Group 5- Unit 3

Bandopadhyay, S. (2015, revised edition) From Plassey to

Partition and After: A History of Modern India.

Olivia Parina Pari Pallavi

INTRODUCTION
The history of British colonialism in India is tied to the decline of the Mughal
Empire. By the early 18th century, the Mughal Empire began to weaken
and thus, regional kingdoms and powers started asserting their autonomy.
The British East India Company, initially a trading enterprise, began to
increase its presence and influence.
This marked the beginning of British rule in India for nearly two centuries.
The defeat of Siraj ud Daula in the Battle of Plassey of 1757, marked the
beginning of British political control in India.
The British expanded their influence, using military power, diplomatic
manoeuvring, and strategic alliances with local rulers imposing British
economic, legal, and cultural systems that would transform the Indian
society in profound ways.
The early British rule was characterized by an ideological struggle between
two dominant schools of thought: Orientalism and Anglicism. Orientalists
opted for preservation and protection of Indian values and customsand
Anglicists argued that India should be modernized through the introduction
of Western education and the promotion of British cultural and moral
values. This ideological battle set the stage for the development of an
education system that would ultimately serve the needs of the colonial
project.
Complexities in British administration grew as British who sought to
establish a stable administration faced resistance from sections of Indian
society. In this period of transformation, the introduction of English
education, development of railways and telegraphs, created a new
intellectual and political environment that would give rise to the nationalist
movement.
The connection between colonialism and nationalism is not merely one of
resistance. It is also a story of how colonialism, with its educational policies
and cultural imposition, inadvertently helped shape the very framework of
the nationalist movement. The English language, for instance, became a
tool for communication and organization among the educated elite of India,
allowing them to challenge colonial ideas and assert their own vision for an
independent nation.
This presentation delves into the evolution of British educational policies
and their impact on Indian societyalong with the rise of Indian intellectuals
who would be using the very tools of colonialism to challenge it.

Shift to English Education in Colonial India

In the early years of British rule, the East India Company (EIC) adopted a
policy of non-intervention in Indian society, respecting traditional customs
and practices, which ensured stable governance. Warren Hastings, the first
Governor-General of India, implemented a policy known as Orientalism
which encouraged British officials to learn about Indian culture, languages,
and social customs. This led to the establishment of cultural institutions
such as the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta Madrassa, and Sanskrit
College in Banaras.

Orientalism and Early Educational Policies

British officials studied classical Indian languages like Sanskrit and Persian
to better understand Indian society and governance. Hastings’s philosophy
‘govern the conquered in their own ways.’ This approach demonstrated
respect for Indian customs and practical governance, avoiding unwanted
conflicts.
after warren hastings's policy a more cautious interventionisty approach ewas adopted by india
Gradual Shift to Intervention in Indian Society
Over time, however, this policy of non-intervention gave way to a more
active British involvement in Indian social institutions due to several
ideological influences in Britain.
1. The Evangelists supported government intervention to liberate
Indians from religious practices, which they regarded as
superstitious and oppressive.
2. Utilitarians advocated for social reform based on rational,
authoritarian principles.
3. Free trade advocates supported intervention to dismantle traditional
economic restrictions and encourage open markets in India.
Despite these emerging views, the East India Company remained cautious
about imposing changes due to fear of backlash. They couldn’t pursue
without support from a segment of Indian society willing to embrace reform.

Introduction of English Education

The introduction of English education became the first significant area of
British intervention. Early missionary schools and charity schools began to
use English as the medium of instruction, for the children of European and
Anglo-Indian families. British officials like Charles Grant advocated for
English education to be introduced for Indians hoping it would instill
Western moral and ethical values. Grant argued that Christian teachings
would help create loyalty to British rule. It faced opposition in the Charter
Act of 1793 which feared political unrest. Although missionaries were
banned in India, some missionaries did enter India and protestant
missionaries established settlements in Danish controlled area and
Srirampur in Calcutta, where they translated Bible to local languages.
However, direct missionary work in India remained restricted until the
Charter Act of 1813.

The Charter Act of 1813 and its Implications

The Charter Act of 1813 marked a turning point in British educational
policy. There were 2 major clauses of this Act-
1. It allowed entry of missionaries in India
2. It introduced annual funding of 100,000 rupees for education.
The funding aimed to promote-
1. 'The encouragement of the learned natives of India'
2. 'The promotion of knowledge of the sciences,'
However, clause 43 of this act was vague and open to interpretation. The
Britishers introduced this act with the motive of asserting greater
consolidation of power. This funding reflected a new colonial responsibility
towards India’s development, setting the stage for later English-language
instruction.

