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315LectureNotes

The document discusses statistical methods and principles related to sampling and population analysis. It covers concepts such as sample statistics, population parameters, and the relationship between them. Various examples and definitions are provided to illustrate the application of these statistical concepts.

Uploaded by

saylamserhat
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
3 views

315LectureNotes

The document discusses statistical methods and principles related to sampling and population analysis. It covers concepts such as sample statistics, population parameters, and the relationship between them. Various examples and definitions are provided to illustrate the application of these statistical concepts.

Uploaded by

saylamserhat
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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