Introduction

All living organisms including plants and animals respond

and react to environmental factors or stimuli. There is a
necessity to develop some system for control and
coordination of various body organs.
To carry out a simple function such as picking up an object
from the ground there has to be coordination of the eyes,
hands, legs and the vertebral column. The eyes have to focus
on the object, the hands have to pick it up and grasp it, the
legs have to bend and so does the back bone (vertebral column). All these actions have to be
coordinated in such a manner that they follow a particular sequence and the action is completed.
A similar mechanism is also needed for internal functions of the body.
The individuals also have to adjust to the changing conditions around them and vary their
responses. At the same time, the internal conditions of the body should be maintained constant.
There are two modes of control and coordination, chemical and nervous. Plant do not have a
nervous system. They possess only chemical control and coordination. Animals have both
chemical and nervous control and coordination. The two constitute neuroendocrine system.
Coordination in Animals
Animals have the ability of locomotion. This ability probably developed as they have to search
for food. Since they move from one place to another, the animals have to continuously encounter

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changes in their environment. In order to maintain a steady state within the body, all animals
should be able to perceive these changes and adapt to them.
With increasing complexity in their structure, the number and types of cells in the animal body
increased. Thus, it became necessary to have some coordination mechanism. Two systems have
been developed for better control and coordination of the various activities of the organisms.
These systems are the Nervous System and the Endocrine System.
Nervous System
The nervous system in vertebrates is highly evolved. It is the
control system for all our actions, thinking and behaviour.
It is concerned with receiving stimuli from the external or
internal environment of the body, interpreting these stimuli
and producing the appropriate response to these stimuli. To
achieve this, highly specialized cells are required which can
receive the message and conduct them to the chief centres
of nervous system where they are to be interpreted and
then returned to the relevant part of the body. Neurons or nerve cells are the structural and
functional unit of nervous system. Each neuron has following two parts:
(i) Cyton or cell body : Contains a central nucleus and cytoplasm with characteristic deeply
stained particles called Nissl's granules [i.e. clumps of ribosomes].
(ii) Cell processes : These are of two types
(a) Dendrites: These may be one to many, generally short and branched cytoplasmic
processes. Dendrites are afferent processes because they receive impulse from
receptor or other neuron and bring it to cyton.
(b) Axon: It is a single generally long efferent process which conducts impulse away
from cyton to other neuron.
The longest cell in the body is neuron because axons can be more than one metre
long. Axon has uniform thickness, but it has terminal thin branches called
telodendria. Terminal end buttons or synaptic knobs occur at the end of
telodendria.

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Electrochemical Mechanism of Transfer of Nerve Impulse
Any two neurons in the nervous system do not join to one
another completely, there is always a very small gap between
the two neurons. This gap is called synapse. The nerve impulse
is carried over this small gap between a pair of neurons by
means of a chemical substance called neurotransmitter
substance. When a stimulus acts on the receptor a chemical
reaction is set off which produces an electrical impulse in it.
This impulse travels from the dendrite of sensory neurons to its cell body and then along its
axon.

Pre synaptic knob

Neuro
transmitter
Enzyme
Chemo
receptor site
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Post synaptic
membrane
Dendrite
Synaptic Cleft
Neurotransmitter
molecule
Synaptic Vesicle

Mitochondria
Synapse
Axon
At the end of axon of sensory neuron, the electrical impulse
releases tiny amount of a chemical substance in the synapse.
This chemical substance crosses the gap and starts similar
electrical impulse on the dendrite of next neuron. This process
continues till the electrical impulse reach the relay neurons in
brain and spinal cord. These relay neurons connect in a similar way from the brain and spinal
cord to the effector muscles and glands via motor neuron.

Why synapse acts as a one-way valve?

Explanation
Synapses act like one-way valves. This is because the chemical substance is present at only one
side of the gap i.e. neurotransmitters are released by axon endings only and received by
dendrites of other neurons. In this way synapses ensure that nerve impulse travels only in one
direction.
Neuromuscular Junction
A neuromuscular junction is a place in the body where the axons of motor nerves meet the
muscle, thus transmitting message from the brain or spinal cord which causes the muscle to
contract and relax.