Rise of Anglicists and Macaulay’s Influence

When William Bentinck became Governor-General in 1828, the approach
to Indian education shifted towardsWesternization. With Thomas Babington
Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education (1835) Indian classical literature
was dismissed in favor of Western science and literature, advocating
English as the medium of instruction. Macaulay envisioned an educated
class that was 'Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in
morals, and intellect,' capable of bridging British and Indian interests.

Impact of English Education on Indian Society

Sabyasachi Bhattacharya described this shift as a colonial framework
where Britain would produce knowledge, while India would replicate and
disseminate it.
In summary, British educational policies in India evolved from a respect for
indigenous traditions to a strategic effort to control the population through
Western education. Beginning with Orientalism under Hastings and
culminating in Macaulay’s influence, these policies laid the foundation for a
modern, English-educated Indian class. While initially serving colonial
interests, this shift ultimately empowered Indians with the knowledge and
language needed to advocate for independence.

English Education and the Theory of "Downward

Filtration"
Gauri Viswanathan has argued that English education was already present
in India before 1835. However, the shift after 1835 was towards the study of
English literature as a medium of modern knowledge, rather than just the
study of English as a language. By focusing on literature, the British tried to
inculcate appropriate moral, ethical values, and correct behavior,
incorporating Indians into the structure of colonial rule, which was the main
political goal of Anglicism. The key feature of this policy was the theory of
'downward filtration.' This meant that English education was not intended
for the masses but for 'the rich, the learned, and the men of business,' as
described by C.E. Trevelyan. Through these learned and literate men,
western education would spread downward, benefitting the entire society.
The Evolution of British Educational Policies in India

Early Advocacy for Vernacular Education

In the early 19th century, administrative needs of the colonial state were the
main concern. William Adamadvocating development of vernacular
education in rural areas, recommended the establishment of indigenous
village schools. However, such reforms were considered impractical and
too expensive to implement, as theprimary focus was on English
education for a select few.

The Rise of English Education and Higher Learning

English education became most prominent after the Macaulay Minute of
1835, in which Macaulay argued that English should be the language of
instruction for higher education in India. This policy led to the establishment
of English-medium schools and universities in major cities like Calcutta,
Bombay, and Madras, along with creating an elite English-speaking Indian
class. This policy emphasised on higher education for a small group,
while vernacular education remained underdeveloped.

Shift in Policy: Charles Wood’s Education Dispatch of 1854

In 1854, Charles Wood’s Education Dispatchrecommended a balance
between English education for the elite and vernacular elementary
education for the masses, making it a significant shift, especially focusing
on spreading practical knowledge. This dispatch aimed in stabilizing society
and the growing social unrest. However, the policy remained limited,
providing a subordinate education to limit Indians to serving British rather
than challenging the system.

Expansion of Vernacular Education

Vernacular schools were established by administrators like Thomason in
North Western provinces despite the British preference for English
education, which led to expansion in Bengal and Bihar.
Although British realized the need of vernacular schools by mid-19 th

century, this motive was fuelled by political and economic needs only with
the aim of creating a labour force.

The Indian Education Commission of 1882

The Indian Education Commission of 1882 attempted to resolve the dual
nature of the education system by addressing the imbalance between
higher English education and elementary education for the masses.
1. The commission’s report emphasized that general literacy should
be promoted, with a focus on backward communities.
2. It proposed the creation of special funds to improve education
among these groups.
Even so, the elites were favoured leaving the masses, especially Dalits and
lower castes excluded from formal education system.

Conclusion: British Education Policies and Social Control

Throughout the 19th century, British education policies in India were
shaped by imperial objectives and to create the educated, loyal elite that
could assist in the governance of the colony. While vernacular education
was promoted to some extent, the focus was primarily on creating a small,
educated class that would serve the administrative and economic needs
of the empire.
The educational divide in India, however, had significant social and political
consequences. The growing number of educated Indians, especially those
exposed to Western ideas of rationalism, began to question the colonial
system and demand reforms. Over time, this educated elite played a
critical role in the rise of Indian nationalism, using their education to
challenge British rule and advocate for social and political change.
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMS

Social reforms in colonial India marked a significant attempt to address

entrenched societal issues, driven by both the British government and
Indian reformers. Despite noble intentions, these reforms often had limited
success due to deep-rooted cultural resistance and structural challenges
that slowed their implementation.

Efforts to combat female infanticide began early, with Lord Wellesley

banning child sacrifices in Bengal in 1803. However, the perception of
daughters as economic liabilities persisted, particularly in patriarchal
communities. The Female Infanticide Prevention Act of 1870 formalized
attempts to address this issue, but enforcement remained weak, and
societal attitudes changed only gradually. The abolition of sati under
Governor-General William Bentinck in 1829 represented another critical
step in addressing gender-based violence, strongly supported by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy. Yet, the practice continued in some rural areas, revealing the
cultural resistance that laws alone could not overcome.

