FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION 21
While the Rankine-Hugoniot equations predict the existence of deflagra-
tion and relationships between the properties of burned and unburned
gases, the analysis does not allow calculation of the propagation velocity S L.
Prediction of S L requires consideration of reaction rate as well as heat
conduction and species diffusion across the reaction front. The basic ther-
mal theory of Mallard and LeChatelier (first proposed in 1883) results in the
following important temperature dependence:
S c - exp( - E , J 2 R T f ) (1.28)
This temperature relationship is similar to that for the reaction rate [Eq.
(1.4)], except for the factor of two in the exponential denominator. Equation
500 I ! I I I I I
450
400
W
0
350
E
W
>:
i
300
U
0_ d
M,I
> 250 --
Lid
=E
,<
200 --
ILL
150 --
100 I I I I I I I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
EQUIVALENCE RATIO
Fig. 1.12 Flame velocities of paraffin-oxygen mixtures at 1 atm pressure and room
temperature (from Ref. 8).
22 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS
(1.28) is consistent with the empirical flame propagation dependencies on
the fuel-air ratio as shown in Fig. 1.12; the highest propagation velocity is at
approximately q, = 1, where Tf is at its m a x i m u m value.
Variations in flame propagation rate with the hydrocarbon types of
practical interest to turbopropulsion combustion are not substantial. 8 Prac-
tical jet fuels would be expected to behave in a manner similar to that of the
fuels described in Fig. 1.12. The pressure dependence of the flame prop-
agation is not straightforward. In mixtures with burning velocities below 50
c m / s , S L decreases with increasing pressure. Between 50 and 100 c m / s , S L
remains approximately constant. Above 100 c m / s , S L increases with in-
creasing pressure. 8
Across the reaction front, a substantial decrease in the gas densities
occurs. Consequently, mass conservation requires a substantial increase in
velocity. This acceleration results at the expense of some pressure drop
across the front. The pressure drop is
where ~, is the ratio of initial gas specific heats, T 1 the initial temperature,
and a the speed of sound in the initial mixture. This quantity represents the
m i n i m u m pressure drop (usually less than 1%) that a combustion system can
experience in order to accomplish a given energy release.
The values of laminar flame propagation are usually no greater than 5
m / s . Since the reference velocities in modern combustion turbine engine
systems are generally greater than 25 m / s , laminar flame propagation is not
considered a predominant mode of combustion. Other modes of combustion
are necessary, including diffusion control, turbulent mixing, and the estab-
lishment of zones approaching perfectly stirred reactors.
Diffusion-Controlled Combustion
In m a n y practical devices, the fuel and air are not entirely premixed prior
to combustion. In these cases, reactions take place in flame zones where the
influx of oxygen and fuel occur at a rate corresponding to the stoichiometric
ratio. In laminar flows, the mechanism for transport of the fuel and oxygen
into these zones is molecular diffusion and these types of systems are called
diffusion flames.
C o m m o n examples of laminar diffusion flames are a candle, kerosene
lamp, or match; in each case, the fuel and 02 do not premix prior to the
flame. An appreciation for the nature of diffusion flames m a y be gained by
examining the early work of Burke and Schumann 9 published in 1928.
Experimentally, they utilized a system similar to that shown in Fig. 1.13a.
Fuel enters the combustion zone through a central tube. A laminar diffusion
flame, the shape of which is governed by the ratio of fuel-to-air flow, is
established in the combustion zone.
Burke and Schumann's analysis constituted the first successful treatment
of laminar diffusion flames and it continues to represent the approach taken
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION 23
A// ,A', \ ~.A
FLAME SURFACE
LOCATIONS
o
ff o
RADIAL POSITION
I
Fig. 1.13 Diffusion flame characteristics: a) experiment; b) important profiles at
plane A--oxygen concentration (O), fuel concentration (F), temperature (T).
in modern work. They modeled the flame as an infinitely thin sheet into
which fuel and oxygen flow in stoichiometric proportions. All heat release
from the chemical reaction occurs at this surface. This approach is the
equivalent to the assumption that the chemical reactions are infinitely fast
compared to the diffusion processes that, therefore, control the burning rate.
In order to mathematically prohibit an infinite gradient of fuel or oxygen at
the flame surface (which would indicate infinite flux into the surface), it is
necessary to require that both the fuel and oxygen concentrations be zero at
the surface. This concept of concentration and temperature profiles is
illustrated in Fig. 1.13b.
Important differences between premixed and diffusion flames center
around the existence of the flame sheet. In the case of the premixed flame
with no flame sheet, the temperatures achieved correspond to that for
constant-pressure combustion at the premixture fuel-air ratio and the burn-
ing rate is controlled by the chemical kinetic rate and flame temperature
[Eq. (1.28)]. However, in the case of laminar diffusion flames, combustion
24 AIRCRAFT ENGINE COMPONENTS
always occurs at stoichiometric conditions at the flame sheet and the
burning rate is controlled by molecular diffusion. Moreover, the tempera-
ture at the flame does not necessarily correspond to the premixed constant-
pressure stoichiometric flame temperature. The thermodynamics at the
flame sheet are strongly influenced by the rates of heat and mass transfer
near the flame (i.e., mass and temperature gradients) and cannot be accu-
rately calculated through the use of a simple energy balance.
