It consists of three parts,
which, speaking generally, deal respectively with the preparations for the
knowledge of Brahma, the doctrine of Brahma, and the way to Brahma.

The Praçna Upanishad, written in prose and apparently belonging to the

Pippalāda recension of the Atharva-veda, is so called because it treats, in
the form of questions (praçna) addressed by six students of Brahma to the
sage Pippalāda, six main points of the Vedānta doctrine. These questions
concern the origin of matter and life (prāṇa) from Prajāpati; the superiority
of life (prāṇa) above the other vital powers; the nature and divisions of the
vital powers; dreaming and dreamless sleep; meditation on the syllable om;
and the sixteen parts of man.

The Māṇḍūkya is a very short prose Upanishad, which would hardly fill two
pages of the present book. Though bearing the name of a half-forgotten
school of the Rigveda, it is reckoned among the Upanishads of the Atharva-
veda. It must date from a considerably later time than the prose Upanishads
of the three older Vedas, with the unmethodical treatment and prolixity of
which its precision and conciseness are in marked contrast. It has many
points of contact with the Maitrāyaṇa Upanishad, to which it seems to be
posterior. It appears, however, to be older than the rest of the treatises which
form the fourth class of the Upanishads of the Atharva-veda. Thus it
distinguishes only three morae in the syllable om, and not yet three and a
half. The fundamental idea of this Upanishad is that the sacred syllable is an
expression of the universe. It is somewhat remarkable that this work is not
quoted by Çankara; nevertheless, it not only exercised a great influence on
several Upanishads of the Atharva-veda, but was used more than any other
Upanishad by the author of the well-known later epitome of the Vedānta
doctrine, the Vedānta-sāra.

It is, however, chiefly important as having given rise to one of the most
remarkable products of Indian philosophy, the Kārikā of Gauḍapāda. This
work consists of more than 200 stanzas divided into four parts, the first of
which includes the Māṇḍūkya Upanishad. The esteem in which the Kārikā
was held is indicated by the fact that its parts are reckoned as four
Upanishads. There is much probability in the assumption that its author is
identical with Gauḍapāda, the teacher of Govinda, whose pupil was the
great Vedāntist commentator, Çankara (800 A.D.). The point of view of
the latter is the same essentially as that of the author of the Kārikā, and
many of the thoughts and figures which begin to appear in the earlier work
are in common use in Çankara’s commentaries. Çankara may, in fact, be
said to have reduced the doctrines of Gauḍapāda to a system, as did Plato
those of Parmenides. Indeed, the two leading ideas which pervade the
Indian poem, viz., that there is no duality (advaita) and no becoming (ajāti),
are, as Professor Deussen points out, identical with those of the Greek
philosopher.

The first part of the Kārikā is practically a metrical paraphrase of the

Māṇḍūkya Upanishad. Peculiar to it is the statement that the world is not an
illusion or a development in any sense, but the very nature or essence
(svabhāva) of Brahma, just as the rays, which are all the same (i.e. light),
are not different from the sun. The remainder of the poem is independent of
the Upanishad and goes far beyond its doctrines. The second part has the
special title of Vaitathya or the “Falseness” of the doctrine of reality. Just as
a rope is in the dark mistaken for a snake, so the Ātman in the darkness of
ignorance is mistaken for the world. Every attempt to imagine the Ātman
under empirical forms is futile, for every one’s idea of it is dependent on his
experience of the world.

The third part is entitled Advaita, “Non-duality.” The identity of the

Supreme Soul (Ātman) with the individual soul (jīva) is illustrated by
comparison with space, and that part of it which is contained in a jar.
Arguing against the theory of genesis and plurality, the poet lays down the
axiom that nothing can become different from its own nature. The
production of the existent (sato janma) is impossible, for that would be
produced which already exists. The production of the non-existent (asato
janma) is also impossible, for the non-existent is never produced, any more
than the son of a barren woman. The last part is entitled Alāta-çānti, or
“Extinction of the firebrand (circle),” so called from an ingenious
comparison made to explain how plurality and genesis seem to exist in the
world. If a stick which is glowing at one end is waved about, fiery lines or
circles are produced without anything being added to or issuing from the
single burning point. The fiery line or circle exists only in the consciousness
(vijnāna). So, too, the many phenomena of the world are merely the
vibrations of the consciousness, which is one.
Chapter IX
The Sūtras
 (Circa 500–200 B.C.)
As the Upanishads were a development of the speculative side of the
Brāhmaṇas and constituted the textbooks of Vedic dogma, so the Çrauta
Sūtras form the continuation of their ritual side, though they are not, like the
Upanishads, regarded as a part of revelation. A sacred character was never
attributed to them, probably because they were felt to be treatises compiled,
with the help of oral priestly tradition, from the contents of the Brāhmaṇas
solely to meet practical needs. The oldest of them seem to go back to about
the time when Buddhism came into being. Indeed it is quite possible that
the rise of the rival religion gave the first impetus to the composition of
systematic manuals of Brahmanic worship. The Buddhists in their turn must
have come to regard Sūtras as the type of treatise best adapted for the
expression of religious doctrine, for the earliest Pāli texts are works of this
character. The term Kalpa Sūtra is used to designate the whole body of
Sūtras concerned with religion which belonged to a particular Vedic school.
Where such a complete collection has been preserved, the Çrauta Sūtra
forms its first and most extensive portion.

