BEETECH ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ FEB2025

Binary representation of data and numbers, Integer Representation, Data storage units
bits, bytes, kilobytes, etc., ASCII and Unicode, CPU Architecture and Instruction Set:
Basic CPU architecture ALU, registers, control unit, Instruction format and assembly
language (basics only) Fetch- execute cycle and instruction execution.

Introduction to the subject :- https://youtu.be/Ae63V43DLv8

Part 1:-https://youtu.be/8HFNfiQ__w4
Part 2:-https://youtu.be/34c_cqEy86M
Part 3:-

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Binary Representation of Data and Numbers

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What is Binary?
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●​ Binary is a number system with a base of 2.

●​ It uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
●​ It is the foundation of all computer operations because computers use
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transistors that have two states: ON (1) and OFF (0).

Why Do Computers Use Binary (Base 2)?

1. Simplicity in Hardware Design

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●​ Transistors: The core components of digital circuits operate in two

states:
○​ ON: High voltage, represented by 1.
○​ OFF: Low voltage, represented by 0.
●​ Designing circuits with two states is much simpler than handling
multiple states (like decimal systems with 10 states).

2. Reliability

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●​ Error Reduction:

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○​ Binary signals are less prone to distortion compared to analog
signals or systems with multiple states.

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○​ Example: A signal can either be high (1) or low (0), making it
easier to detect and correct errors.
●​ Noise Immunity: Binary systems are more resistant to electrical

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noise because small fluctuations in voltage won't affect the
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interpretation of 0 or 1.
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3. Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability

●​ Circuit Design:
○​ Digital circuits (e.g., logic gates like AND, OR, NOT) are built
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using simple binary operations.

○​ Reduces manufacturing complexity and cost.
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●​ Memory and Storage: Binary representation allows efficient use of

memory, with each bit (binary digit) representing a single state.
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4. Universality

●​ Binary is the universal language of computers, enabling

standardization across all digital devices.
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Representation of Negative Integers
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2. Data Storage Units

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b. Practical Examples:

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Binary Representation in Data Storage

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●​ Text: Characters are encoded as binary numbers using standards

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like ASCII or Unicode.​
Example:

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○​ A=01000001 in binary (ASCII).
●​ Images: Stored as a grid of pixels, each represented in binary (e.g.,
grayscale uses 8 bits per pixel).

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●​ Audio: Sampled and quantized into binary values during
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analog-to-digital conversion.
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ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

What is ASCII?

●​ A 7-bit encoding standard for representing characters.

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●​ Encodes 128 characters, including:

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○​ Uppercase letters (A-Z).

○​ Lowercase letters (a-z).
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○​ Numbers (0-9).
○​ Symbols (*, %, @).
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Representation of Characters:
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●​ Example:
○​ A=65, B=66.
○​ a=97, b=98.
○​ Space = 32.

c. Limitations of ASCII:

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●​ Limited to 128 characters.

●​ Cannot represent non-English characters or symbols (e.g., €, ₹, or
Chinese characters).

Unicode

How Unicode Solves ASCII Limitations

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●​ Provides a universal encoding system for all languages and symbols.
●​ Supports over 1.1 million characters.

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UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32:

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●​ UTF-8: Variable-length encoding (1-4 bytes). Compatible with ASCII.
Most common.
●​ UTF-16: Uses 2-4 bytes per character.

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●​ UTF-32: Uses 4 bytes per character (fixed).
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Importance in Multilingual Systems:
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●​ Enables the representation of languages like Hindi, Chinese, Arabic,
etc.
●​ Essential for web applications, text processing, and global software.
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CPU Architecture and Instruction Set

1. Introduction to CPU Architecture
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The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of a computer. It executes

instructions, processes data, and controls hardware operations. A CPU
consists of three main components:
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1.​ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

2.​ Control Unit (CU)
3.​ Registers
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A simple diagram of CPU architecture:

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2. Main Components of a CPU
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a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

●​ Performs all mathematical operations (addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division).
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●​ Performs logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) used in

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decision-making.
●​ Acts as the calculator of the CPU.
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b) Registers
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Registers are small, high-speed memory units inside the CPU that
temporarily store data and instructions. Types of registers include:
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●​ Accumulator (ACC): Stores intermediate results of arithmetic and

logic operations.
●​ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
●​ Instruction Register (IR): Stores the currently executing instruction.
●​ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack in memory.

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c) Control Unit (CU)

●​ Fetches, decodes, and executes instructions.

●​ Directs the flow of data between memory, ALU, and input/output
devices.
●​ Uses a clock signal to synchronize operations.