Muscle
Vesicle containing
Neurotransmitter
Myelin sheath
Axon
Receptor
Neurotransmitter Junction

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How does a muscle cell move?
Explanation
Muscle cells move by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have special
proteins that change both their shape and their arrangement in the cell in response to nervous
electrical impulses. When this happens, new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle
cells a shorter form.
Reflex Action
A reflex action is a quick involuntary action in response to an external or internal stimulus,
generally without involvement of the brain.
E.g. A tap on the knee results in a spontaneous withdrawal i.e. a knee-jerk. Similarly, when we
touch a hot object, we spontaneously withdraw our hand.
Reflex action are of two types:
(1) Unconditioned reflex – which are inborn and inherited. e.g. sneezing and coughing
(2) Conditioned reflex – which are learned reflexes. e.g. cycling and salivation on smelling
one's favourite food.
Significance of Reflex Action
Act as an alarm which indicate about some unnatural incidents that are going to happen.
Quick and sudden reflex protect us from dangers and injuries.
Reflex Arc
A reflex arc is the shortest route that can be taken by an impulse from receptor to an effector.

Sensory
neuron
Message to
Effector = Muscle in arm
Relay neuron
Motor
Neuron
Receptors = Heat/Pain
Receptors in skin
Spinal cord
Reflex Arc
Brain
(CNS)
The basic components of reflex arc are a receptor,
a sensory neuron, a centre, a motor neuron and an
effector. Components of reflex arc are -

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 Response
Lifting of
hand
Stimulus:
Heat
Motor neurons
Sensory neurons
Effector
Receptor
Spinal Cord
Heating detectors in
the skin of hand
Muscle of arm
A typical reflex action has the following pathway
(1) Receptor: The dendrite of sensory neuron receives stimulus and initiates a nerve
impulse.
(2) Sensory neuron: The nerve impulse passes from the dendrites to the axon terminal
branches of the sensory neuron in the spinal cord.
(3) Centre: It is the region in the spinal cord or brain where the incoming sensory impulse
generates an outgoing motor impulse. Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal
cord and allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.
(4) Motor neuron: It transmits the impulse generated by the sensory neuron in the centre to
the effector organ of the body that will respond, such as a muscle or gland.
(5) Effector: It is the organ of the body that responds to motor nerve impulse.

What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Explanation
The reflexes which involve only the spinal cord are called spinal reflexes. The spinal reflexes are
produced in the spinal cord, but the message of reflex action taken also goes on to reach the
brain where the thinking process occurs. Some reflex arcs involve the brain, rather than the
spinal cord only. They are called cerebral reflexes. Closing of eyes when exposed to flash of light
and salivation at the sight of tempting food are the examples of cerebral reflexes.

What reflexes are shown by our eyes to the changes in light intensity?
Explanation
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As the person enters a dark room from a brightly lit one, the pupil dilates to allow more light to
enter the eye. On the contrary, when the person is exposed to light on leaving a dark room, the
pupil constricts and the eyelids close partially to allow less light to enter into the eye.
Note:- The difference between a reflex action and walking.
Reflex action:
1. Reflex action is the immediate and involuntary action.
2. It is regulated by the spinal cord.
3. It occurs in a fraction of seconds.
Walking:
1. Walking is a voluntary action which is under our control.
2. It is controlled by brain.
3. It takes longer time.

1. Name the part of neuron which receives and conducts the impulse respectively.
2. Name the various components of reflex arc.
3. We suddenly withdraw our hand when a pin pricks. Name the type of response involved
in this action.
The Vertebrate Nervous System Consists of Two Parts :
(1) Central Nervous System
(2) Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Spinal cord
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Central Nervous System
Brain
The central nervous system consists of two parts -
(i) upper large brain situated in the head
(ii) the lower long and narrow spinal cord situated in the neck and trunk. It is continuation of
brain downwards.
(i) Brain
It is the part of the central nervous system that is present in the head. The bony box that
houses the brain within the skull is called the cranium. It has three main regions the fore
brain, the mid brain and the hind brain. The three regions have different parts that have
specific functions.