To the Rigveda belong the Çrauta manuals of two Sūtra schools (charaṇas),
the Çānkhāyanas and the Āçvalāyanas, the former of whom were in later
times settled in Northern Gujarat, the latter in the South between the
Godāvarī and the Kṛishṇā. The ritual is described in much the same order
by both, but the account of the great royal sacrifices is much more detailed
in the Çānkhāyana Çrauta Sūtra. The latter, which is closely connected
with the Çānkhāyana Brāhmaṇa, seems to be the older of the two, on the
ground both of its matter and of its style, which in many parts resembles
that of the Brāhmaṇas. It consists of eighteen books, the last two of which
were added later, and correspond to the first two books of the Kaushītaki
Āraṇyaka. The Çrauta Sūtra of Āçvalāyana, which consists of twelve
books, is related to the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. Āçvalāyana is also known as
the author of the fourth book of the Aitareya Āraṇyaka, and was according
to tradition the pupil of Çaunaka.
Three Çrauta Sūtras to the Sāmaveda have been preserved. The oldest, that
of Maçaka, also called Ārsheya-kalpa, is nothing more than an
enumeration of the prayers belonging to the various ceremonies of the
Soma sacrifice in the order of the Panchaviṃça Brāhmaṇa. The Çrauta
Sūtra composed by Lāṭyāyana, became the accepted manual of the
Kauthuma school. This Sūtra, like that of Maçaka, which it quotes, is
closely connected with the Panchaviṃça Brāhmaṇa. The Çrauta Sūtra of
Drāhyāyaṇa, which differs but little from that of Lāṭyāyana, belongs to the
Rāṇāyanīya branch of the Sāmaveda.

To the White Yajurveda belongs the Çrauta Sūtra of Kātyāyana. This

manual, which consists of twenty-six chapters, on the whole strictly follows
the sacrificial order of the Çatapatha Brāhmaṇa. Three of its chapters
(xxii.–xxiv.), however, relate to the ceremonial of the Sāmaveda. Owing to
the enigmatical character of its style, it appears to be one of the later
productions of the Sūtra period.

No less than six Çrauta Sūtras belonging to the Black Yajurveda have been
preserved, but only two of them have as yet been published. Four of these
form a very closely connected group, being part of the Kalpa Sūtras of four
subdivisions of the Taittirīya Çākhā, which represented the later sūtra
schools (charaṇas) not claiming a special revelation of Veda or Brāhmaṇa.
The Çrauta Sūtra of Āpastamba forms the first twenty-four of the thirty
chapters (praçnas) into which his Kalpa Sūtra is divided; and that of
Hiraṇyakeçin, an offshoot of the Āpastambas, the first eighteen of the
twenty-nine chapters of his Kalpa Sūtra. The Sūtra of Baudhāyana, who is
older than Āpastamba, as well as that of Bhāradvāja, has not yet been
published.

Connected with the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā is the Mānava Çrauta Sūtra. It

belongs to the Mānavas, who were a subdivision of the Maitrāyaṇīyas, and
to whom the law-book of Manu probably traces its origin. It seems to be
one of the oldest. It has a descriptive character, resembling the Brāhmaṇa
parts of the Yajurveda, and differing from them only in simply describing
the course of the sacrifice, to the exclusion of legends, speculations, or
discussions of any kind. There is also a Vaikhānasa Çrauta Sūtra attached
to the Black Yajurveda, but it is known only in a few MSS.

The Çrauta Sūtra of the Atharva-veda is the Vaitāna Sūtra. It is neither old
nor original, but was undoubtedly compiled in order to supply the Atharva,
like the other Vedas, with a Sūtra of its own. It probably received its name
from the word with which it begins, since the term vaitāna (“relating to the
three sacrificial fires”) is equally applicable to all Çrauta Sūtras. It agrees to
a considerable extent with the Gopatha Brāhmaṇa, though it distinctly
follows the Sūtra of Kātyāyana to the White Yajurveda. One indication of its
lateness is the fact that whereas in other cases a Gṛihya regularly
presupposes the Çrauta Sūtra, the Vaitāna is dependent on the domestic
sūtra of the Atharva-veda.

Though the Çrauta Sūtras are indispensable for the right understanding of
the sacrificial ritual, they are, from any other point of view, a most
unattractive form of literature. It will, therefore, suffice to mention in
briefest outline the ceremonies with which they deal. It is important to
remember, in the first place, that these rites are never congregational, but
are always performed on behalf of a single individual, the so-called
Yajamāna or sacrificer, who takes but little part in them. The officiators are
Brahman priests, whose number varies from one to sixteen, according to the
nature of the ceremony. In all these rites an important part is played by the
three sacred fires which surround the vedi, a slightly excavated spot covered
with a litter of grass for the reception of offerings to the gods. The first
ceremony of all is the setting up of the sacred fires (agni-ādheya), which
are kindled by the sacrificer and his wife with the firesticks, and are
thereafter to be regularly maintained.

The Çrauta rites, fourteen in number, are divided into the two main groups
of seven oblation (havis) sacrifices and seven soma sacrifices. Different
forms of the animal sacrifice are classed with each group. The havis
sacrifices consist of offerings of milk, ghee, porridge, grain, cakes, and so
forth. The commonest is the Agnihotra, the daily morning and evening
oblation of milk to the three fires. The most important of the others are the
new and full moon sacrifices (darçapūrṇa-māsa) and those offered at the
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