OC2020 A-095- Unrestricted

Report

D1.3: Report on energy efficient

refrigeration systems
Surimi case

Author(s)
M.S. Dasgupta (BITS Pilani)
Srikanta Routroy (BITS Pilani)
Souvik Bhattacharyya (BITS Pilani)
Abdullah Sultan (BITS Pilani)
Santosh Kumar Saini (BITS Pilani)
Kristina Widell (SINTEF Ocean)
Maitri Thakur (SINTEF Ocean)

2020-08-07
 Report
SINTEF Ocean AS
SINTEF Ocean AS
Address:
Postboks 4762 Torgarden
NO-7465 Trondheim
NORWAY
Switchboard: +47 46415000

D1.3: Report on energy efficient

Enterprise /VAT No:
NO 937 357 370 MVA
refrigeration systems

VERSION DATE
2.0 2020-08-07

AUTHOR(S)
M.S. Dasgupta (BITS Pilani)
Srikanta Routroy (BITS Pilani)
Souvik Bhattacharyya (BITS Pilani)
Abdullah Sultan (BITS Pilani)
Santosh Kumar Saini (BITS Pilani)
Kristina Widell (SINTEF Ocean)
Maitri Thakur (SINTEF Ocean)

CLIENT(S) CLIENT’S REF.

Department of Biotechnology, India Research Council of Norway, ReValue
Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology, Spain

PROJECT NO. NUMBER OF PAGES/APPENDICES:

RCN 281262 21

1 of 21
SINTEF Ocean AS
SINTEF Ocean AS ABSTRACT
Address: This report is a part of WP1 in the Revalue project and it presents the findings from
Postboks 4762 Torgarden research on energy-efficient and environment-friendly refrigeration system for Surimi
NO-7465 Trondheim processing and storage in warm ambient temperatures. During 2017-18, India exported
NORWAY
Switchboard: +47 46415000 about $17.6 million worth of surimi and it has good potential for further growth. The
majority of surimi processing industries in India are located along the western coast and
for this study, operational data from one such industry located in Mumbai has been used
Enterprise /VAT No: in this study. A surimi supply chain has substantial cooling demand at various
NO 937 357 370 MVA temperatures, ranging from -40 to 8 ºC, from harvesting to the final product.
Conventionally, a single NH3 refrigeration system with multiple evaporators is
KEYWORDS: employed to meet the cooling demands in a processing plant, including the cold storage.
Surimi value chain, However, due to several challenges faced by the surimi industry in India (Dasgupta et
RRM, fragmented ownerships, al, 2019), the plants operate in part-load conditions for a major part of the year and the
non-standard cold chain, overall efficiency is rather low. To improve energy efficiency, a smaller capacity plant is
supply chain responsiveness recommended and a CO2-NH3 cascaded refrigeration system (CRS) is proposed. In the
cascade system, CO2 is used in low temperature circuit and NH3 in high temperature
circuit, which also reduces the contamination hazard of food from NH 3. Modelling and
analysis of various CO2-NH3 configurations were conducted, and a CRS system having
a COP of 6.2% higher than the conventional NH 3 system was identified.

PREPARED BY SIGNATURE
M S Dasgupta

CHECKED BY SIGNATURE
Kristina Widell

APPROVED BY SIGNATURE
Maitri Thakur

REPORT NO. ISBN CLASSIFICATI CLASSIFICATION THIS PAGE

OC2020 A-095 978-82-7174-394-9 ON Unrestricted
Unrestricted
Document history
VERSION DATE VERSION DESCRIPTION
Version No. 1 2020-08-07 First version sent for internal review

Version No. 2 2020-08-07 Final version

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Table of contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5

2 Problem statement .................................................................................................................... 6

3 Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 6

4 Methodology.............................................................................................................................. 7

5 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 11

6 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 14

7 Implementation in industry ...................................................................................................... 15

8 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 15

9 Further work ............................................................................................................................ 15

10 References ............................................................................................................................... 16

APPENDIX A.1 ................................................................................................................................... 17

APPENDIX A.2 ................................................................................................................................... 18

APPENDIX A.3 ................................................................................................................................... 20

APPENDIX A.4 ................................................................................................................................... 21

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1 Introduction
Surimi is processed fish meat that mainly serves as intermediate product used in the preparation of a variety
of ready to eat seafood products. It is rich in protein and omega-3's. The global production of surimi is about
820,000 MT with a global market of $4.06 billion (Seaman, 2018). Tropical countries produce about 60% of
the surimi, in which India contributes with about 11%. During 2017-18, India exported about $17.6 million
worth of surimi and it has good potential for growth. Price of surimi in international market depend upon
quality and therefore, appropriate refrigeration and handling is important at every stage of surimi production,
storage and transport.
Surimi contains stabilized myofibrillar proteins from fish that are obtained through mechanical mincing and
washing of fish meat. Generally, it is fish species which are underutilized, contain low fat and have otherwise
lower commercial value, that are used for surimi production (Venugopal and Shahidi, 1998). The most
favourable species in India is Threadfin bream or Pink perch as it has low fat content, white meat and good
gelation properties. Other species utilized are croaker, lizard fish, goat fish, ribbon fish, sardine, big eye
snapper etc. Western coast of India has large fishing activities and is a prominent provider of job and
sustenance for a large number of marginal fishermen; most surimi processing plants are also located there. In
order to meet all its in-plant refrigeration needs, the surimi processing plants employs NH3 based vapour
compression refrigeration system. Data from one such surimi plant in Mumbai has been utilised in this study.
Significant amount of energy and fuel is consumed in the fisheries sector. Its vulnerability to changing energy
supplies and prices highlight the need to review the sector’s energy and fuel efficiency level in conjunction
with future trends. Cooling technology used is of great economic and energetic importance for surimi
production and various other stages of its supply chain. During plant visits we observed cooling systems used
are not specifically designed for the application and therefore, are not operating at optimum efficiency level.
An energy efficient operation of vapour compression cycles not only help to save electrical energy but today
this is also being increasingly associated with saving fossil fuels and reduction of overall carbon foot print.
Some of the well-recognised strategies to improve the energy efficiency of refrigeration system like the
recommendations from UN Environment report (Briefing Note B, 2018) are explored in this study:
i. Minimising the cooling load.
ii. Minimising the temperature lift.
iii. Accounting for variable operating conditions.
iv. Selecting the most efficient refrigeration cycle and components.
v. Design of effective control systems.
vi. Checking operating performance and correcting any faults of existing RACHP systems

