INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics is a study of the behavior of fluids that are either at rest or in motion. Civil engineers
use this subject to design drainage channels, water networks, sewer systems and water-resisting structures
such as dams and levees.
The principles of fluid mechanics are based on Newton’s laws of motion, the conservation of mass,
the first and second laws of thermodynamics and laws related to the physical properties of a fluid.
Three main categories:
1. Hydrostatics considers the forces acting on a fluid at rest.
2. Fluid kinematics is the study of the geometry of fluid motion.
3. Fluid dynamics considers the forces that cause acceleration of a fluid.
General classifications of matter:
1. Solid – maintains a definite shape and volume.
2. Liquid – composed of molecules that are more spread out than those in a solid
3. Gas – a substance that fills the entire volume of its container
Fluids are substances that continuously deform or flow when subjected to a shear or tangential force.
Liquids and gases are classified as fluids. Fluid behavior is a characteristic exhibited by any substance that
flows because it cannot support a shear loading, regardless of how small the shear force is, or how slowly the
“fluid” deforms.
Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
Density is the mass of the fluid that is contained in a unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Specific weight, also known as unit weight, is the weight per unit volume.

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density or specific weight to that of a standard substance.

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑆= =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝜌 𝛾
𝑆= =
𝜌𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Unit weight of water is 9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 .
Ideal Gas Law
The behavior of an ideal gas is based on ideal gas law expressed as
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

1
Where
𝑝 = absolute pressure
𝑇 = absolute temperature
𝑅 = gas constant
For air, 𝑅 = 286.9 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
Bulk Modulus
Bulk modulus is a measure of the amount by which a fluid offers a resistance to compression.

An idealized cube of fluid is subjected to an incremental force 𝑑𝐹. The intensity of this force per unit
area is the pressure, 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝐹/𝐴. As a result of this pressure, the original volume 𝑉 of the cube will decrease
by 𝑑𝑉. The increase in pressure 𝑑𝑝 divided by the decrease in volume per unit volume 𝑑𝑉/𝑉 is known as
bulk modulus.

𝑑𝑝 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑉 = −
𝑑𝑉 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉
If changes are linear then 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 and 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 . The increase in pressure results in a decrease in
volume. For water, 𝐸𝑉 ≈ 2.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a property of fluid that measures the resistance to movement of a very thin layer of fluid
over an adjacent one. This resistance occurs only when a tangential or shear force is applied to the fluid. The
resulting deformation occurs at different rates for different types of fluids.

2
 When a very small horizontal force F is applied to the plate, it will cause elements of the fluid to
distort. After a brief acceleration when equilibrium is reached, the plate will begin to move with a constant
velocity U. During this motion, the molecular adhesive force between the fluid particles in contact with both
the fixed surface and the plate creates a “no-slip condition,” such that the fluid particles at the fixed surface
remain at rest, while those on the plate’s bottom surface move with the same velocity as the plate. In between
these two surfaces, very thin layers of fluid are dragged along, so that the velocity profile u across the
thickness will be parallel to the plate.

The shearing effect subjects each element of fluid to a shearing stress.

𝑑𝐹
𝜏=
𝑑𝐴
Since fluid flows, the shear stress deforms the element into a parallelogram. The resulting
deformation ∆𝜶 is known as shear strain.

𝛿𝑥
∆𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 =
∆𝑦
Since fluids can not hold this angle, the time rate of change in shear shear strain is used. Since the top of the
element moves at a rate of u relative to its bottom, then
𝛿𝑥 = ∆𝑢∆𝑡
And the time rate of change in shear strain is

∆𝛼 ∆𝑢
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑦

3
And as the limit ∆𝑡 → 0,

𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
This is known as the velocity gradient.
Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress of the fluid is directly proportional to the shear
strain or velocity gradient.

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
where 𝜇 is the resistance to fluid movement or absolute or dynamic viscosity. As a simplification, it can be
termed as viscosity.
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its density.

𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
The viscosity of a Newtonian liquid can be measured in several ways. One common method is to use a
rotational viscometer. It consists of a cylinder suspended inside a rotating cylindrical container.

The liquid to be tested fills the small space between these two cylinders, and as the container is forced
to rotate with a very slow constant angular velocity, it causes the contained cylinder to twist the suspension
wire a small amount before it attains equilibrium. By measuring the angle of twist of the wire, the torque M in
the wire can be calculated using the theory of mechanics of materials. This torque resists the moment caused
by the shear stress exerted by the liquid on the surface of the suspended cylinder. Once this torque is known,
the viscosity of the fluid can be determined using Newton’s law of viscosity.
Surface Tension
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion is the
intermolecular attraction of liquid molecules for each other. Adhesion is the attraction of molecules of a
certain liquid for molecules of another substance. Surface tension the intermolecular attraction per unit length
along any line in the liquid surface.

