They showed obvious differences in the

traits Understood that there was something

Enna Gabrielle Pingoy Rata’s
that carried traits from one generation to the
Reviewer For General Biology 2 next- “FACTOR”.
GENETICS AND HEREDITY
In the mid-1800s, the rules underlying
HISTORY
patterns of inheritance were uncovered in a
Genetics is the study of genes. series of experiments performed by an
Inheritance is how traits, or Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel.

characteristics, are passed on from generation

to generation. WHAT WAS THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF
GREGOR MENDEL'S EXPERIMENTS WITH PEA
Genetic material (genes, chromosomes,
PLANTS?
DNA) is found inside the nucleus of a cell.
The primary objective of Gregor Mendel's
Gregor Mendel is considered “The Father
experiments with pea plants was to
of Genetics.“
understand the fundamental principles of how
traits are passed down from parents to
offspring. He aimed to identify patterns and
rules governing inheritance, which at the time
was a complete mystery.

Mendel's Plant Breeding Experiments

Gregor Mendel was one of the first to apply an
experimental approach to the question of
inheritance. For seven years, Mendel bred pea
GREGOR MENDEL plants and recorded inheritance patterns in the
offspring.
Austrian Monk.

Experimented with “pea plants”.

Particulate Hypothesis of Inheritance
Used pea (Pisum sativum) plants because: Parents pass on to their offspring separate

They were available and distinct factors (today called genes) that
are responsible for inherited traits.
They reproduced quickly
Mendel was fortunate he chose the Garden • Monohybrid cross is a genetic cross that
Pea involves a single pair of genes that is

Mendel probably chose to work with peas responsible for one trait.
• Mendel cross pollinated purple pea plants
because they are available in many varieties.
with white pea plants.
The use of peas also gave Mendel strict
• Mendel referred to the offspring of this cross
control over which plants mated.
as hybrids.
Fortunately, the pea traits are distinct and • A hybrid is the offspring of parents that have
were clearly contrasting. different forms of traits, such as purple color
and white color.
HOW DID MENDEL ENSURE THE PURITY OF
HIS PEA PLANT LINES BEFORE CONDUCTING For each monohybrid cross, Mendel
HIS EXPERIMENTS, AND WHY WAS THIS cross-fertilized true-breeding plants that were
IMPORTANT FOR HIS RESEARCH? different in just one character—in this case,
Mendel ensured the purity of his pea plant flower color. He then allowed the hybrids (the

lines by practicing self-pollination for several F1 generation) to self-fertilize.

generations. He allowed single plants to

fertilize themselves repeatedly, ensuring P generation (parental generation)
offspring inherited identical sets of genes from
F1 generation (first filial generation, the
both parents.
word filial from the Latin word for "son") are
Pea plants reproduce sexually, which the hybrid offspring.
means that they produce male and female sex Allowing these F1 hybrids to self-pollinate
cells, called gametes. produces:
When male gamete unites with female F2 generation (second filial generation). It
gamete it is called fertilization. is the analysis of this that lead to an
Then the fertilized cell is called a zygote. understanding of genetic crosses.

Zygote then develops into a seed in plants and

an embryo in animals. MENDEL’S HYPOTHESIS
• Mendel hypothesized that something in the

MENDEL’S MONOHYBRID pea plants was controlling the characteristics

that came through.
• He called these controls “factors”.
• Because each characteristics had two forms, From here, the process begins again. Mitosis
he said there must be a pair of “factors” builds a person with an identical set of
controlling each trait. chromosomes in every cell. And meiosis
• Each pair consists of alternate forms (alleles) generates reproductive cells with new
of the same trait; one from the mother and combinations of gene variations.
one from the father.