Additionally there are challenges in warm weather. The refrigeration systems used in very hot countries
generally use more energy than equivalent systems in cooler countries, because:
i. The cooling load is higher for a given mass of content (surimi)
ii. The temperature lift is bigger, because the “hot end” of the plant is rejecting heat at a much higher
ambient with air or circulating water 1. (1-degree C extra temperature lift add about 2% to 4% to the
energy used by a plant)

1
Most ammonia systems in India are water cooled. Water sprinkled down with air moving up. The incoming water is
also at ambient temperature. Sea coast like Mumbai have additional challenge of low rate of evaporation due to high
humidity

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These two factors lead to considerably higher energy consumption by refrigeration system in warm ambient
temperatures. However, there is significant potential to improve the efficiency of refrigeration equipment
when new equipment is designed and fabricated specifically for the desired load condition.

The environmental implications for the choice of new equipment and choice of refrigerant are likely to be
increasingly open to review, particularly with respect to GHG emissions associated with the sourcing and use
location. India as member of Group 2 countries as per Kigali amendments, have a longer time frame for
reduction of use of HFCs than European countries which are in Group 1. The de-accelerated phasedown
presents significant advantages for the India to leapfrog to the best alternatives later. India has fulfilled the
Montreal Protocol targets ahead of schedule and should aspire to maintain the legacy. The choices made in
near future on refrigerant in surimi processing plant could increasingly be influenced based on long- and short-
term policy conditions resulting into market incentives or penalties. In this study we have explored gainful
utilisation of a biosphere gas CO2 as refrigerant in a sub-critical system, which has very low direct
environmental impact. However, the secondary impact of enhanced carbon emission from possible low
efficiency of such system can easily tide over the benefit. Use of CO2 at high ambient is known to have
detrimental effect on its efficiency unless some modifications are done. Researchers have reported advantage
through cycle modification as well as component modification. Deployment of two-phase ejector, use of
multi-stage compression with intercooler, use of internal heat exchanger (IHX), use of parallel compression
etc. are some of the strategies under cycle modification, while use of work recovery expander, simultaneous
heating-cooling, use of VFD compressor etc., are categorised as component improvement. We designed an
innovative multi-evaporator NH3 – CO2 cascade system having evaporators above and below the cascade
temperature with the CO2 utilised at the lower temperatures. A few variants of the configuration designed for
enhancing overall system COP were explored. The performance was compared with conventional NH3 system
and advantages of proposed configurations were identified.
This report is one of the deliverables under the project ReValue – Innovative technologies for improving
resource utilization in the Indo-European fish value chains funded through the INNO-INDIGO Joint Call on
Bio-economy. This work is a part of WP1, deliverable 1.3: Report on energy efficient refrigeration systems.
The structure of the remainder of this report is as follows: Section 2 states the problem statement and scope
of the work, Section 3 provides main objectives of this study. Section 4 presents the methodology adopted to
achieve the stated objectives and other related processes. Section 5 presents the results obtained from the
study. Discussion based on the results is given in section 6 while section 7 presents the conclusions from this
study.

2 Problem statement
An energy efficient refrigeration system is essential in the overall supply chain of surimi that can enable Indian
firms to maintain quality and attain competitive advantage in the global seafood market. The scope of this
study is the exploration of efficient refrigeration systems for the specific needs of a surimi processing plant in
Indian perspective. Use of environmentally benign, low flammability, low toxicity refrigerant and efficient
refrigeration cycle are essential.

3 Objectives
The objective of this study was to perform an extensive analysis of the cooling demands in a surimi processing
plant and then put forward energy efficient and environment friendly refrigeration options dedicated for the
same, suitable for Indian surimi industry, which has a good growth potential both in terms of market volume
and market spread.

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Performance study of a few state-of-the-art CO2-NH3 CRS configurations were made and compared with
conventional multi-evaporator NH3 system. For better performance, the cascade condensing temperature of
the CRS was optimized. In the analysis, the refrigeration demands at various evaporating temperatures were
estimated for a typical 10 MT/day surimi production plant.

4 Methodology
The refrigerant NH3 that is employed in refrigeration systems across surimi processing plants is environment
friendly and such systems can have high energy efficiency. However, due to uncertainties in supply of raw
material due to absence of supply chain integration, the plant was observed to operate in part load condition
for major part of the year. Further, the refrigeration systems were not designed for the specific load conditions
of today and substantial retrofittings have been carried out to accommodate various loads. These reduces the
operating efficiency of refrigeration systems.