Fore Brain
It is made up of cerebrum, hypothalamus and many other parts.
(a) Cerebrum
It is the largest and main thinking part of the brain and is
made up of two hemispheres called the cerebral
hemispheres. The cerebrum has sensory areas,
association areas and motor areas. Sensory areas receive
the messages. There are different areas for hearing,
smell, sight and so on in cerebrum. There are separate
areas of association where this sensory information is
interpreted by putting it together with information from
the other receptors as well as with information that is already stored in the brain.

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 The motor areas are responsible of the action of the voluntary muscles. The Cerebrum is
also responsible for intelligence, memory, consciousness and will power.
(b) Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is an important region of the brain. It receives the taste and smell
impulses, coordinates message from the autonomous nervous system, controls the heart
rate, blood pressure, body temperature. It also forms an axis with the pituitary which is
the main link between the nervous and the endocrine systems. It also has centres that
control emotions, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, body temperature and sweating. It
secretes neurohormones which regulate the secretion of anterior lobe of pituitary.
Mid Brain
It is a small portion of the brain that serves as a relay centre for sensory information from the
eyes and ears to the cerebrum. It also controls the reflex movements of the ears and eyes
muscles. It provides a passage for the different neurons going in and coming out of the cerebrum.
Hind Brain
It consists of cerebellum, pons varolii and medulla oblongata.
(a) Cerebellum
The cerebellum is second largest part of brain. It has very convoluted surface in order to
provide the additional space for many more neurons. It is responsible for maintaining the
balance while walking, swimming, riding, etc. It is also responsible for precision and the
fine control of the voluntary movements. For example, we can do actions like eating while
talking or listening. The action of eating, while talking is done automatically. This is
controlled by the cerebellum. Alcohol effects the cerebellum.
(b) Pons
Pons literally means bridge. It is hidden as it is well protected because of its importance.
It has the breathing centre. It consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of
the brain.
(c) Medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the posterior most part of the brain which lies below the
cerebellum. It controls activities such as sneezing, coughing, swallowing, salivation and
vomiting. It contains centre which control respiration
and cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretion. It also
controls rate of heart beat and expansion and
contraction of blood vessels to regulate blood pressure.
(ii) Spinal cord
It is a collection of nervous tissue running along the back
bone. It is protected by the vertebral column.
The functions of the spinal cord are:
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Coordinating spinal reflexes.
It conducts sensory and motor impulse to and from the brain via sensory and motor nerve fibers
respectively.

How is the nervous tissue protected from any damage?

Explanation
External injuries are overcome by the central nervous system through protective shields. The
spinal cord is encased in the vertebral column, and it is also surrounded by a fluid known as
cerebrospinal fluid. The same fluid is also present in the cranium around the brain. In addition,
the brain and spinal cord are guarded by layers of tissue described as meninges, namely
duramater, arachnoid and piamater from outside to inside.
Peripheral Nervous System
All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord are included in peripheral nervous system. It is
divided into a somatic neural system and autonomic neural system.
Somatic nervous system consists of two sets of nerves:

(i) Cranial nerves

Nerves arising from the brain are called cranial nerves.
Nerves may be sensory, motor or mixed. 12 pairs of
cranial nerves are found in humans.
(ii) Spinal Nerves
Nerves arising from spinal cord are called spinal nerves.
Each spinal nerve is of mixed type. In humans 31 pairs of spinal nerves are found.

1. Dendrites and axon respectively.

2. Receptors, sensory neuron, centre, motor neuron and effector.
3. Reflex action.

We have learned in a previous class the pituitary gland is called master gland because it
produces hormones that control other glands. Many glands like thyroid gland secrete their
hormones when they receive orders from the pituitary gland through its hormones.
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Endocrine System
A group of endocrine glands which produce various hormones form the endocrine system. In
addition to the nervous system, the endocrine system also helps in coordinating the activities of
our body.
Endocrine glands – The duct less glands which pour their secretions directly into the blood are
called endocrine glands.
Hormones – they are non-nutrient chemicals which act as inter cellular messengers and are
produced in trace amount.
They are secretions of the endocrine glands and one of the important substances that control the
body’s chemistry. Also known as "Chemical messengers."
⮚ The term hormone was introduced by Bayliss and Starling.
Physical and chemical properties of hormones
(i) These are secreted by endocrine glands.
(ii) Hormones are secreted only when required.
(iii) Their secretion is regulated by feedback mechanisms.
(iv) These are generally released in the blood stream.
(v) The molecules of most of the hormones are small.
(vi) The secretion of hormones is always in very small
quantity.
(vii) Hormones are destroyed after use i.e. hormones
cannot be stored in the body. Thyroxine is an
exception.

1. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
2. How is the spinal cord protected in human body?
3. Name the part of the fore brain which forms a link between nervous system and
endocrine system?
Transfer of information in multicellular organisms
Electrical impulses are an excellent means for transfer of information rapidly. But there are some
limitations to the use of electrical impulses. They will reach only those cells that are connected
by nervous tissue. Once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will
take some time to reset its mechanisms before it can generate and transmit a new impulse. So
that multicellular organisms use another means of communication between cells namely,

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chemical communication. This will be slower and it can be done steadily and persistently
because it can potentially reach all cells of the body.
In chemical communication, stimulated cells release a chemical compound (hormone) which
diffuse all around the original cells. If other cells around have the means to detect this compound
using special molecules on their surfaces, then they would be able to recognize information and
even transmit it.
Difference between Nervous and Hormonal Coordination
Nervous Coordination Hormonal Coordination
It is sent as an electrical impulse along axons and as It is sent as a chemical messenger via blood
a chemical across synapse. stream.
Information travels rapidly in milli seconds. Information travels slowly.
Information is directed to specific receptors–one or Information is spread throughout the body by
a few nerve fibres, gland cells or other neurons. blood from which the target cells or organs pick
it up.
It gets response immediately. It gets response usually slowly.
Its effects are short-lived. Its effects are generally more prolonged.
Chemical coordination in animals :
In animals, chemical coordination is achieved through the agency of hormones which function as
chemical messengers or informational molecules. Hormones are secreted in very small amounts
by specialized tissues in the body called endocrine glands. These glands are ductless and pour
their secretions directly into blood. Blood transports them to the target tissues/organs.
Hormones coordinate the activities of living organisms and also their growth. For example, the
pancreas secretes two hormones-insulin and glucagon.

1. Cerebellum.
2. Overlying meninges and vertebral column.
3. Hypothalamus
Endocrine Glands
The various endocrine glands in humans are hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas,
adrenal glands, ovary (in female) and testis (in males).

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⮚ Pituitary gland is known as 'Master gland' of the body. It is because of the fact that the
pituitary gland controls the functioning of most of the endocrine glands.
⮚ Hypothalamus plays an important role in the release of many hormones. For example,
when the level of growth hormone is low, the hypothalamus releases growth hormone
releasing factor which stimulates the pituitary gland to release growth hormone.
⮚ The gonads i.e. testes and ovary are both endocrine and non-endocrine in function. Their
non endocrine function is to produce male and female reproductive cells i.e. sperm and
ova respectively.
Endocrine Gland Hormone Function Deficiency
may cause
Pituitary Growth Regulates growth and development of Dwarfism
Hormone body
ADH Regulates the concentration of urine Diabetes
insipidus
Thyroid Gland Thyroxine Controls carbohydrate, protein and fat Goitre
(Largest endocrine metabolism. It regulates BMR [Basal
gland) metabolic rate]
Thyrocalcitonin Regulates blood calcium levels

Adrenal gland Adrenaline Prepares the body to deal with –

emergency situations
Pancreas Insulin Decrease blood sugar levels Diabetes
mellitus
Glucagon Increase blood sugar levels
Testes Testosterone Causes development of sexual organs –
and secondary sexual characteristics in
males
Ovary Oestrogen Causes development of sexual organs –
and secondary sexual characteristics in
females
Progesterone Maintains pregnancy –

Pineal gland
Pituitary
gland
Thyroid and
Parathyroid glands
Pancreas
Testes
Thymus

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Pineal gland
Pituitary gland and
Hypothalamus
Thyroid and
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Adrenal glands
Ovary
Placenta
(During pregnancy)
Endocrine glands in human beings.