4
 The molecule located deep within the liquid has the same cohesive forces acting on it by all the
surrounding molecules. Consequently, there is no resultant force acting on it. However, the molecule located
on the surface of the liquid has cohesive forces that come only from molecules that are next to it on the
surface and from those below it. This will produce a net resultant downward force, and the effect of all such
forces will produce a contraction of the surface. In other words, the resultant cohesive force attempts to pull
downward on the surface. This is the phenomenon of surface tension.

The tensile force that is required to separate the molecules is known as surface tension. Surface
tension is the amount of energy per unit interface area required to overcome the molecular attraction within
the interface.

𝐹
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜎 =
𝐿
where 𝐹 is the surface tension force over a distance L of the liquid surface. Surface tension becomes smaller
as temperature rises.

The tensile force that is required to separate the molecules is known as surface tension. Surface
tension is the amount of energy per unit interface area required to overcome the molecular attraction within
the interface.

𝐹
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜎 =
𝐿
where 𝐹 is the surface tension force over a distance L of the liquid surface. Surface tension becomes smaller
as temperature rises.

5
Capillarity
Capillarity results from the interaction of fluids with small-diameter tubes and is due to both cohesion
and adhesion. When cohesion is lesser than adhesion, a liquid wets a solid surface it touches and rises at the
point of contact. This liquid is known as a wetting liquid and its meniscus will be concave. When cohesion is
greater than adhesion, the liquid surface will depress at the point of contact. This is a nonwetting liquid and
its meniscus will form a convex.

The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into a liquid is called the capillary effect.
The capillary rise (+) or depression (-) in a glass tube is

2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑟
Where
𝜎 = surface tension
𝜃 = wetting angle
𝛾 = unit weight of liquid
𝑟 = radius of the tube

Droplets and Bubbles

Cohesion is responsible for the formation of liquid droplets that naturally form when a liquid is
sprayed into the atmosphere. The cohesion minimizes the shape of any water droplet, and so it forms a
sphere. The pressure inside droplets and bubbles is generally greater than the pressure outside droplets and
bubbles because of surface tension.

6
Pressure difference in a droplet
2𝜎
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
Where
𝑝1 = internal pressure
𝑝2 = external pressure
𝜎 = surface tension
𝑅 = radius of the droplet
Pressure difference in a bubble
4𝜎
∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
Where
𝑝1 = internal pressure
𝑝2 = external pressure
𝜎 = surface tension
𝑅 = radius of the bubble

7
PROBLEMS
Mercury has a specific weight of 133 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 . Determine its density and specific gravity at this temperature.
SOLUTION
Density
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
133 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 = 𝜌 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2
𝒌𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟔
𝒎𝟑
Specific gravity
𝛾
𝑆=
𝛾𝑤
133 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3
𝑆=
9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3
𝑺 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟔

If air within the tank is at an absolute pressure of 680 kPa and a temperature of 70°C, determine the weight
of the air inside the tank. The tank has an interior volume of 1.35 𝑚3 .

SOLUTION
Using ideal gas law
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
1000 𝑃𝑎 𝐽
680 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌 286.9 273 𝐾 + 70 𝐾
1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 6.91
𝑚3
Weight of air
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 6.91 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 1.35 𝑚3
𝑚3
𝑾 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝑵

Water in the swimming pool has a measured depth of 3.03 m when the temperature is 5°C (density = 1000
kg/cu.m.). Determine its approximate depth when the temperature becomes 35°C (density = 994 kg/cu.m.).
Neglect losses due to evaporation.

8
SOLUTION
Since there is no evaporation, the mass stays the same
𝑚5℃ = 𝑚35℃
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
Thus
𝜌5℃ 𝑉5℃ = 𝜌35℃ 𝑉35℃
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 9 𝑚 4 𝑚 3.03 𝑚 = 994𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 9 𝑚 4 𝑚 ℎ35℃
𝒉𝟑𝟓℃ = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎

The tank is fabricated from steel that is 20 mm thick. If it contains carbon dioxide at an absolute pressure of
1.35 MPa and a temperature of 20°C, determine the total weight of the tank. The density of steel is
7.85 𝑀𝑔/𝑚3 , and the inner radius of the tank is 3 m. Use 𝑅 = 188.9 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 for carbon dioxide and 𝜌 =
7850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 for steel.

SOLUTION
Using ideal gas law for carbon dioxide
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
𝐽
1.35 × 106 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑐 188.9 273 𝐾 + 20 𝐾
𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑐 = 24.39
𝑚3
Total weight
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑐 + 𝑊𝑠 = 𝜌𝑐 𝑔𝑉𝑐 + 𝜌𝑠 𝑔𝑉𝑠
Volume of carbon dioxide
4 3
𝑉= 𝜋𝑟
3
4 3
𝑉𝑐 = 𝜋 3𝑚
3
Volume of steel shell
4 3 3
𝑉 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
3
4
𝑉𝑠 = 𝜋 3 𝑚 + 0.02 𝑚 3 − 3 𝑚 3
3

9
 𝑘𝑔 4 4
𝑊 = 24.39 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 𝜋 3𝑚 3 + 7850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 𝜋 3 𝑚 + 0.02 𝑚 3 − 3𝑚 3
𝑚3 3 3