The legalization of widow remarriage through the Hindu Widows’

Remarriage Act of 1856 was a landmark achievement, championed by
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. However, the reform’s immediate impact was
minimal, with societal stigma preventing widows from embracing
remarriage. By the late 19th century, only 38 documented remarriages had
taken place. In some regions, reformers made localized efforts to
encourage widow remarriage, as seen with Veerasalingam Pantulu in
Madras, who founded the Society for Social Reform in 1878. However, in
regions like Haryana, where widow remarriage already existed, the
legislation served to normalize and legitimize the practice. In Bengal,
Vidyasagar’s advocacy led to the Age of Consent Act of 1860, which
initially set the minimum marriage consummation age at 10 years, later
raised to 12 in 1891, reflecting incremental progress in addressing child
marriage.

The British government also undertook measures to address issues

beyond gender inequality. The suppression of the thuggee cult in the 1830s
was one such effort, led by William Sleeman and institutionalized through
the Thuggee Act of 1836. This campaign successfully dismantled the
organized crime system that had terrorized parts of India. Similarly, the
abolition of slavery in 1843 sought to eliminate the inhumane practice, but
caste hierarchies and economic disparities perpetuated exploitative
conditions for agricultural laborers, leaving many trapped in systems
resembling slavery.

Social and religious reform movements during this period reflected the
growing awareness of the need for cultural and intellectual transformation.
The Bengal Renaissance, spearheaded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, sought
to modernize Indian society by challenging orthodox Hindu practices.
Through the Brahmo Samaj, Roy advocated for the rejection of idolatry,
polytheism, and priestly domination, while championing women’s rights and
promoting widow remarriage and inter-caste marriage. These efforts
marked the beginning of a progressive rethinking of traditional societal
norms.

In western India, reformers established the Prarthana Samaj in 1867, led

by Atmaram Pandurang, to modernize Hinduism by emphasizing
monotheism and opposing idolatry, caste distinctions, and priestly authority.
The movement later blended with the Maharashtrian Bhakti tradition,
creating a unique synthesis of rationalism and spirituality. The Arya Samaj,
founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875, focused on returning to
Vedic values and denounced practices like child marriage, idolatry, and
caste-based discrimination. It also promoted widow remarriage, female
education, and inter-caste marriage, although its later involvement in the
cow protection movement diluted its broader social reform agenda.

Education became a key focus for reformers, who believed it was central to
moral and social progress. Movements emphasized rational thinking and
the development of a scientific temper to create an enlightened society.
However, systemic barriers such as caste and gender inequality limited
access to education, restricting the impact of these efforts.

While these reforms were significant in initiating change, their immediate

impact was often minimal. Deeply entrenched cultural norms, orthodox
resistance, and limited societal participation hindered the realization of their
goals. Nonetheless, these movements laid the groundwork for a more
progressive Indian society and inspired future generations to continue
striving for social justice and equality. Over time, the gradual shifts they
initiated contributed to the larger struggle for independence and societal
transformation.

The 19th century in colonial India was marked by social and religious
reform movements alongside significant resistance to British policies.
However, the reforms were largely limited in scope and impact, and the
resistance movements often reflected the deep disruptions caused by
colonial rule.

Social and religious reform movements during this period were primarily led
by urban, educated elites such as the bhadralok in Bengal, Chitpavan and
Saraswat Brahmins in western India, and high-caste Brahmins in the
Madras Presidency. These efforts, though progressive in intent, failed to
engage the rural and uneducated masses. Reformers operated within an
intellectual framework inaccessible to most Indians, creating a disconnect
between their goals and the realities of the majority population. Movements
like the Brahmo Samaj, led by Rammohun Roy, advocated for the abolition
of sati and idolatry but struggled to extend their influence beyond the urban
elite, partly due to their reliance on Sanskritized language. Similarly, the
Prarthana Samaj in western India, which promoted widow remarriage and
female education, had a negligible impact, with only 68 members by 1872.

Reformers often neglected pressing issues such as caste discrimination

and untouchability, focusing instead on practices like sati and widow
remarriage. As most reformers belonged to high-caste groups,
caste-related problems were sidelined until figures like Gandhi and
Ambedkar brought them to prominence in the 20th century. Furthermore,
many reformers relied on British legislative support to legitimize their
efforts, as seen in the abolition of sati in 1829. This dependency on colonial
authority limited the scope of reforms, as debates often centered on textual
interpretations rather than addressing the lived experiences of marginalized
communities. Women, in particular, were treated more as symbols of
progress than active participants, and their voices were largely excluded
from discussions about their own emancipation.