The various cooling demands in the plant are for chilling of water, production of ice, plate freezing of product
and maintaining the cold storage temperature. The amount (weight) of chilled water required is estimated to
be about 10 times that of surimi produced or 4 times that of raw material input (Park, 2013). Ice is required
for occasional holding of raw material and pre-chilling before production and is observed to be about 1:1 in
ratio of product. Surimi is packed into 10 kg blocks and they are frozen in plate freezers down to -35 ºC surface
temperature to ensure a core temperature below -20 ºC. The cold storage is maintained at -20 ºC and has
capacity to hold the total production of 5 months of the plant. Due to part-load operation, the overall plant
efficiency is found to be rather low. Further, the NH3 based refrigeration system utilised at the plant was not
optimally designed for the prevailing cooling load condition. These motivated us to explore designing a lower
capacity refrigeration system to support 10 MT/day production. The design will be modular in the sense that
a higher overall capacity plant can be built by suitably scaling or deploying multiple cooling systems, such
that part load operations are handled better. The typical cooling demand at various low temperatures in other
seafood processing plants have similarity with that of demand in a surimi plant and a similar cooling system
architecture can be useful there too, although cooling loads must be specifically computed.

The system models were developed using EES. First, we computed the various cooling loads for a typical 10
MT/day production capacity plan with optimum layout. Corresponding load calculations for various
evaporators is provided in Appendix A.1 with a summary of cooling demands at various evaporators in Table
1. Then we modelled a conventional NH3 system for the same loads, refer Appendix A.2 for details. Efficiency
of such system will be higher than those employed currently in the field. This is not only due to obvious
thermodynamic benefits of an idealized system but also due to non-optimal operations of existing systems.
Further we conceptualised CO2 - NH3 cascade systems to exploit benefit of superior thermal properties of CO2
at low temperature application. Novelty of the conceptualised system is evaporators placed both above and
below the cascade temperature. CO2 being a biosphere gas has low primary impact on environment, however,
to be useful such system must have higher efficiency compared to the simulated NH3 system discussed above.

4.1 Assumptions for simulation-based study

For simplification of thermodynamic modelling, the following assumptions were made:

i. Steady state flow process.
ii. Pressures drops and heat losses in pipes other than suction pipes neglected.
iii. Refrigerant at the outlet of evaporator is saturated vapour.
iv. Refrigerant at the outlet of condenser and cascade condenser is saturated liquid.
v. Isenthalpic operation of throttle valves.
vi. Compression is adiabatic with isentropic efficiency varying with pressure ratio.
vii. Refrigerant is superheated vapour at inlet of compressor.

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viii. Power consumption of fan and water circulation pump is negligible.

The overall mass and energy balance equations for modelling are expressed in Eqs. (1) and (2), while
component-wise expressions are presented in Table 2.
∑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚̇ = ∑𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚̇ (1)
𝑄𝑄̇ + ∑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ = ∑𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ + 𝑊𝑊̇ (2)

4.2 NH3 system design for the specific cooling demand in surimi process plant

A pipe diagram and a P-h diagram of the baseline conventional NH3 vapour compression refrigeration system
is shown in Fig. 4.1. The system has four evaporators, termed ch, ice, cs, & pf for chilled water, ice, cold
storage, and plate freezing applications, respectively. Outlet of these evaporators are at state points 1, 3, 5 and
7, respectively. All the evaporators are flooded type and have separate individual expansion valves, which
have refrigerant inlet from the receiver. Due to the low pressure-ratio between condenser and ch as well as ice
evaporators, a single stage compressor is used. In cold storage and plate freezer applications, the pressure
ratios are higher; hence, a two-stage compressor with intercooling is used in the modelling, ditto as in existing
plant.
For intercooling, refrigerant is expanded from receiver up to the intermediate pressure and mixed with
compressed refrigerant of first stage compressor. The compressor discharge for all the lines are at the same
pressure and heat rejection takes place in a water-cooled evaporative condenser. Condensed NH3 is collected
in a receiver.

12 11 10 9 15
10 pf
cs
2 4 6 8 ice
ch

12a
ch 1a 3a 5c 7c 12, 12a 2 4,6 8
13 1
1
P [MPa]

ice 5b
13 1 1a 5b
14 3 14 3 3a 7b
18 7c
17
7b 5 5a
cs 5a 15
15 5 0.1
16 7 7a
7a
18
pf 0.03
16 7 0 500 1000 1500 2000
h [kJ/kg]

Schematic P-h diagram

Figure 4.1: Conventional NH3 refrigeration system

4.3 CO2-NH3 cascade system for the specific cooling demands in a surimi processing plant

Analysing the NH3 system we observed that about 50% of energy is consumed in the compressor system
associated with the plate freezer that is for the lowest temperature refrigeration, while the cooling load is only
20%. This can be observed in Fig. 4.7 and Table A1.1. At the same time the thermo-physical properties of
CO2 as refrigerant is known to be more pronouncedly superior to NH3 at lower temperature. These triggered
us to explore CO2-NH3 in CRS system with CO2 at lower end of temperature. Many researchers have earlier
analysed the refrigerant pair of CO2-NH3 in CRS, using CO2 in the low temperature circuit (LTC) and NH3 in
high temperature circuit (HTC) Lee et al. (2006), Belozerov et al. (2007), Dopazo et al. (2009) etc. Dopazo

8 of 21
et al. (2011) later presented an experimental evaluation of the same. Lee et al. (2006) and Dopazo et al. (2011)
also discussed trend of optimum cascade temperature with variation in evaporator temperatures. Mosaffa et
al. (2016) presented a comparative study of CO2-NH3 CRS having various configurations equipped with flash
tank on the basis of exergy, economy and environmental parameters. Patel et al. (2019) presented a
comparison of economic aspects of performance of CO2-C3H8 and CO2-NH3 CRS system. At the same time
here are literature on the possible use of CO2 as a refrigerants for secondary systems for example Winkler and
Quack (2007), Kumar (2017) etc. Secondary refrigeration systems can operate either in pumped circulation
or in natural circulation mode. Due to the volatile nature of CO2, it does not remain a liquid and is partially
evaporated, it therefore, has a significantly greater cooling capacity than other secondary fluids. Both these
concepts have been utilised by us in designing and simulating the cascade configurations.
Pipe diagram of three most promising designs of proposed cascade systems are shown in Fig 4.2 – 4.4 along
with p-h chart. The technical details, modelling, equations used and analysis are provided in Appendix A.3.
Comparative study of performance of the various refrigeration systems was carried out for various ambient
conditions.

