UNIT 6

ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Calculate the electric field resulting from a point charge.

 Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric force among any point charges.
 Acquire knowledge and understanding in electrostatic phenomenon demonstrate an understanding of
the components and functions of electrical circuits that are commonly found at home and in the
workplace
 Construct, analyze, simple electrical circuits, using schematic diagrams, working with electrical tools
and components, and examining small everyday electrical devices and appliances
 Define a capacitor and explain some of its applications in life.
 Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to solve circuit problems.
 Matter is made of certain elementary particles.
 With the advancement in technology, we have discovered hundreds of elementary particles.
 The three most common elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons having masses
𝑚𝑒 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑝 = 1.67262𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑛 = 1.67493𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔
 Because of their mass these particles attract each other by gravitational forces.
 Thus, an electron attracts another electron, placed 1 cm away, with a gravitational force
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
2 (9.1𝑥10−31
−11
𝑁𝑚 𝑘𝑔)2
𝐹 = 6.67𝑥10 = 5.5𝑥10−67 𝑁
𝑘𝑔2 (10−2 )2
 However, an electron is found to repel another electron at 1 cm with a force of 2.3𝑥10−24 𝑁.
 This extra force is called the electric force.
 The electric force is very large as compared to the gravitational force.
 The electrons must have some additional property, apart from their mass, which is responsible for the
electric force. This is called property of charge
 Just as masses are responsible for the gravitational force, charges are responsible for the electric force.
6.1. Coulomb’s Law
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 State Coulomb’s law.
 Calculate the magnitude and direction of electric force between any two charges.
 Solve problems involving Coulomb’s law.
 Explain Coulomb’s law using the idea of vectors.
 Explain the meaning of a coulomb.
Brainstorming Questions:
1. What are the compositions of an atom?
2. What are the two types of charges and what are their origins?
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 3. How can a body be charged positively and negatively?
4. What does the law of electrostatics say?
Properties of Electric Charges
 Charge is the fundamental property of matter associated with electrons and protons which are found
in any atom.
 There are only two types of charges: negative and positive charges.
 By convention, negative charges are carried by electrons and positive charges are carried by protons.
 When the number of electrons and protons in an object are equal that object is said to be electrically
neutral.
 However, if this electrical balance is disturbed, then the object is said to be electrically charged.
 A negatively charged object contains more electros than protons, but a positively charged body
contains more protons than electrons.
 The properties of charges are:
1. There are two kinds of electric charges: Positive and Negative.
2. Two similarly charged bodies repel each other and two oppositely charged bodies attract
each other.
3. Electric charge is always conserved.
 Charge cannot be created or destroyed.

Note: The charge of an isolated system is conserved.

► It is possible to create or destroy charged particles but it is not possible to create or destroy net charge.
► In a beta decay process, a neutron converts itself into a proton and a fresh electron is created. The
charge however, remains zero before and after the event.

 In any charging process, the number of electrons gained by one object is equal to the number of
electrons lost by the other.

Note
► By convention, charge on glass rod and fur is positive and charge on silk cloth and plastic rod is
negative.

4. Electric charge is quantized.

 Charge comes in discrete packets, it means that charge (q) always occurs as some integral multiple of
the charge of an electron, e.
𝑄 = ±𝑛𝑒
𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
 The smallest unit of charge that is carried by one electron or proton is called the elementary charge, e.
The magnitude of the charge of an electron is:
1𝑒 = −1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
 The charge carried by a proton is also the same as that of the charge carried by an electron except it is
positive.
1𝑝 = −1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶

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  If protons and electrons are the only charge carriers in the universe, all observable charges must be
integral multiples of e.
 If an object contains 𝑛1 protons and 𝑛2 electrons, the net charge on the object is
𝒏𝟏 𝒆 + 𝒏𝟐 (−𝒆) = (𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )𝒆

Example
1. How many electrons are there in 1 coulomb of charge?
Solution
𝑄 1𝐶
𝑛= = = 6.25𝑥1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑒 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
2. If 1.875x1019 electrons are transferred from a cloth to a plastic rod, how much charge did the rod
acquire?
Solution
𝑄 = (1.875x1019 )(1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶)
𝑄 = 3𝐶
3. Two spheres carried charges of −11𝑥10 𝐶 and 5𝑥10−11 𝐶. If they made contact and then separated
−11

from each other. Calculate the final charge on each sphere and how many excess electrons are there
on each sphere?
Solution
𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
2
−11𝑥10 𝐶 + 5𝑥10−11 𝐶
−11
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = −3𝑥10−11 𝐶
2
𝑄 −3𝑥10−11 𝐶
𝑛= = = 1.875𝑥108 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑒 −1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
Electrostatic Force
 Electrostatic is a branch of physics that studies slow moving or stationary electric charges.
 The force between charges that are at rest is called electrostatic force.
 An electrostatic phenomenon arises from the forces that electric charges exert on each other and are
described by Coulomb’s law.
 A force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is known as the electrostatic force.
 Electrostatic force is either attractive or repulsive, unlike the gravitational force which is only attractive.
 If the objects have opposite charges they attract each other, while if their charges are similar, they repel
each other.