How does our body respond to emergency situation like fight?

Explanation
In case of flight reaction to an emergency situation, adrenal glands release adrenaline into blood.
(i) The heart begins to beat faster resulting in supply of more oxygen to the muscles.
(ii) The blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to the contraction of smooth
muscles around small arteries in these organs. This diverts the blood to our skeletal
muscles.
(iii) The breathing rate increases because of the contraction of the diaphragm and the rib
muscles.
(iv) All these responses together enable the body to be ready to deal with the situation.

1. Name the gland which secretes growth hormone.

2. Name the hormone that helps in regulating the level of sugar in our blood. Name the
gland that secretes it.
3. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
Feedback Mechanism
Feedback mechanism is a regulatory mechanism in which presence of certain levels of substance
promotes or inhibits its further formation. Hormone
regulation is mostly done by feedback mechanism. A
good example of negative feedback is the hormone

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insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin is released when the amount of
glucose in the blood goes up. It stimulates the target cells to take glucose out of the blood which
is utilized in cell respiration or is stored as glycogen. When cells take up glucose from the blood
this makes the glucose level normal. With a fall in blood glucose level insulin secretion
decreases. This checks the further fall in blood glucose level. So, negative feedback works to keep
the blood glucose level normal.
Note: Iodine is important for the thyroid gland to make
thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine regulates carbohydrates,
proteins and fat metabolism in the body so as to provide the
best balance for growth. If iodine is deficient in the diet,
thyroxine cannot be produced and the thyroid gland at the
neck swells, a condition called goitre. Use of iodized table-salt
can provide the required amount of iodine in the diet.
Coordination In Plants
Plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles. But they give response to stimuli. The higher
plants are fixed to the substratum by means of roots. They cannot move from one place to
another. They, therefore, show movement of their parts only.
The plants coordinate their behaviour against environmental changes by using hormones. These
hormones affect the growth of a plant, which may result in movement of shoot and root of plant.

Explain why the responses shown by plants are slow in comparison to animals.
Explanation
Plants do not have nervous systems like the animals have which is responsible for the quick
response to stimuli. Instead, they use only hormones for producing reaction to external stimuli,
which are responsible for the slow response to stimuli.

1. Pituitary gland.
2. Hormone – Insulin, Gland – Pancreas
3. The insulin hormone controls the metabolism of sugar. When pancreas does not produce
and secrete sufficient amount of insulin into blood, then the sugar level in the blood rises.
Therefore, the patient excretes sugar (glucose) in urine, feels excessive thirst and also
urinates excessively. So, people having severe diabetes are treated by giving injections of
insulin.
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Movement in Plants
Plants show two different types of movement. The plants may either respond to various stimuli
very slowly by growing e.g. when a seed germinates the root goes down and the stem comes up
into the air or they can show rapid movements like leaves of sensitive plant move very quickly in
response to touch by folding and drooping without growing.
Classification of plant movements
These are of two types -

Both tropic and nastic movement can be either due to differential growth or due to change in
turgidity.
Movements due to differential growth are irreversible while movement due to change in
turgidity are reversible.
Tropic Movement
Tropic movement is the directional movement of the part of a plant caused by its growth. The
growth of a plant part in response to the stimulus can be towards the stimulus (positive tropism)
or away from the stimulus (negative tropism).
Types of tropic movements
(1) Phototropism
(2) Geotropism
(3) Chemotropism
(4) Hydrotropism
(5) Thigmotropism
(1) Phototropism: The movement of a part of the plant in response to light is called
phototropism. If the plant part moves towards light is called positive phototropism and if
the plant part moves away from light, then it is called negative phototropism.

Aim: To demonstrate the response of plant to the direction of light.

Method

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(i) Take a plant in a conical flask with water.
(ii) Take a cardboard box which is open from one side.
(iii) Keep the flask in the box in such a manner that the open side of box faces light coming
from the window and then observe it.
(iv) Now turn the flask so that the shoots are away from light and the roots towards light.
Leave it undisturbed in this condition for a few days. Again, observe carefully to find the
difference in the movement.