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

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The Instruction Set is a collection of machine-level commands that a CPU

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understands. Each CPU family (Intel, ARM, etc.) has its own ISA.
Types of Instructions

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1.​ Data Transfer Instructions
○​ MOV (Move data)

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○​ LOAD (Load data from memory)
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○​ STORE (Store data in memory)
2.​ Arithmetic Instructions
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○​ ADD (Addition)
○​ SUB (Subtraction)
○​ MUL (Multiplication)
○​ DIV (Division)
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3.​ Logical Instructions

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○​ AND (Bitwise AND)

○​ OR (Bitwise OR)
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○​ XOR (Exclusive OR)

○​ NOT (Negation)
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4.​ Control Flow Instructions

○​ JMP (Jump to another instruction)
○​ CALL (Call a subroutine)
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○​ RET (Return from a subroutine)

5.​ I/O Instructions
○​ IN (Read data from an input device)
○​ OUT (Send data to an output device)

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There are two main types of ISAs based on instruction complexity:

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Instruction Format
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An instruction in assembly language consists of an operation code

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(opcode) and operands. The structure of an instruction can vary

depending on the computer architecture.
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General Format:

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●​ Label (optional): Used for marking a location in the program.

●​ Opcode: The operation to be performed (e.g., MOV, ADD, SUB).
●​ Operand(s): The data or memory locations involved in the operation.
●​ Comment (optional): Notes to explain the code (denoted by ; in
most assemblers).

Types of Instruction Formats:

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1.​ Zero-Address Instructions (Stack-Based):

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○​ No operands (e.g., PUSH, POP).
○​ Used in stack-based architectures.
2.​ One-Address Instructions:

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○​ One operand (e.g., INC AL).
○​ Usually operates on an accumulator register.

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3.​ Two-Address Instructions:
○​ Two operands (e.g., MOV AX, BX).
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○​ First operand is usually the destination, second is the source.
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4.​ Three-Address Instructions:
○​ Three operands (e.g., ADD R1, R2, R3).
○​ Used in RISC architectures.
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2. Basics of Assembly Language

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Assembly language is a low-level programming language specific to a

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computer’s architecture. It uses mnemonics (short names) for instructions.

Common Assembly Instructions:

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3. Registers in Assembly
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Registers are small storage locations inside the CPU for fast operations.
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4. Addressing Modes (Ways to Access Data)

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5. Assembler, Linker, and Loader

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●​ Assembler: Converts assembly code to machine code (e.g., NASM,

MASM, TASM).
●​ Linker: Combines multiple object files and resolves addresses.
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●​ Loader: Loads the program into memory for execution.

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Fetch-Execute Cycle
Every instruction follows a Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle:

1.​ Fetch – Retrieve the next instruction from memory.

2.​ Decode – Interpret the instruction.
3.​ Execute – Carry out the operation.
4.​ Store (Write Back) – Save the result back to memory or a register.

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Example: Adding two numbers

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1.​ Fetch: CPU fetches ADD A, B from memory.

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2.​ Decode: CPU identifies this as an addition instruction.
3.​ Execute: ALU performs A + B, and stores the result in A

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Steps in the Fetch-Execute Cycle

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Step 1: Fetch the Instruction

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●​ The Program Counter (PC) holds the address of the next instruction.
●​ The instruction is fetched from memory (RAM) and loaded into the
Instruction Register (IR).
●​ The PC is updated to point to the next instruction.

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📌 Example:​
If the instruction at memory address 1000 is ADD A, B, it is fetched into
the Instruction Register (IR).

Step 2: Decode the Instruction

●​ The Control Unit (CU) decodes the instruction in the IR.

●​ It identifies the operation (e.g., addition, subtraction, move).

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●​ It determines the operands (data on which the operation will be

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performed).

📌 Example:​

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The control unit decodes ADD A, B, identifying it as an addition
operation.

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Step 3: Execute the Instruction
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●​ The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) or registers execute the
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instruction.
●​ The operation is performed on the specified data.

📌 Example:​
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The ALU adds values in register A and B and stores the result in A.
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Step 4: Store the Result (Write Back)

●​ The result is stored in a register or written back to memory if

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needed.
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●​ The cycle repeats with the next instruction.

📌 Example:​
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After addition, register A now holds the sum of A and B.

3. Instruction Execution
Each instruction follows this three-step process:

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1.​ Operand Fetch – Load data if needed.

2.​ Operation Execution – Perform ALU or control operation.
3.​ Result Storage – Save the result.

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