The reforms also faced resistance from revivalist groups like the Arya
Samaj, which sought to reject Western influences and return to Vedic
values. Reformers’ attempts to balance Western rationalism with Indian
traditions often caused tension between modernization efforts and orthodox
beliefs. The British further complicated the process by justifying
interventions through their reinterpretations of Indian scriptures, attributing
social evils like sati and child marriage to misreadings of religious texts.
This colonial approach ignored the social and economic factors underlying
such practices, further limiting the effectiveness of their reforms.

Alongside these reform efforts, British revenue policies had a profound

impact on agrarian society, restructuring rural economies and creating
widespread inequality. These policies established a pyramid-like hierarchy
within rural society, with landlords at the top and landless
laborers—comprising 65-70% of the population—at the bottom. Heavy
revenue demands and exploitative practices pushed even well-off peasants
into debt, fostering a sense of collective grievance among rural
communities. This distress united them in violent protests and fostered the
emergence of a collective peasant identity.

Resistance movements during this period were multifaceted, ranging from

restorative rebellions led by dispossessed zamindars to grassroots peasant
uprisings. Restorative rebellions, such as Raja Chait Singh’s Revolt in
Awadh (1778-81) and the Poligar Rebellions in South India (1799-1805),
sought to restore pre-British socio-economic systems. Peasant-led
protests, like the Rangpur Rebellion of 1783 in Bengal, united Hindu and
Muslim communities against oppressive revenue farming practices, even
establishing a short-lived local government as an alternative to colonial
rule.

Religious resistance also played a significant role, as seen in movements

like the Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1763-1800), which combined Hindu and
Muslim efforts to challenge British economic exploitation. These uprisings
integrated religious sentiments with anti-colonial resistance, demonstrating
how cultural identity could mobilize opposition to British policies.

The broader themes of this period highlight the disruption of agrarian

society caused by British land revenue policies, the elitist nature of reform
movements that failed to engage with marginalized communities, and the
grassroots resistance rooted in shared economic struggles. While social
and religious reformers largely focused on urban elites, rural communities
organized collective uprisings to resist colonial exploitation. Both reform
and resistance drew heavily on religious and cultural ideas, shaping Indian
identity and laying the groundwork for future nationalist movements.
The Faraizi Movement originated among the peasants of eastern Bengal
under the leadership of Haji Shariatullah. It aimed to purify Islam by
removing un-Islamic practices and addressing the grievances of the
oppressed peasantry. After Shariatullah’s death in 1839, his son Dudu Mian
took over, strengthening the movement by emphasizing egalitarian values.
The movement expanded its reach through a network of village
organizations across districts like Faridpur, Bakarganj, Dacca, Pabna,
Tippera, Jessore, and Noakhali. Although it slowed down after Dudu Mian’s
death in 1862, it was revived in the 1870s by Naya Mian, maintaining its
significance in rural Bengal.

The Moplah Uprising occurred in the Malabar region of South India,

involving the Moplahs, descendants of Arab traders who adhered to a
traditional system of sharing land’s net produce among landlords,
leaseholders, and cultivators. This system faced disruptions under British
control established in 1792, leading to a series of uprisings throughout the
19th century. Notable incidents occurred in Manjeri (1849), Kulathur (1851),
and Mattanur (1852), reflecting peasant discontent. The resistance
resurfaced in the 1870s as Moplahs continued their fight against economic
exploitation and colonial authority.

The pre-1857 Indian peasant rebellions often saw the participation of tribal
groups like the Bhils and Kolis, who resisted the growing encroachment on
their lands and traditional systems by colonial policies and revenue
demands.

The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 was a major tribal uprising in regions

such as Cuttack, Dhalbhum, Manbhum, and Santhal Parganas. It was
sparked by the penetration of dikus (outsiders) like zamindars and
moneylenders, who exploited the Santhals economically. The rebellion
began as an open insurrection in July 1855, targeting landlords,
moneylenders, and the British administration. The Santhal Parganas
became the focal point of this organized revolt, marking a significant
expression of tribal resistance.

The various uprisings during this period arose from changing economic
relations, including the imposition of the British land revenue system, which
revitalized landlordism and disrupted traditional structures. While the British
framed these rebellions as mere law and order issues, they reflected
deep-rooted economic grievances. Though not directly linked to political
nationalism, these movements highlighted early resistance against colonial
exploitation. The leadership of such uprisings often came from local tribal
chiefs or influential community members, reflecting their grassroots nature.