Response of the plant to the direction of light

Positive phototropism
in stem
Negative phototropism in roots
Light
Observation
(i) In the first case, the shoots bend towards light and the roots bend away from light.
(ii) In the second case when the flask was turned it was found that the shoots grow again by
bending towards light and roots grow by bending away from light.
Conclusion
The shoots show positive phototropism while the roots show negative phototropism.

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Plant A is kept in light which is coming from right
direction and plant B is kept in light which is coming from
left direction. What will happen if we inter change the
positions of these two plants?
Explanation
Plant B moves towards the right direction and plant A moves
towards the left direction after interchanging the position
because shoot gives positive response towards the light.
(2) Geotropism: The movement of a part of the plant in response to gravity is called
geotropism. Roots of a plant move downwards in the direction of gravity it is called
positive geotropism and stem of a plant moves upwards against the direction of gravity it
is called negative geotropism.

Plant showing geotropism

Positively
geotropic
Roots
Stem
Negatively
geotropic
(3) Chemotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to a chemical stimulus is
called chemotropism. e.g. Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule during the process of
fertilization in a flower.
(4) Hydrotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to water is called
hydrotropism. Roots of seedling show positive hydrotropism.

Aim: To demonstrate that roots show hydrotropism.

Method: Place germinating seeds in moist saw dust contained in a sieve.
Observation:
(i) The radicles pass down and come out of the sieve pores under the influence of gravity.
(ii) After some growth, radicles move back and enter the saw dust again.
Conclusion:
(i) This shows that roots show both hydrotropic response and geotropic response.
(ii) The hydrotropic response of root is stronger than geotropic response

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(5) Thigmotropism: The movement of a part of plant in response to contact or support is
called thigmotropism. e.g. Pea plants climb up other plants or fences by mean of tendrils.
Tendrils are sensitive to touch. When tendrils come in contact with any support, the part of the
tendril in contact with the object does not grow as rapidly as the part of tendril away from the
object. This causes the tendril to circle around the object and thus cling to it.
⮚ Tendril is a thread, like structure which can be formed from modified shoots or leaves. It
is used by climbing plants for support and attachment generally by twining around
whatever it touches.
Movement Stimulus Example
Phototropism Light Bending of shoot towards light.

Geotropism Earth's Bending of roots towards ground.

gravity
Chemotropism Chemicals Growth of pollen tube towards ovule.
Hydrotropism Water Movement of roots towards ground water.
Thigmotropis Contact Movement of tendril towards support.
m

Thigmotropism
Stem tendrils
Leaf tendrils
Nastic movement
Movement which is neither towards nor away from the stimuli is called nastic movement. It is
growth independent movement.
Seismonastic / Thigmonastic movements
Such movements occur in response to touch (shock). These
movements are very quick and are best seen in ‘touch-me-not’
plant (Mimosa pudica), also called ‘Chhui-mui’ or ‘Lajwanti’ or
‘sensitive plant’.
If we touch the leaves of the chhui-mui plant with our finger,
the stimulus is transmitted to its base and then to other parts
through the xylem sap, probably in the form of a chemical. Due
to which all its leaves immediately fold up and drop. After some time, the leaves regain their
original status. Here, no growth is involved. Instead, plant cells change shape by changing the
amount of water in them (turgor changes), resulting in folding up and drooping of leaves.

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Response to touch in Mimosa plant
Difference between tropic and nastic movement
Tropic movements Nastic movements
Direction of movement is in the Movement is non-directional.
direction of the stimulus or
against it.
Growth takes place. Growth does not take place.
Movements are slow. Movements are fast.
E.g. Growth movement of shoot E.g. The folding up and drooping of leaves in the sensitive
towards light. plants.
Chemical Coordination in Plants
It takes place by the plant hormones or phytohormones. They help to coordinate growth,
development and response to the environment. They are synthesized in minute quantities in one
part of the plant body and simply diffuse to another part, where they influence specific
physiological processes.

Growth promoters
(1) Auxins: Auxin was the first plant hormone discovered by Went. It promotes cell
elongation, apical dominance and helps in root initiation in cutting or in callus
differentiation.
⮚ In vascular plants, specially in taller ones if apical bud is removed it causes fast growth of
lateral buds. The influence of apical bud in suppressing the growth of lateral buds is
termed as apical dominance.
Role of auxin in phototropism
When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesized at shoot tip, helps the
cells to grow longer.
When light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the
shoot.
This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is
away from light. Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light.