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 The direction of the static electric force one point charge exerts on another is always along the line
joining the two charges, and depends on whether the charges have the same sign or not.
► The amount of charge with which two charges are repelling or attracting each other
is determined by coulombs law

Coulomb’s law state that:

“The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them”

If two charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are at a distance r apart, then the electrostatic force between them is given by:

Where K is called the electrostatic constant.

𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=𝑲
𝒓𝟐

𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
𝜀0 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝐹
𝜀0 = 8.85𝑥10−12
𝑚
𝑵𝒎𝟐
𝒌 = 𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑪𝟐

F = Positive for Repulsive

𝟏 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 F = Negative for Attractive

Example
1. Two point charges 𝑄1 = 3𝑥10 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 = 5𝑥10−9 𝐶 are 2m apart. Determine the magnitude of force
−9

between them.
Given Required Solution
1 Q1 Q2
𝑄1 = 3𝑥10−9 𝐶 F =? F = 4πε
0 r2
Nm2 3𝑥10−9 𝐶 𝑥 5𝑥10−9 𝐶
𝑄2 = 5𝑥10−9 𝐶 F = 9x109 ( )
C2 22
Nm 2 15𝑥10−18 𝐶 135
r = 2m F= 9x109 C2 ( ) = 𝑥10−9 𝐶
4 4
−9
𝐹 = 33.75𝑥10 𝑁
𝐹 = 3.375𝑥10−8 𝑁

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2. Compare the magnitude of the electric force between two charges of each charge 1C separated by a
distance of 1m with the magnitude of the gravitational force if each have a mass of 1kg and placed 1m
apart
Solution
𝑄1 𝑄2 9
𝑁𝑚2 (1𝐶)(1𝐶)
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 = 9𝑥10 = 9𝑥109 𝑁
𝑟2 𝐶2 (1𝑚)2
𝑚1 𝑚2 −11
𝑁𝑚2 (1𝑘𝑔)(1𝑘𝑔)
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺 = 6.67𝑥10 = 6.67𝑥10−11 𝑁
𝑟2 𝑘𝑔2 (1)2
𝐹 9𝑥109 𝑁
Taking the ratio: 𝐹𝑒 = 6.67𝑥10−11 𝑁 = 1.3𝑥1020 ⟹ 𝑭𝒆 = 1.3𝑥1020 𝑭𝒈
𝑔

The electrostatic force is about 1020 times the gravitational force

EXERCISE:
1. Calculate the electrostatic force between two charges of 3𝑥10−7 𝐶 each placed 10mm apart
2. Two charges 6nC and 3nC are placed 30mm apart. What is the magnitude and nature of the force
acting on the charges?

3. When charges 𝑄1 = 6𝜇𝐶 and 𝑄2 = 15𝜇𝐶 are separated at some distance, they experience an electric
900N. What is the separation between the charges?

Similarities between Newton’s law of universal gravitational and Coulomb’s law

1. Both obeys inverse square law
2. Both forces operate in vacuum
3. Both forces are conservative force
4. Both forces having central forces- always directed along the line connecting the centers of the
objects.
Difference between Newton’s law of universal gravitational and Coulomb’s law
The following table compares electric force vs. gravitational force
Electric force Gravitational force
Force occurs between charged objects Force occurs between any object with mass
Can involve attraction (pull towards) or repulsion (push away) Only involves attraction
Force originates from the object’s charge and can vary Force originates from the object’s mass and
depending on the medium does not vary depending on the medium
Stronger than gravitational force Weaker than electric force

