AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR AERODYNAMICS 159
ends of the incidence angle range clearly shows that flow separation and
stall are present in cascade flowfields. These cascade experiments were run
under two-dimensional flow conditions (AVDR = 1.0) and with a constant
entrance Mach number M 1. Some additional comments on cascade results
will be made later in this chapter, especially in connection with the effects of
Mach number and blade row geometry.
3.3 Characteristics of the Flow in Axial Flow
Compressor Configurations
Velocity Diagrams, Energy Transfer, Path Lines, and Streamlines
It is essential to clearly understand velocity component diagrams and
their use in describing the annulus flowfield. This is a good time t6 consider
these diagrams and their relation to the complete flowfield.
At each point and at each instant of time in the compressor flowfield, a
velocity vector V exists. A cylindrical coordinate system is generally used,
with the coordinates r measured from the rotational axis, O measured from
an arbitrary meridional plane (with the positive 0 direction in the direction
of rotor rotation), and x measured parallel to the rotational axis from an
arbitrary r, 0 plane. In this coordinate system, V = function (x, r, O, t) and
for any point and time the velocity components V~, Vo, and Vr can be
determined. Also, a meridional plane velocity component can be defined as
the resultant of Vx and Vr. This is called the meridional plane velocity V m.
With rotating blades, it is necessary to consider both absolute velocities
and velocity components measured relative to points on the rotating blades.
For example, to study the fluid velocity relative to the leading-edge point A
on the rotor of Fig. 3.10a, subtract the local rotor velocity U from the
absolute fluid velocity V to get the relative velocity WA,
WA=VA--UA
The relative velocity at any point has components Wx, W o, and W,
wx= vx, Wr= V,, Wo= Vo- U
A typical velocity diagram for a rotor leading-edge point such as A is shown
in Fig. 3.10a as it would appear in a plane tangent to the meridional velocity
component Vm at A. If a particle entering the rotor at A followed a path
such that it left the rotor at B and continued through the stator row along
the path C-D (for convenience all points are rotated from their actual
circumferential locations into the meridional plane shown), velocity di-
agrams could also be constructed at B, C, and D as in Fig. 3.10a. The four
diagrams are combined in a single composite stage velocity diagram in Fig.
3.10b, showing the effect of the passage and blades on fluid particles
following a path line A-B-C-D.
For a fluid particle of mass 6m passing through a rotor row from A to B
(see Fig. 3.10a), the energy transferred as work done on the fluid by the
160 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS
//
,/
VO~B t
UB
V
m,c VC
Vm,D Vo
V~,C -I V~,D
Fig. 3.10a Velocity diagrams for flow along path line A-B-C-D in a compressor
stage.
blades is given by Euler's turbine equation
E=rm(o~)[rBVa,B--rAVo,A]=rm[UBVo,B - UAV0,A] (3.1)
Equation (3.1) is a consequence of the law of conservation of angular
momentum (see Sec. 3.6). In order to use this equation to determine the
energy transfer or work done on 8m by the rotating blades, both the exit
point B and entrance point A for 3m must be k n o w n . Determination of
these points by computation or by experiment is no trivial matter and is a
part of the flow modeling problem.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR AERODYNAMICS 161
~B
vA
Fig. 3.10b Combined velocity diagram for flow along path line A-B-C-D in a
compressor stage.
In the total flow passing through a rotor, each fluid particle will experi-
ence an energy transfer governed by Eq. (3.1) for the points corresponding
to A and B at which it enters and leaves the rotor. Normally the work done
on fluid passing through the rotor will vary as a function of entrance
location. In fact, there is no reason why subsequent particles entering the
rotor at A should experience the same energy transfer rate as the original
8m, because they may leave at points other than B or at different values of
V0 due to an unsteady or nonaxisymmetric real flow.
In spite of the doubts about the real flow, to gain a simplified qualitative
understanding of the performance of a compressor blade row or stage,
assume that the flow A-B-C-D in the stage of Fig. 3.10 is steady and
representative of the entire flow across that stage. The airfoils encountered
by the flow are represented by cascades of blades similar to those already
shown in Fig. 3.6. Consider the rotor to have a constant angular velocity so
that the rotor blade speed will be a constant at a given radius. Vary the
meridional velocity component, simulating a variation in the stage flow rate.