23 22 15
10 pf
2 4 21 cs
cc
ice
ch
23a
ch 1a 3a 20a
13 1 12, 12a 6 8

15 5 5a
ice 23, 23a
P [MPa]

2 4 21
14 3
1 16 7 7a

24 cc 20
13 1 1a
14 3 3a
12 11 6 8
24 20 20a

12a cs 5a 7a
15 5 0.1
-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
pf h [kJ/kg]
16 7

Schematic P-h diagram

Figure 4.2: Proposed CRS1

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 23 22 15
pf
10 cs
2 21 cc
ice
ch

23a 12, 12a 3 3a 68

ch 1a 20a
13 1 5 5a
15 23, 23a 2 4

P [MPa]
7 7a
24 cc 20 1 16
3
12 11 1
1a
13

10 6 8 24 3 3a

3a
cs 5a 7a 0.1
12a 15 5 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
h [kJ/kg]
ice pf
16 7
3 14

Schematic P-h diagram

Figure 4.3: Proposed CRS2

23 22 15
pf
10 cs
cc
2 21 ice
23a ch
12, 12a 68

3 14 1b 20a
10 15 5 5a
23, 23a 2 21
ch
P [MPa]

14a 1a
13 1 1 16 7 7a
ice
24 cc 20
14b 3 14a 14 3 1,10
1a

20 20a
12 11 24
6 8

0.1
-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
cs 5a 7a h [kJ/kg]
12a 15 5

pf
16 7

Schematic P-h diagram

Figure 4.4: Proposed CRS3

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5 Results
5.1 Energy consumption in various compressors of NH3 system
Models developed in EES are used for the simulation based study. In the performance analysis of the baseline
NH3 system, the compressor work of all the evaporators was calculated at design conditions and it is presented
in Fig. 4.5. Overall COP of the baseline system was found to be 2.53.

115

Refrigeration load (kW) Compressor power (kW)

COMPRESSSOR WORK (KW)
REFRIGERATION LOAD &

70

60

49,15
55

35,98
20,44

12,88

CH ICE CS PF
EVAPORATORS
Figure 4.5: Refrigeration load and compressor work of NH3 system

The relatively higher compressor work demand in the lower temperature refrigeration (ref. Fig. 4.5, cs & pf)
and favourable thermophysical properties of CO2 led us to explore CO2 in low temperature evaporators in
cascade systems. Comparative study of performance of the various refrigeration systems was carried out for
a range of ambient conditions. While for the overall cascade system, the term COPnet is used to describe
efficiency (coefficient of performance), terms COPL and COPH describe coefficient of performance of
individual low and high temperature refrigeration circuits.

5.2 Optimum cascade temperature vs variation of COP of cascade systems

COPnet, COPL and COPH are plotted for CRS1, CRS2 & CRS3 for various cascade temperatures (TMC) as
shown in Figs. 4.6 a, 4.6 b & 4.6 c, at fixed refrigeration demands and for initial operating conditions. As TMC
increases, we infer from the definition that the pressure ratio of HTC compressors decreases while the pressure
ratio of LTC compressors increases. Increase in pressure ratio of LTC results in increased compressor work
and hence decrease in COPL. Decrease in pressure ratio of HTC leads to lower compressor work contributing
to higher COPH. The combined effect is an increase in the COPnet to 2.76, 2.68 & 2.69 for CRS1, CRS2 &
CRS3 respectively at their corresponding optimum value of TMC, which are found to be around -9 ºC, -3 ºC
and -11 ºC for the three configurations (highest point of COPnet) . Further increase in TMC is observed to
decreases the COPnet for all the three systems.

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 12 2.8 16 2.8
COPnet
COPltc
2.7 14 COPhtc 2.7
10
COPnet
COPltc 12
COPhtc 2.6 2.6
8
10

COPnet

COPnet
COP

COP
2.5 2.5
8
6
2.4 2.4
6
4
2.3 4 2.3

2 2.2 2 2.2
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
TMC(ºC) TMC(ºC)
(a) Performance of CRS1 (b) Performance of CRS2

12 2.8
COPnet
COPltc
COPhtc
2.7
10

2.6
8

COPnet
COP

2.5

6
2.4

4
2.3

2 2.2
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
TMC(ºC)
(c) Performance of CRS3

Fig. 4.6 Performance variation with cascade temperature TMC

In this research work we have analysed a cycle having four evaporators distributed above and below TMC,
which is a novel arrangement. However, the variation of optimum TMC has similarity with what is available
in literature for simple CRS having one evaporator above and below the cascade temperature.
Power consumption of compressors for individual evaporator lines for all the four investigated refrigeration
systems are compared in Fig. 4.7 with that of baseline system. It can be seen that the total power consumed
in CRS1 configuration is the minimum while the same is the maximum for the baseline system. The
compressor power saving is about 8.1% for CRS1, compared to the NH3 system.