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 Force on a Charge due to multiple electric charges
 The electric force between charged particles at rest (sometimes referred to as the electrostatic force or as
the Coulomb force) is, like all forces, a vector: it has both magnitude and direction.
 When several forces act on an object 𝐹⃗1 , 𝐹⃗2 , 𝐹⃗3 , … …. the net force (𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) on the object is the vector sum
of all the forces acting on it:
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗1 + 𝐹⃗2 + 𝐹⃗3 + ⋯ ⇒ This is the 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 for forces.
 Consider a system of n stationary charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 …. 𝑄𝑛 in vacuum.
 The force on 𝑄1 due to 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 …. 𝑄𝑛 is obtained by taking the vector sum of the individual forces.
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + 𝐹⃗14 + ⋯ + 𝐹⃗1𝑛
Where, 𝐹⃗12 is the force that charge 𝑄2 exert on 𝑄1
𝐹⃗13 is the force that 𝑄3 exert on 𝑄1
𝐹⃗14 is the force that 𝑄4 exert on 𝑄1
𝐹⃗1𝑛 is the force that 𝑄𝑛 exert on 𝑄1

When more than one charge exerts a force on another charge, the total force on that charge is the sum of the
individual forces, taking into account both their sizes and direction.

F12 F23
Q2 Q1 Q3
r1 r2

The force exerted by Q2 on Q1 is given by:

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹12 = 𝑘
𝑟1 2
The force exerted by Q3 on Q2 is given by:
𝑄1 𝑄3
𝐹13 = 𝑘
𝑟2 2
The net force on Q1 is:
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄3
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘 + (−𝑘 )
𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄3
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =𝑘 2 −𝑘 2
𝑟1 𝑟2
Example
1. Three charges are arranged in a line with 2.5 cm between them, as shown in Figure below.

What is the force exerted on Q2 by the other two charges?

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 Solution
Consider the forces exerted on Q2 by the other two:
𝑄 𝑄
From 𝑄1: 𝐹12 = 𝑘 𝑟1 22
1

Nm2 5𝐶 𝑥 3𝐶 𝐹23 = 9x109

Nm2 6𝐶 2
( 6.25x10−4 m2 )
𝐹12 = 9x109 ( ) C2
C2 (2.5x10−2 m)2
64x109
9
Nm2 15𝐶 2 𝐹23 = N
𝐹12 = 9x10 ( ) 6.25x10−4
C2 6.25x10−4 m2
𝐹23 = 8.64x1013 N = 0.864x1014 N
9
135x10
𝐹12 = N 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹12 − 𝐹23
6.25x10−4
𝐹12 = 21.6x1013 N = 2.16x1014 N 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2.16x1014 N − 0.864x1014 N
𝑄 𝑄
From 𝑄2 : 𝐹12 = 𝑘 𝑟2 23 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1.296x1014 N
2

Nm2 3𝐶 𝑥 2𝐶
𝐹23 = 9x109 ((2.5x10−2 m)2 )
C2

2. Three point charges are arranged as shown in figure below. Find the magnitude of the net electrostatic
force on the point charge at the origin.

Given Required
𝑄1 = 6𝑛𝐶 = 6𝑥10−9 𝐶 𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 =?
𝑄2 = 5𝑛𝐶 = 5𝑥10−9 𝐶
𝑄2 = −3𝑛𝐶 = −3𝑥10−9 𝐶
𝑟1 = 0.3𝑚
𝑟2 = 0.1𝑚
Solution

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 Exercise
1. Two identical conducting spheres are charged to +2Q and –Q. respectively, and are separated by a
distance d (much greater than the radii of the spheres) as shown above. The magnitude of the force of
attraction on the left sphere is 𝐅𝟏 . After the two spheres are made to touch and then are re-separated by
distance d, the magnitude of the force on the left sphere is 𝐅𝟐 . Which of the following relationships is
correct?

d
2Q -Q

A. 2F1 = F2 B. F1 = F2 C. F1 = 2F2 D. F1 = 8F2

6.2. Electric Fields

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define the terms, electric field, and electric flux.
 Sketch electric field lines.
 Solve problems involving electric field.
 Map an electric field lines pattern using electric lines of force.
 Calculate the magnitude and direction of electric field due to a point charge and two point charges.
Brainstorming Questions
1. What is a gravitational field?
2. What causes gravitational field?
3. Discuss the concepts and recall the equations of:
A. Gravitational field lines, and
B. Gravitational field strength.
Answers
1. The region of space around every body of matter where the gravitational force could be experienced by
other body is called a gravitational field (gravitational acceleration field).
2. Gravitational fields are caused by the presence of mass or energy in space.
 According to Einstein's theory of general relativity, mass and energy curve the fabric of space-time,
creating what we perceive as a gravitational field. This curvature of space-time causes objects with
mass or energy to follow curved paths, which we interpret as the force of gravity.
 The more mass or energy an object has, the stronger its gravitational field. This is why larger
objects, such as planets or stars, have stronger gravitational fields than smaller objects like asteroids
or moons. Additionally, the distance between objects also affects the strength of the gravitational
field. The closer two objects are to each other, the stronger the gravitational attractions between
them.
 It's important to note that the concept of gravitational fields is a way of describing the effects of
gravity mathematically.
 In reality, gravity is a fundamental force of nature, and the exact nature of how mass and energy
interact to create gravity is still an area of active research in physics.
3. Gravitational field lines are a way to visualize the gravitational field surrounding an object.
 They are imaginary lines that represent the direction and strength of the gravitational force at
different points in space.