DISCUSS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MENDEL'S

DISCOVERY IN THE FIELD OF GENETICS.
Mendel's discoveries were revolutionary. He
identified the existence of dominant and
GENE
recessive traits, revealed the concept of unit
• A gene is a segment of DNA that contains
factors (later known as genes), and
the instructions for building a specific protein
established the principle of segregation (one
or performing a particular function within an
factor per parent for each trait). These
organism.
principles formed the foundation of modern
• Genes are the basic unit of heredity and are
genetics and paved the way for future
passed from parents to offspring during
research on inheritance patterns, eventually
reproduction.
leading to the understanding of DNA and its
• Each gene occupies a specific location on a
role in heredity.
chromosome.
• Genes determine various traits and
FERTILIZATION
characteristics of an organism, such as eye
• Egg and sperm cells have just 23
color, height, and susceptibility to certain
chromosomes each.
diseases.
• Through the process of fertilization, egg and
• For example, the gene responsible for eye
sperm join to make a cell with 46
color in humans is located on a specific region
chromosomes (23 pairs), called a zygote.
of a chromosome, and different versions of
• For each chromosome pair, one homologous
this gene (alleles) can result in different eye
chromosome came from each parent. They
colors, such as blue, brown, or green.
have the same genes arranged in the same
order, but there are small variations in the DNA
ALLELE
letters of those genes.
• An allele is a distinct form of a gene. Every MENDEL’S CONCLUSION
person has 2 alleles for a gene, 1 from the 1. The Law of Dominance
father and 1 from the mother. Every person 2. The Law of Segregation
has two copies of an allele, so they will have 3. The Law of Independent Assortment
two letters.
• An allele is a variant form of a gene. Some
genes have a variety of different forms, which
are located at the same position, or genetic 1. Law of Dominance
locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called • In the monohybrid cross (mating of two
diploid organisms because they have two organisms that differ in only one character),
alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele one version disappeared.
inherited from each parent. The F1 crossed produced the F2 generation
• An individual's combination of alleles is and the lost trait appeared with predictable
known as their genotype. ratios. This led to the formulation of the
• Individuals inherit two alleles for each gene, current model of inheritance.
one from each parent.
• Alleles can be dominant or recessive, • Dominant traits were controlled by
depending on their effects on the phenotype dominant alleles and recessive traits were
(observable characteristics) of the organism. controlled by recessive alleles.
• For example, in the case of eye color in • Dominant – can mask or dominate the other
humans, the gene responsible for this trait factor and is displayed most often
may have different alleles, such as one allele • Recessive – the factor that can be covered
for blue eyes and another allele for brown up; is displayed less often.
eyes. An individual may inherit two alleles for • If the gene that controls the trait is
blue eyes (homozygous), resulting in a dominant, the letter is written in uppercase (T)
phenotype of blue eyes, or one allele for blue • If the gene is recessive, the letter is written
eyes and one allele for brown eyes in lowercase (t)
(heterozygous), resulting in a phenotype of
brown eyes due to the dominance of the
brown allele.
DIHYBRID CROSSES
• The study of 2 pairs of contrasting traits at yyRR can produce the combinations:
the same time. yR, yR, yR, yR
• Example: Round yellow seeds X wrinkled
green seeds
• This proves his theory on the Law of
Independent Assortment (two traits are
inherited INDEPENDENTLY)