For a constant condensing temperature (Tcond) suitable for Mumbai, performance of CRS1, CRS2 and CRS3
are found to be better than the baseline system by 8.1%, 5% & 6.2% respectively in terms of COPnet.

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 120

100
COMPRESSOR POWER (KW)

80

60

40

20

0
ch ice cs pf cc total
Baseline 20,44 12,88 35,98 49,15 0 118,45
CRS1 20,44 12,88 8,301 16,39 50,89 108,901
CRS2 20,44 0,55 10,16 18,73 62,6 112,48
CRS3 44,24 0,55 6,583 14,24 45,86 111,473

Fig. 4.7: Comparison of compressor work in baseline CRS1, CRS2 & CRS3

Apart from Mumbai, there are other surimi processing plants along the west coast of India where the design
conditions may vary. Tropical countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Pakistan etc. contribute to about 60% of the total global surimi production (Seaman, 2018). To evaluate the
suitability of the proposed refrigeration systems for various other ambient conditions, we plotted the variation
of weekly averaged data of ambient dry bulb temperature (DBT) for Indian west coastal cities of Veraval,
Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Mangalore, and Vishakhapatnam where there are surimi industries, along with prominent
tropical cities internationally having large finishing activities such like Hanoi (Vietnam), Jakarta (Indonesia),
Bangkok (Thailand) and Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia). The data of variation of dry bulb temperature at various
places is provided in Appendix A.4. The result of performance analysis within the ambient temperature range
(25-45 ºC) covering design conditions for these places is presented in Fig. 4.8.

5 3.6
CRS1 Baseline
CRS2 CRS1
CRS3 CRS2
CRS3
0 3.2
TMC (ºC)

COP

-5 2.8

-10 2.4

-15 2
25 30 35 40 45 25 30 35 40 45
Tcond (ºC) Tcond (ºC)
(a) Variation of optimum TMC (b) Performance variation at corresponding TMC

Fig. 4.8: Performance comparison at various ambient temperature

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Fig. 4.8 (a) shows the variation in optimum TMC at various Tcond and Fig. 4.8 (b) shows the variation of COPnet
for all four investigated system configurations. The trend of COPnet, for all the investigated systems, shows a
similar decreasing behaviour with increase in Tcond. At a Tcond of 25 ºC, the COPnet value of CRS1, CRS2 &
CRS3 are found higher than the baseline system by 9.4%, 6.9% & 8.9% respectively while at a Tcond of 45 ºC,
the corresponding improvements observed are 7.9%, 6.9% & 8.9% respectively. It is also observed that CRS1
performs the best for a wide range of operating temperature Tcond 25 to 41 ºC among all the systems; however,
for very high ambient, Tcond> 41 ºC, performance of CRS3 is found marginally better than that of CRS1.

6 Discussion
All the cascade systems performed better than NH3 system as low temperature cooling load is shifted to LTC
having CO2 as refrigerant, exploiting its higher volumetric efficiency at low temperature compared to NH3. In
all the cascade systems, the ch load is in HTC and handled by NH3 as refrigerant. In CRS2, adding the ice
load in LTC boosts the TMC higher which is expected to decrease the power consumption of the cc
compressor due to lower pressure lift required. Further, the secondary loop circulation introduced for ice
evaporator is also expected to reduce power consumption by reducing one compressor from the overall circuit.
However in CRS2, the performance of the LTC decreases due to elevation of TMC and corresponding pressure
which increases load in cascade condenser, resulting in higher refrigerant flow rate in cc compressor and
ultimately increasing its power consumption beyond the benefits derived as stated earlier. The power
consumption of various compressors and pumps of proposed CRS systems at 30 oC ambient (Fig. 4.9) explains
the same. This effect is consistent across ambient temperature range investigated.
CRS3 introduces pumped circulation in ice evaporator in HTC which reduces power consumption as one
compressor is eliminated over CRS1 configuration. However, to introduce pumped circulation, a larger
volume of refrigerant, feeding both ch and ice evaporator, is expanded to a lower pressure which results in
high power consumption in ch compressor and this pulls down the overall COP of the system. With increase
in ambient temperature, the benefit from removing a compressor from HTC become more prominent,
therefore, we observe COP of CRS3 system marginally overshoot that of CRS1 at higher ambient.

Overall benefits of the proposed cascade systems are reduction in number of compressors, reduction in
pressure ratio in compression, reduction in total NH3 charge in system, isolation of food from in proximity of
NH3 in cold storage & plate freezer as well as reduction in energy consumption. The system is also specifically
designed keeping in view of the cooling loads at various temperature. These, along with low GWP and ODP
of the refrigerants used are arguments in favour of the proposed system presenting it as a suitable option for
new surimi plants in future.

0,4

0,35
Power consumption per unit load

0,3
cc
0,25
pf
0,2
cs
0,15
ice
0,1
ch
0,05

0
CRS1 CRS2 CRS3

14 of 21
 Fig. 4.9: Performance comparison at various ambient temperature

7 Implementation in industry
Based on our discussion with a limited number of seafood processing industries in India, it is found that the
industries are not averse to adopt a cascade system with NH3 and is forthcoming about new technology for
their future installations, once they have access to a demonstrable benefit based on a pilot plant data in a warm
climate. However, the industries are unlikely to come forward to invest in pilot plant project. As per local
policy, there is neither any immediate pressure nor tangible benefit for industries from shifting over to other
refrigerants from NH3, therefore, the motivation of industries to invest in R&D is low.