The sequence of stage operating conditions is represented in Fig. 3.11 by
velocity diagrams and by a plot of the total pressure rise against the flow
rate for three flows, 1-3. For each of the three flows, Fm is assumed to
remain constant along A-B-C-D. Some features to note are as follows:
(1) As the flow varies, the angle of incidence on the rotor blade airfoils
will vary, with the highest angle of incidence at the lowest flow. For
excessive angles of incidence, cascade airfoils will stall (unacceptable flow
separation occurs). Compressor blade rows will also stall at extreme angles
of attack. Just as cascades do, they operate most effectively at moderate
values of incidence and less effectively at high and low values. This was
shown in Fig. 3.9.
(2) The energy transfer rate as measured by the change in F0 across the
rotor (U is nearly constant) increases with decreasing flow rate. This
assumes, as Fig. 3.4 showed, that the deviation angle for the rotor exit does
not change a great deal until the losses begin to increase rapidly. The stage
performance shows this effect as a higher stage total pressure rise at lower
162 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS
WA WB VD : VA VB = VC
WA WB/// VD -- VA VB = Vc
_ _ /J
3 WA WB VD : VA
VB ~ VC
FLOW RATE
Fig. 3.11 Trends in stage velocity diagrams and performance with changes in flow
rate.
flows. However, good aerothermodynamic common sense says that there
will be limits to this trend. If the airfoils stall, there will be large thermody-
namic losses and the total pressure rise trend will be reversed.
To aid in the interpretation of Fig. 3.11, it might be helpful for readers to
write some simple steady, one-dimensional energy, continuity, and momen-
tum equations for the flow A-B-C-D, considering the effect of work done by
the blades on fluid total enthalpy and how this might, in turn, affect the
total pressure changes from A to B and from C to D if the flow were
isentropic or if it were nonisentropic. Draw an enthalpy-entropy diagram to
represent the processes.
In the axial flow compressor, work is done on the fluid only through the
action of the rotating blade rows and this transfer of energy results in an
increased level of fluid stagnation or total enthalpy. An increase of total
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR AERODYNAMICS 163
pressure also results in each rotor row, with this increase dependent on the
losses or irreversibility associated with the flow process as well as on the
energy transfer. In the stator rows, no energy is transferred as work and
there can only be reduced values of total pressure because of irreversibility.
Static pressure levels may increase or decrease in either rotor or stator row
flows, but the predominant design intent is, naturally, to develop significant
static pressure level increases in each stage. This aspect of blade row design
is important and will receive substantial attention in later sections. It is
important to observe that in constructing combined velocity diagrams, such
as those of Fig. 3.10b and 3.11 for a stage, the path lines (such as A-B-C-D)
are really streamlines and the layout of the blade rows as cascades is in
terms of axisymmetric stream surfaces. When this extension of terminology
is made, the requirement for steady flow should be recalled and understood.
Subsequent sections in this chapter and many important referenced publica-
tions use the terms "streamline," "stream tube," and "stream surface." The
assumption of a steady relative a n d / o r absolute flow as a part of the
development of a flow model is generally involved when these terms are
used and it should be remembered in evaluating any analysis.
Performance of Axial Flow Compressors
Design point flowfield characteristics. This section is a qualitative
discussion of the real flows in axial flow compressors. At the same time,
further terminology and additional concepts useful in flowfield analysis and
in experimental research and development will be defined.
A compressor geometry is usually specified initially for operation at a
design point. This means that it is configured so that it will develop a design
value of the exit-to-entrance pressure ratio with a predicted value of
thermodynamic efficiency at a design value of the shaft rotational speed,
while a design value of the mass flow rate exists in each stage. The flow rate
may vary from one stage to the next because of bypass arrangements or
extraction of flow. All of the design requirements are associated with a
particular working fluid and with the design values of total pressure and
total temperature distribution at the compressor inlet. At the design point,
the flow path dimensions are fixed and the blade rows are arranged so as to
produce an ordered distribution of fluid velocities and properties through
the compressor. In other words, the design point velocity diagrams are
specified. However, the real design point flowfield must be recognized as
extremely complex. Every row following the first sees an entering flow that
is unsteady. The flow is viscous and, in almost all modern compressors, it is
compressible with regions of both supersonic and subsonic local flow.
Boundary layers develop on the blade surfaces and on the hub and tip
annulus walls. The annulus boundary layers are called end wall boundary
layers. Local regions of laminar, transitional, and turbulent boundary-layer
flow may exist, accompanied by separation of flow from the blades or end
walls. Both the blade surface and the end wall boundary layers are generally
three-dimensional in character. The flow throughout the annulus is, in fact,