The simplifying assumption of an infinite chemical reaction rate can be
eliminated through the utilization of a much more sophisticated analysis.
The primary effects of including finite reaction rates are prediction of a
flame of finite thickness, lesser gradients of concentration and temperature
at the flame, and lower peak flame temperatures. While more accurate
prediction of near-flame characteristics is achieved by the more sophisti-
cated analysis, many important properties, notably the burning rate, are
predicted nearly as well with the less elaborate approach.
The instance in which the classical thin-flame theory of diffusion flames is
of importance to turbine combustion systems involves fuel droplet burning.
While many combustion engineers question whether droplet combustion
occurs under the high-temperature and turbulent conditions characteristic
of high-power operation, droplet burning would be likely during starting
and idle operation. In this case, vaporization is caused by heat transfer from
a flame surrounding the liquid droplet, assumed to be at its boiling
temperature. The gaseous fuel proceeds to the flame and stoichiometrically
reacts with oxygen diffusing radially inward from the surroundings. Analy-
sis of this situation, similar to the Burke and Schumann analysis discussed
above, results in the following burning rate prediction:
4 2 = 4 2 -- kt (].30)
where d is the fuel droplet diameter at time t, d o is d at t = 0, and k is a
constant. This relationship, known as Godsave's law, 1° predicts the fuel
effects through variations in k. The influence of convective velocity, air
temperature, and oxygen concentration are included in determination of the
value of k. Note that this relationship is also applicable to droplet evapora-
tion without combustion, the difference being a smaller value of k.
The foregoing discussion addresses the simplified concept of fuel droplet
combustion, wherein the process of each individual droplet is assumed to be
independent and the fuel is comprised of a single hydrocarbon component.
In reality, the situation is far more complex; droplet interactions and
complications of multicomponent fuels cause significant departures from the
simplified case discussed above. 11'12 The combustion engineer should utilize
empirical information when available.
Diffusion-controlled combustion will also occur in the cases where fuel
droplets have vaporized but not mixed with surrounding air, thus forming
fuel-rich pockets, or where the gases from a rich primary zone mix with
secondary air. Many of the performance characteristics of present-day
combustors confirm the existence and importance of such processes. How-
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION 25
ever, the diffusion-controlled reactions in practical gas turbine combustion
systems cannot be treated simply by classical laminar diffusion flame
theory; turbulence effects are extremely important and the effects of turbu-
lent diffusivity must be included. These will be discussed in the following
subsection.
Turbulence Effects
Previous discussions of both premixed and diffusion-controlled combus-
tion have concentrated on laminar systems. In practice, however, the
presence of turbulence has an extremely important influence on both
premixed and diffusion-controlled combustion.
The rate of flame propagation in a premixed system is greatly enhanced
by turbulence. Most available information on this subject has been devel-
oped to improve the understanding of turbulent flame propagation in
afterburners. However, turbulent flame propagation information is currently
of additional importance, as low-emission combustors employ a highly
turbulent fuel-air mixing and vaporization zone prior to combustion (see
Chap. 2 of Aircraft Propulsion System Technology and Design). An im-
portant consideration in such systems is the possibility of "flashback" or
turbulent flame propagation upstream towards the fuel injection point.
Lefebvre and Reid 13 have reviewed the important turbulent flame propa-
gation literature. The relationships shown in Table 1.2 have been cited as
representative of the understanding of turbulence effects. The important
parameters influencing turbulent flame propagation S:r are
u' = the fluctuating component of gas velocity
y = parameter describing freestream and
flame generated turbulence intensity
l = turbulence length scale
Generally speaking, the turbulent flame velocity can be the order of the
turbulent velocity u', far exceeding S L.
Turbulence also causes increased burning rates in diffusion flames. 18
Analyses for turbulent diffusion flames are similar to the laminar case, but
use an artificially high diffusivity constant. Physically, the increased fuel-air
mixing is explained as due to forced mixing of small fuel-lean or fuel-rich
elements of gas by turbulent forces. These small elements of gas are called
eddies. The analytical adjustment, called eddy diffusivity, accounts for the
enhanced mixing at the reaction front. This approach is taken as a conve-
nience and is based on empirical correlations rather than fundamental
principles.
The importance of turbulence on many practical aspects of turbine engine
combustion has been highlighted by Mellor. 19 He proposes a simplified
model for main burner combustion in which important processes are
assumed to occur in a highly turbulent diffusion flame stabilized by a
recirculation zone behind a bluff body (see Fig. 1.14). His analysis, based on
characteristic times for turbulent mixing and chemical reaction and focusing