PROBLEM: IF YOU WERE TO CROSS A Step 4. Fill in the Punnett square. Keep alleles
HOMOZYGOUS YELLOW WRINKLED PLANT for each gene together and write the dominant
WITH A HOMOZYGOUS GREEN PLANT, WHAT allele first.
WOULD YOUR PHENOTYPIC AND GENOTYPIC
RATIOS BE? Step 5. Answer the question Genotype
Step 1. Make a Key If yellow is dominant over probabilities: 100% YyRr (all 16 possible
green and round is dominant over wrinkled: combinations) Phenotype probabilities 100%
• Y = yellow yellow round (all 16 possible combinations)
• y = green
• R = round 1. Allele - The basic unit of heredity; an
• r = wrinkled alternative form of a gene.
2. Dominant allele -A trait that is expressed
Step 2: Assign genotypes of the parents even when only one allele is present.
• Homozygous yellow wrinkled = YYrr 3. Genetics - The branch of biology that
• Homozygous green round = yyRR studies heredity and variation in organisms.
Parent = YYrr x yyRR 4. Genotype - The genetic makeup of an
organism, represented by its alleles.
Step 3: Determine the Gametes. Use the FOIL 5. Heterozygote - The genetic makeup of an
method. Combine the R’s and Y’s of each organism, represented by its alleles.
parent to represent sperm and egg. Do this for 6. Homozygote - An organism that has two
both parents. identical alleles for a specific trait.
If parents = YYrr x yyRR 7. Hybrid - An organism produced by crossing
YYrr can produce the combinations: parents with different traits.
Yr, Yr, Yr, Yr
8. Law of Independent Assortment - Mendel’s • Epistatic genes can be dominant or
principle stating that genes for different traits recessive in their effects.
are inherited independently.
9. Law of Segregation - Mendel’s principle Difference Between Dominance and Epistasis
stating that paired alleles separate during Dominance - Interaction occurs within a single
gamete formation. gene pair (intraallelic).
10. Phenotype - The observable physical or
physiological traits of an organism. One allele hides the effect of another allele at
11. Recessive allele - A trait that is only the same gene locus.
expressed when two recessive alleles are Epistasis - Interaction occurs between
present. different genes (inter-allelic).
12. Monohybrid cross - A cross that tracks the
inheritance of a single trait. One gene hides the effect of another gene at a
13. Dihybrid cross - A cross that tracks the different gene locus.
inheritance of two different traits.
14. Punnett square - A tool used to predict the Dominant Epistasis
outcome of genetic crosses. • In dominant epistasis, a dominant allele
15. Homologous chromosomes - A pair of (e.g., A) at one gene locus masks or
chromosomes that have the same genes but suppresses the expression of another gene
may have different alleles. (e.g., B), regardless of what allele is present at
the second gene locus.
EPISTASIS • The dominant allele (A) is epistatic, meaning
• a genetic phenomenon where the effect of it overrides the effect of gene B.
one gene depends on the presence of another. • The B allele (hypostatic) will only be
• Originally, epistasis referred to a situation expressed when A is absent (aa).
where one gene masks the phenotypic effect • This alters the expected Mendelian 9:3:3:1
of another. ratio into 12:3:1.
• Two key terms:
• Epistatic gene: The gene that does the
masking.
• Hypostatic gene: The gene whose effect is
masked.
Genotypes and Phenotypes • In recessive epistasis, the homozygous
recessive alleles (bb) at one gene locus mask
the effect of another gene (C) at a different
locus.
• Unlike dominant epistasis, where a single
dominant allele is enough to mask another
gene, in recessive epistasis, both copies of the
Example: Summer Squash (Cucurbita pepo) epistatic gene (bb) must be recessive for the
• Fruit colors: White, yellow, and green. masking effect to occur.
• W (white) is dominant and masks Y (yellow • This alters the expected Mendelian 9:3:3:1
or green color). ratio into 9:3:4.
• Y (yellow) is dominant over green.
• A pure white-fruited variety crossed with a Genotypes and Phenotypes
double recessive green variety results in all
white F1 hybrids.
• When W is present (WW or Ww), the
squash is always white, no matter what Y is.
• Only when ww is present does the Y gene
show its effect (yellow or green). Recessive Epistasis Example (Coat Color in

• This leads to the 12:3:1 ratio instead of Horses)

9:3:3:1. • In this case:

• Gene B (epistatic gene) controls whether
color (C) is expressed.
• Dominant B (BB or Bb) → Allows color
expression (brown/tan depending on C).
• Recessive bb → Blocks color, leading to an
albino horse.
• Gene C (hypostatic gene) determines coat
color if B allows it:
• CC or Cc → Brown coat.
• cc → Tan coat.
Recessive Epistasis (Supplementary • This alters the expected Mendelian 9:3:3:1
Interaction) ratio into 9:3:4.
Duplicate Recessive Genes (Complementary
Genes)
• Duplicate recessive genes (also called
complementary genes) refer to a type of gene
interaction where two different genes work
together to produce a specific phenotype.
• If either of the genes is homozygous
recessive, it prevents the phenotype from
appearing.
• Both dominant alleles (A and B) must be
present for a particular trait to appear.
• If either gene is homozygous recessive (aa
or bb), it blocks the effect of the other gene,
leading to a different phenotype.
• This results in a 9:7 ratio instead of the
classical 9:3:3:1.

Genotypes and Their Effect