8 Conclusions

Three novel CO2-NH3 cascade refrigeration systems (CRS1, CRS2 & CRS3) having evaporators above and
below the cascade temperature were analysed. The simulation results were compared with that of a
conventional NH3 designed to cater to typical cooling demands in a surimi processing plant and associated
frozen storage. For specific system and operating condition, cascade condensing temperature TMC was
optimized to maximize the COP. The value of optimum TMC was found to vary with Tcond as well as
refrigeration load ratio as expected. CRS1 configuration exhibited superior performance in a surimi processing
plant for a wide range of condensing temperature for tropical regions. CRS3 configuration performs
marginally better when the ambient temperature is above 41 oC. This study suggests possible gainful
implementation of CO2-NH3 cascade system in meeting refrigeration demands at surimi processing plant for
tropical region.

9 Further work

Before implementation, however, an economic study based on component fixed cost, variable cost of year
round operation, influence of local policy of market incentive or penalty and long-time policy outlook needs
to be examined to ascertain superiority of a new scheme compared to conventional NH3 system.

15 of 21
10 References
Belozerov, G. A., Mednikova, N. M., Pytcheko, W. P., & Serova, E. N. (2007). Cascade type refrigeration
systems working on CO2/NH3 for technological processes of products freezing and storage. In proceedings of
IIR Ammonia Conference, Ohrid, North Macedonia.
Dasgupta, M.S., Srikanta Routroy, Souvik Bhattacharyya, Abdullah Sultan, Santosh Kumar Saini, Khushboo
Gupta , Nutan Kaushik, Kristina Widell, Guro Møen Tveit, Maitri Thakur (2019). Value stream map and
supply chain interdependencies in India. Surimi case. ReValue Project Report
Dopazo, J. A., Fernández-Seara, J., Sieres, J., & Uhía, F. J. (2009). Theoretical analysis of a CO2–NH3 cascade
refrigeration system for cooling applications at low temperatures. Applied thermal engineering, 29(8-9),
1577-1583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.07.006
Dopazo, J. A., & Fernández-Seara, J. (2011). Experimental evaluation of a cascade refrigeration system
prototype with CO2 and NH3 for freezing process applications. Int. J. Refrigeration, 34(1), 257-267.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2010.07.010
Kumar, K. K. (2017). CO2 as secondary fluid in forced circulation loops. International Journal of Engineering
Technology Science and Research. URL: http://ijetsr.com/images/short pdf/1508143132, 518-526
Lee, T. S., Liu, C. H., & Chen, T. W. (2006). Thermodynamic analysis of optimal condensing temperature of
cascade-condenser in CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration systems. Int. J. Refrigeration, 29(7), 1100-1108.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.03.003
Mosaffa, A. H., Farshi, L.G., Ferreira, C. I., & Rosen, M. A. (2016). Exergoeconomic and environmental
analyses of CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system equipped with different types of flash tank intercoolers.
Energy Conversion and Management, 117, 442-453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.053
Park, Jae W., (2013). Surimi and surimi seafood, third ed. CRC press, Taylor & Francis group, Florida.
Seaman, Tom (2018). https://www.undercurrentnews.com/2018/12/10/pollock-surimi-cant-meet-global-
demand-as-tropical-supply-continues-to-drop/. Veiwed on 01/12/2019.
Patel, V., Panchal, D., Prajapati, A., Mudgal, A., & Davies, P. (2019). An efficient optimization and
comparative analysis of cascade refrigeration system using NH3/CO2 and C3H8/CO2 refrigerant pairs. Int. J.
Refrigeration, 102, 62-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.03.001
UN Environment Briefing Note B 2018, The potential to Improve the Energy Efficiency of Refrigeration, Air-
conditioning and Heat Pumps. Published Date, Tue, 05/01/2018, URL: https://ozone.unep.org/node/3282
Venugopal, V., & Shahidi, F. (1998). Traditional methods to process underutilized fish species for human
consumption. Food reviews international, 14(1), 35-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129809541149
Winkler, H., & Quack, H. (2007). The extraordinary properties of carbon dioxide as secondary refrigerant.
In The 22nd International Congress of Refrigeration.

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 APPENDIX A.1
Refrigeration load calculation for a 10MT/day surimi production plant
For a 10 MT per day capacity plant, 1000 blocks of surimi of 10 kg each can be produced per day. These
should be frozen within 24 h, including loading and unloading time. Observed freezing time for a batch is 2
h, additionally loading and unloading time is 0.5 h, therefore, for minimum load operation, we require
operating the plate freezer in 9 batches every day, each batch for freezing 112 surimi blocks. In this process,
3425 kJ energy must be removed from one surimi block to cool from 10 ºC to -35 ºC (Park et al., 2013).
Refrigeration load of a plate freezer to freeze 112 blocks in 2 h is, hence, 53 kW. Assuming an additional 10%
cooling load for heat ingress and other losses in the plate freezer, the total freezer load is 60 kW. Frozen surimi
blocks after packaging is shifted to cold storage maintained at -20 ºC. The capacity of the cold storage to be
designed is obtained assuming capability to store 5 months of production volume which is about 1500 MT of
surimi having a volume 1752 m3. A cold storage having a gross volume of 5256 m3 is considered suitable for
the application with 200% extra space for circulation and approach. Accordingly, a single storey 7 m tall
square cross-section storage space having length and width of 28 m is considered for estimating the cold
storage refrigeration demand. The refrigeration load is estimated as per NHB standard 01:2010 (NHB, 2010).
Assuming heat transfer coefficient for walls, roof, and floor as 0.58, 0.24 and 0.29 Wm-2K-1 respectively,
total transmission load is about 48 kW. Assuming 2 air changes per day due to openings of gate during loading,
unloading, and various leakages, approximately 10 kW is added. For the circulation of cold air, six blowers
each of 1 kW rating operating at an average 20 h/day contribute 6 kW of additional load. 10 Wm-2 of lighting
for an average 6 h/day leads to about 1.96 kW of cooling load. For loading and unloading, assuming that five
persons are working inside the cold room for an average 2 h/day with each adding 250 W, the additional
occupancy load is 0.11 kW. Thus, the total estimated refrigeration load in the cold storage due to transmission,
infiltration, air distribution, lighting and occupancy is 70 kW.