Light

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Auxin
Auxin
Light
The role of auxin in phototropism
Auxin spreads
equally down both
sides of the plant
Auxin collects
on the shady side
The effect of auxin on the growth of root is exactly opposite to that on a stem. In high
concentration, auxin inhibits root elongation and instead, enhances adventitious root formation.

A plant is grown in the open ground with the sunlight coming from above, then the stem of
plant grows straight up. Why?
Explanation
When the sunlight comes from above then the auxin hormone presents in the tip of stem spreads
uniformly down the stem. Due to the equal presence of auxin both the sides of stem grow equally
and thus it grows straight up.
(2) Gibberellins (G.A.): It is found in various plant parts such as root, stem, leaves, fruits and
immature seeds. It stimulates stem elongation or helps in growth of the stem. It helps in
breaking dormancy in seeds and buds. It promotes growth in fruits and increases size and
number of fruits.

1. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?

2. Name the plant hormone
(i) Which break dormancy in seeds.
(ii) Which promotes apical dominance in plants?
3. A potted plant is made to lie horizontally on the ground.
Which part of the plant will show-
(i) Positive geotropism
(ii) Negative geotropism
(3) Cytokinins (CK)

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 Cytokinins promote cell division, and they are present in greater concentration in areas of
rapid cell division such as in fruits and seeds. It promotes opening of stomata.
Cytokinins suppress apical dominance (promotes lateral branches in the presence of
apical bud). Help in secondary growth (growth in thickness).
It helps in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
Growth inhibitors
(1) Abscisic acid (ABA)
It is called stress hormone which inhibits the growth. It promotes the closing of stomata
under water stress condition thus effects wilting of leaves.
It causes dormancy of seeds and promotes falling of leaves.
(2) Ethylene
It is a gaseous hormone which promotes fruit growth and ripening. It prevents elongation
of stem and roots in longitudinal direction. It promotes yellowing and senescence of
leaves.
Note: The effect of daylength (photoperiod) on the developmental process of a plant (like
germination of seeds and flowering) is called photoperiodism. Photoperiod is longer in
summer season which is required for flowering in wheat plants while shorter in autumn
season which is required for flowering in tobacco plant.

1. The movement of tendril around the support is caused by the hormone auxin. Less auxin
occurs on the side of contact as compared to the free side. Auxin promotes growth on the
free side. As a result of growth on the free side, the tendril coils around the support.
2. (i) Gibberellin (ii) Auxin
3. (i) Root system (ii) Shoot system

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 SOME BASIC TERMS
1. Neuron : Highly specialized cells which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of
stimuli.
2. Stimuli : A stimulus causes an action or response, in an organism. It can be external
(temperature, light, etc. ) or internal (hunger, thirst, pain, etc.).
3. Receptor : The sensory receptors enable us to be aware of the environment around us. It
responds to the stimuli.
4. Electrical impulse : It is also known as the nerve impulse. It is the passing of electrical
current from one end of the neuron to the other end, which actually carries the
information.
5. Synapse : It is the junction place where two neurons communicate.
6. Synaptic cleft : The space between two neurons at a synapse, where the nerve impulse is
transmitted through certain chemical structures.
7. Reflex action : It is body’s immediate, involuntary response to an external stimulus to
protect itself from the immediate harm. The brain is not involved directly as there is no
thinking involved.
8. Reflex arc : The pathway taken by the reflex action is referred to as reflex arc. It normally
involves the receptors, sensory neuron, relay neuron and motor neuron, finally reaching
the effector organs.
9. Sensory neuron : These are a type of neuron that carries the nerve impulse from the
sense organs to the CNS.
10. Motor neuron : Neurons that take away nerve impulse from the CNS to the effector
organs like muscle or glands.
11. Relay neuron : Relay neurons are found in the brain and spinal cord and allow sensory
and motor neurons to communicate.
12. Feedback mechanism : Mechanism by which the release and functioning of hormones
are regulated.

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