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  Gravitational field strength can be calculated as:
𝑀𝐸
𝑔=𝐺
𝑟2
𝐺 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝐸 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑟 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
 An electric field is the physical field that surrounds electrically charged particles.
 An electric field is a region in space where one charge experiences a force from another charge.
 The electric field produced by a charged particle can be represented by lines of force called
electric field lines.
 Electric field lines are helpful to visualize the vector nature of an electric field.
Properties of electric Field lines
Electric field lines have the following properties
1. Electric field lines never cross each other.
2. Electric field lines start form the positive charge and end at a negative charge.
 In case of single charge electric field lines end at infinity.
3. Electric field lines are close together where the electric force is stronger.
4. Electric field lines never form a closed loop because electric field is conservative in nature of electric
field (i.e. work done by electric field depends on final and initial position and not the path followed).
5. Electric field is uniform inside a charged parallel plate.
6. Electric field due to a point charge is not uniform. It varies from point to point.
7. Electric field lines always start at right angle (perpendicular) to the charged object (surface) causing the
field.
8. The direction of the electric field is the direction of the force on a positive test charge.
Types of an Electric Field
 The electric field is mainly classified into two types.
1. uniform electric field and 2. No uniform electric field.
1. Uniform Electric Field
When the electric field is constant at every point, then the field is called the uniform electric field.
The constant field is obtained by placing the two conductors parallel to each other, and the potential
difference between them remains same at every point.
2. Non-Uniform Electric Field
 The field which is irregular at every point is called the non-uniform electric field.
 The non-uniform field has a different magnitude and directions.
The Electric field strength
 The electric field (𝐸⃗⃗ ), at any point in space is defined as the force (𝐹⃗ ) exerted on a tiny positive test
charge placed at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge q.
𝐹⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝑞
N
𝐸⃗⃗ = electric field strength in
C
𝐹⃗ = force acting the positive test charge in N
q = charge of the positive test charge in C

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 𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑟2
Notice:
𝐸⃗⃗ is independent of the test charge q
𝐸⃗⃗ depends only on the charge Q which produces the field.
 The direction of electric field is in the
direction of electric force.
 The electric field due to a positive charge
points away from the charge, whereas due
to a negative charge points toward that
charge.

Example
1. An electron experiences a force of 6𝜇𝑁 when passing through an electric field. Calculate the electric
field strength
𝐹⃗ 6𝑥10−6 𝑁 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗ = = −19
= 0.375𝑥1013
𝑞 1.6𝑥10 𝐶 𝐶
2. A uniform charged sphere exerts a force 𝐹⃗ = 12𝑖𝑁 + 6𝑗𝑁 − 4𝑘𝑁 on a test charge of 2𝜇𝐶. Find the
electric field produced by the charged body at the position of the test particle.
Solution

𝐹⃗ 12𝑖𝑁 + 6𝑗𝑁 − 4𝑘𝑁

𝐸⃗⃗ = = = 6𝑥106 𝑖𝑁 + 3𝑥106 𝑗𝑁 − 2𝑥106 𝑘𝑁
𝑞 2𝑥10−6 𝐶
3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point P which is 30 cm to the right of a
point charge −3𝑥10−6 𝐶.
Solution
𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘
𝑟2
2 −6
𝑁𝑚 −3𝑥10 𝐶 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗ = (9𝑥109 2 ) −2 2
= −3𝑥105
𝐶 (30𝑥10 ) 𝐶
 The direction of the electric field is toward the charge Q.

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 4. A positive test charge of 30C produces an electric field of 5 N/C, what is the magnitude and direction
of the charge?
Solution
𝐹⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞 = 150𝑁
 Since the charge is positive, the direction of the force is in the direction of the electric field.
5. An electron initially at rest accelerated through 1cm by an electric field of 30kN/C. what speed will it
acquire in the region? How long does it take to move this distance?