𝑾 = 𝟐𝟎𝟐, 𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝑵

An amount of glycerin has a volume of 1 cu. m. when the pressure is 120 kPa. If the pressure is increased to
400 kPa. Determine the change in volume. The bulk modulus for glycerin is 4 .52 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
SOLUTION
𝑑𝑝
𝐸𝑉 = −
𝑑𝑉
𝑉
Change in pressure
𝑑𝑝 = 400 𝑘𝑃𝑎 − 120 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 280 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Change in volume
280 𝑘𝑃𝑎
4 .52 × 106 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = −
𝑑𝑉
1 𝑚3
𝒅𝑽 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝒎𝟑

The velocity profile for a thin film of a Newtonian fluid that is confined between a plate and a fixed surface is
defined by 𝑢 = 10𝑦 − 0.25𝑦 2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠, where y is in mm. Using 𝜇 = 0.532 𝑁 − 𝑠/𝑚2 . Determine
a) the shear stress that the fluid exerts on the plate
b) the shear stress that the fluid exerts on the fixed surface
c) the force P if the surface area of the plate is 5000 𝑚𝑚2

SOLUTION
a.) Shear stress on the plate
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
Velocity gradient
𝑢 = 10𝑦 − 0.25𝑦 2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑢 1
= 10 − 0.5𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑠
Shear stress when 𝑦 = 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑁−𝑠 1
𝜏 = 0.532 10 − 0.5 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑚2 𝑠
𝝉 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟔 𝑷𝒂

10
b.) Shear stress on the fixed surface, 𝑦 = 0
𝑁−𝑠 1
𝜏 = 0.532 10 − 0.5 0
𝑚2 𝑠
𝝉 = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 𝑷𝒂
c.) Force P
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
𝑁
𝑁 1 × 10−6 𝑃
4.26 2 𝑚𝑚2 =
𝑚 𝑁 5000 𝑚𝑚2
1
𝑚2
𝑷 = 𝟐𝟏, 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑵

The shaft rests on a 2-mm-thin film of oil having a viscosity of 𝜇 = 0.0657 𝑁 − 𝑠/𝑚2 . If the shaft is
rotating at a constant angular velocity of 𝜔 = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, determine the shear stress in the oil at r = 40
mm and r = 80 mm. Assume the velocity profile within the oil is linear.

SOLUTION
Shear stress when 𝑟 = 40 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝜔𝑟
𝜏=𝜇
𝑡
𝑁 − 𝑠 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 40 𝑚𝑚
𝜏 = 0.0657
𝑚2 2 𝑚𝑚
𝝉 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑 𝑷𝒂
Shear stress when 𝑟 = 80 𝑚𝑚
𝑁−𝑠 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 80 𝑚𝑚
𝜏 = 0.0657
𝑚2 2 𝑚𝑚
𝝉 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔 𝑷𝒂

Determine the distance h that a column of fluid will rise in the 2 mm diameter tube if 𝜃 = 30°. Use 𝜎 =
110 𝑚𝑁/𝑚 and 𝜌 = 920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

11
SOLUTION
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ=
𝛾𝑟
2 0.11 𝑁/𝑚 cos 30°
ℎ= = 0.01055 𝑚
920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 9.81 𝑚Τ𝑠 2 0.002 𝑚
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒎
The tube has an inner diameter d = 1 cm and is immersed in water at an angle 𝜃 = 60° from the vertical.
Determine the average length L to which water will rise along the tube due to capillary action. The surface
tension of the water is 𝜎 = 0.073 𝑁/𝑚.

SOLUTION
FBD of the water column

Weight of water
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉
𝑊 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 2 𝐿
Equilibrium yields
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0, ↗ +
−𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝜎𝐶 = 0
− 9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 2 𝐿 sin 60° + 0.073 𝑁/𝑚 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 = 0
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 𝒎
Using a spray nozzle, small droplets of glycerin are formed in the atmosphere. The droplets have a diameter
of 0.6 mm. If atmospheric pressure is taken as 101.3 kPa, what is the absolute pressure within the droplets?
Use 𝜎 = 0.064 𝑁/𝑚.

SOLUTION
2𝜎
𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
2 0.064 𝑁/𝑚
101300 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
0.0003 𝑚
𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑷𝒂
12
A liquid with a surface tension of 𝜎 = 0.072 𝑁/𝑚 used to form 60-mm-diameter bubbles in air. What is the
difference between the air pressure inside the bubble and the air pressure outside the bubble?

SOLUTION
4𝜎
𝑝𝑖𝑛 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅
4 0.072 𝑁/𝑚
∆𝑝 =
0.03 𝑚
𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟗. 𝟔 𝑷𝒂
Weight of water
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉
𝑊 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 2 𝐿
Equilibrium yields
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0, ↗ +
−𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝜎𝐶 = 0
− 9.81 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 2 𝐿 sin 60° + 0.073 𝑁/𝑚 𝜋 0.05 𝑚 = 0
𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 𝒎

13