Computation of cooling load for chilled water and ice requirement is shown in Table 1, taking a peak ground
water temperature of Mumbai as 30 ºC. The design refrigeration load is ~300 kW.

Table A1.1: Cooling demands computed for various temperature applications

Product Evaporation
Refrigeration Load
Parameter Evaporators Amount Temperature Temperature
load (kW) %
(ºC) (ºC)
Chilled water ch 100 MT/day 7 2 115 38.4
Ice ice 10 MT/day 0 -5 55 18.3
Freezing pf 10 MT/day -35 -40 60 20.0
Cold storage cs 1500 MT -20 -25 70 23.3
capacity

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 APPENDIX A.2
NH3 system modeling
A pipe diagram and a P-h plot of the baseline conventional NH3 based vapour compression refrigeration
system is shown in Fig. 4.1. The system has four evaporators, termed ch, ice, cs, and pf for chilled water, ice,
cold storage and plate freezing applications, respectively. Outlet of these evaporators are at state points 1, 3,
5 and 7 respectively. All the evaporators are flooded type and have separate individual expansion valves,
which have refrigerant inlet from the receiver. Due to the low pressure-ratio between condenser and ch as well
as ice evaporators, a single stage compressor is used. In cold storage and plate freezer applications, the
pressure ratios are higher; hence, a two-stage compressor with intercooling is used. For intercooling,
refrigerant is expanded from receiver up to the intermediate pressure and mixed with compressed refrigerant
of first stage compressor. The compressor discharge for all the lines are at the same pressure and heat rejection
takes place in a water-cooled evaporative condenser. Condensed NH3 is collected in a receiver. Table 2: Mass
and energy balance equations for system components

Table A2.2: Mass and energy balance equations for system components
Cooling
Component Mass Balance Energy Balance
Load
Expansion Valve 𝑚𝑚̇12′ = 𝑚𝑚̇13 ℎ12′ = ℎ13
Chilled Evaporator 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇13 𝑚𝑚̇1 ℎ1 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝑚𝑚̇13 ℎ13
water
Compressor 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇1𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 𝑚𝑚̇2 ℎ2 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝑚𝑚̇1𝑎𝑎 ℎ1𝑎𝑎
Expansion Valve 𝑚𝑚̇12′ = 𝑚𝑚̇14 ℎ12′ = ℎ14
Ice Evaporator 𝑚𝑚̇14 = 𝑚𝑚̇3 𝑚𝑚̇3 ℎ3 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚̇14 ℎ14
production
Compressor 𝑚𝑚̇3 = 𝑚𝑚̇3𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚̇4 𝑚𝑚̇4 ℎ4 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑚𝑚̇3𝑎𝑎 ℎ3𝑎𝑎
Expansion Valve 𝑚𝑚̇12′ = 𝑚𝑚̇15 ℎ12′ = ℎ15
Evaporator 𝑚𝑚̇15 = 𝑚𝑚̇5 𝑚𝑚̇5 ℎ5 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑚𝑚̇15 ℎ15
Cold 1st stage Compressor 𝑚𝑚̇5 = 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑏𝑏 ℎ5𝑏𝑏 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐1 + 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑎𝑎 ℎ5𝑎𝑎
storage
Intercooling mixing 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚̇15′ = 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑐𝑐 ℎ5𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑏𝑏 ℎ5𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚̇15′ ℎ15′
2nd stage compressor 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚̇6 𝑚𝑚̇6 ℎ6 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 + 𝑚𝑚̇5𝑐𝑐 ℎ5𝑐𝑐
Expansion Valve 𝑚𝑚̇12′ = 𝑚𝑚̇16 ℎ12′ = ℎ16
Evaporator 𝑚𝑚̇16 = 𝑚𝑚̇7 𝑚𝑚̇7 ℎ7 = 𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑚𝑚̇16 ℎ16
Plate 1st stage Compressor 𝑚𝑚̇7 = 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑏𝑏 ℎ7𝑏𝑏 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑎𝑎 ℎ7𝑎𝑎
freezer
Intercooling mixing 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚̇16′ = 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑐𝑐 ℎ7𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑏𝑏 ℎ7𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚̇16′ ℎ16′
2nd stage compressor 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚̇8 𝑚𝑚̇8 ℎ8 = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑚𝑚̇7𝑐𝑐 ℎ7𝑐𝑐
Mixing in discharge 𝑚𝑚̇11 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 + 𝑚𝑚̇4 + 𝑚𝑚̇6 + 𝑚𝑚̇8 𝑚𝑚̇11 ℎ11 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑚̇4 ℎ4 + 𝑚𝑚̇6 ℎ6 + 𝑚𝑚̇8 ℎ8
line
Condenser 𝑚𝑚̇11 = 𝑚𝑚̇12 𝑚𝑚̇12 ℎ12 = 𝑚𝑚̇11 ℎ11 − 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Overall coefficient of performance (COP), one of the metrics used for performance analysis, is given by:
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = (3)
𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑊𝑊
̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐1 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2

Compressor work (𝑊𝑊̇ ) is estimated as given below:

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 (ℎ −ℎ )
𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜,𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (4)
𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠
Compressor isentropic efficiency (𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠 ) depends on the compressor pressure ratios. Based on the manufacturer
data of refrigeration capacity, power consumption and mass flow rate for designated load, expressions for
isentropic efficiency with respect to pressure ratios are developed using polynomial fitting through regression
analysis and are presented in Table 3.

Table A2.3: Relation between compressor isentropic efficiency and pressure ratio
Compressor Pressure ratio (R) Isentropic efficiency
pf 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃7𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃7𝑏𝑏 ⁄𝑃𝑃7 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.0107𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 3 − 0.1801𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 + 0.981𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 − 1.030
cs 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃5𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃5𝑏𝑏 ⁄𝑃𝑃5 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.0596𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 3 − 0.6135𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 + 2.0485𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 1.493
ice 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃3 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0.0032𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3 − 0.032𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 + 0.139𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 0.549
ch 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐ℎ = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃1 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐ℎ = 0.0032𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐ℎ 3 − 0.032𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐ℎ 2 + 0.1392𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐ℎ + 0.549

Initial values of thermodynamic parameters considered in the simulation are listed in Table 4.

Table A2.4: Thermodynamic parameters considered for simulation

Parameters Value (ºC)
Ambient temperature (Tamb) 30
Approach temperature of NH3 condenser (ΔTapp) 5
Condensing temperature of NH3 (Tcond) 35
Degree of suction superheat in ch evaporator (Tsuction_sh,ch) 7.5
Degree of suction superheat in ice evaporator (Tsuction_sh,ice) 10
Degree of suction superheat in cs evaporator (Tsuction_sh,cs) 15
Degree of suction superheat in pf evaporator (Tsuction_sh,pf) 20
Degree of superheat at evaporator outlets (Tsup) 0
Degree of sub cooling after condenser (Tsub) 0
Temperature difference between product temperature and refrigerant evaporation 5
temperature (ΔTproduct)
Temperature difference between condenser temperature and evaporator temperature of 5
cascade condenser (ΔTcc)

The system model is developed using EES (Klein, 2018) for the simulation based study. Simulation results
are discussed in main article, results section.

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 APPENDIX A.3
CRS1, CRS2 & CRS-3 system and modelling
The relatively higher compressor work required in the lower temperature refrigeration (Fig. 4.5) and
favourable thermos-physical properties of CO2 at lower temperature is the trigger to incorporate CO2 in low
temperature evaporators cs and pf. CRS1 is a cascade and CRS2 and CRS3 are cascade with secondary loop
refrigeration systems. In CRS1, CO2 is used as refrigerant in the two LT evaporators (cs and pf) while NH3 is
used in the two medium temperature evaporators (ch and ice). In CRS2 and CRS3, the ice evaporator is
integrated with pumped circulation of CO2 and NH3 respectively to investigate the suitability of the secondary
refrigeration system. In CRS2 system, the evaporation temperature of ice evaporator is set equal to condensing
temperature of LTC. Flash gas generated in the receiver due to heat addition in ice evaporator is removed
from the receiver and mixed with compressed CO2 of pf and cs compressor. In CRS3, liquid NH3 is circulated
in ice, ch and cc evaporator while the flash gas is separated from receiver and mixed with ch evaporator outlet
before compressor suction in HTC. The pump circulation ratio, the ratio of total mass of liquid vapour mixture
to mass of vapour phase refrigerant, is considered as 1.5 in the analysis for effective heat transfer.

The assumptions made for modelling of the various cascade systems are the same as in the case of baseline
system. Mass and energy balance used for each component is the same except the cascade condenser and
pump power. The expression for heat balance for the cascade heat exchanger is given below.
𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚̇11 (ℎ11 − ℎ12 ) = 𝑚𝑚̇20 (ℎ20 − ℎ24 ) (5)
Required mass flow rate in the secondary pumped loop through ice evaporator is expressed as:
𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝
𝑚𝑚̇3 = (6)
(ℎ14 −ℎ12 )
where 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝 is pump power required to circulate the refrigerant which is assumed to be 1% of the total
refrigeration load of the ice evaporator. The compressor used in ch and ice in all the three systems is the same
as in the baseline system. COPH, COPL, and COPnet are coefficient of performance for the LTC, HTC and for
net cycle respectively and are calculated using Eq. (7) for CRS1 and CRS3 and Eq. (8) for CRS2.

𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = ; 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 = ; 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = (7)
𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑊𝑊̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑊𝑊̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑊𝑊
̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑄𝑄̇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑄𝑄̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
̇ ̇
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = ; 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 = ; 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = (8)
𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐ℎ +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝 +𝑊𝑊
̇ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 +𝑊𝑊̇𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

In the analysis, we used the same relation between compressor isentropic efficiency and compression ratio for
both pf and cs. For CO2 compressors in LTC, expression reported in Patel et al. (2019) is employed and is
tabulated in Table 5. Initial thermodynamic parameter values used are the same as in Table 4.

Table A3.5: Relation between compressor isentropic efficiency and pressure ratio
Compressor Pressure ratio (R) Isentropic efficiency
pf 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ⁄𝑃𝑃7 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.00476𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 − 0.09238𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 0.89810
cs 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ⁄𝑃𝑃5 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.00476𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 − 0.09238𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 0.89810
cc 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝜂𝜂𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = −0.00097𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 − 0.01026𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 0.83955

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 35

30
Weekly averaged dry bulb temperature data

25
APPENDIX A.4

Veraval Hanoi (Vietnam)

20

Temperature[C]
Mumbai Bangkok (Thailand)
Ratnagiri Jakarta (Indonesia)
Mangluru Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)
Vishakapattnam
15
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52
Weeks

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