Solution 𝑚
15 𝑚2
𝑣 2 = 2 (5.27𝑥10 ) (10 −2
𝑚) = 1.054𝑥1014

𝐹⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞 𝑠2 𝑠2
From Newton’s second law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑚2 𝑚
𝑣 = √1.054𝑥1014 2 = 1.026𝑥107
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑞 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡
𝑎= 𝑣
𝑚 𝑡=
𝑎
𝑁 𝑚
(30𝑥103 𝑐 ) (1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶) 𝑚 1.026𝑥107
𝑠
15 𝑡=
𝑎= = 5.27𝑥10 15 𝑚
9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔 𝑠2 5.27𝑥10
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝑠2
𝑡 = 1.953𝑥10−9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣 2 = 2𝑎𝑠 𝑡 = 1.953 𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐
6. Determine the magnitude and direction of an electric field 30cm from +5𝑛𝐶 charge.

Solution
𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘
𝑟2
𝑁𝑚2 5𝑥10−9 𝐶 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗ = (9𝑥109 ) = 500 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶 2 (30𝑥10−2 )2 𝐶
Exercise
1. The positive test charge has a magnitude of 3.0𝑥10−8 𝐶 and experiences a force of 6.0𝑥10−8 𝑁.
Calculate the electric field that the test charge experiences.
2. The charges on the two metal spheres and the ebonite rod create an electric field at the spot indicated.
The field has a magnitude of 2.0 N/C. Determine the force on the charges in (a) and (b)

a.
b.
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11
 Electric field for multiple point charges
 If the electric field at a given point in space is due to more than one charge, the individual fields
(𝐸⃗⃗1 , 𝐸⃗⃗2 , 𝐸⃗⃗3 , … ) due to each charge are added vectorially to get the total field at that point:
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = |𝐸⃗⃗1 | + |𝐸⃗⃗2 | + |𝐸⃗⃗3 | + ⋯ |𝐸⃗⃗𝑛 | ⇒ This superposition principle for electric fields
 The validity of this superposition principle for electric fields is fully confirmed by experiment.
Example
1. Two point charges are separated by a distance of 10.0 cm. One has a charge of −25𝜇𝐶 and the
other +50𝜇𝐶. Determine the direction and magnitude of the electric field at a point P between the
two charges that is 2.0 cm from the negative charge.
Solution
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = |𝐸⃗⃗1 | + |𝐸⃗⃗2 |

𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = |𝐸⃗⃗1 | + |𝐸⃗⃗2 |

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘 2 + 𝑘 2
𝑟1 𝑟2
2 −6
𝑁𝑚 25𝑥10 𝐶 𝑁𝑚2 50𝑥10−6 𝐶
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (9𝑥109 2 ) + (9𝑥10 9
)
𝐶 (2𝑥10−2 )2 𝐶 2 (8𝑥10−2 )2
𝑁 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 56.25𝑥107 + 7.3125𝑥107
𝐶 𝐶
𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 63.5625𝑥10 7
𝐶
2. Calculate the total electric field at point A in Figure below due to both charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 .

sin 300 = 0.6

cos 300 = 0.8
Solution
 The magnitude of the electric field produced at point A by each of the charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 is given by:
𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 2
𝑟

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 𝑁𝑚2 50𝑥10−6 𝐶 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗1 = (9𝑥109 ) = 1.25𝑥106
𝐶 2 (60𝑥10−2 )2 𝐶
𝑁𝑚2 50𝑥10−6 𝐶 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗2 = (9𝑥109 2 ) −2 2
= 5𝑥106
𝐶 (30𝑥10 ) 𝐶
 The direction of 𝐸⃗⃗1 points from A toward 𝑄1 (negative charge), whereas 𝐸⃗⃗2 points from A away from 𝑄2
as shown.
 The component of 𝐸⃗⃗1 can be calculated as:
𝐸⃗⃗1𝑥 = 𝐸⃗⃗1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 𝑁 𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗𝑦 = 5𝑥106 𝑗̂ − 0.75𝑥106 𝑗̂
𝑁 𝐶 𝐶
𝐸⃗⃗1𝑥 = (1.25𝑥106 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠300 𝑖 𝑁
𝐶 = 4.25𝑥106 𝑗̂
𝑁 𝐶
= 1𝑥106 𝑖̂ 𝑁 𝑁
𝐶 𝐸⃗⃗ = 1𝑥106 𝑖̂ + 4.25𝑥106 𝑗̂
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝐶 𝐶
1𝑦 1
𝑁 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝐸⃗⃗1𝑦 = (1.25𝑥106 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 𝑖 ⃗⃗ √ 6 6
|𝐸 | = (1𝑥10 ) + (4.25𝑥10 )
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝑁
= 0.75𝑥106 𝑗̂
𝐶 𝑁2 𝑁2
⃗⃗ |𝐸⃗⃗ | = √1𝑥1012 + 18.0625𝑥1012
 so the total electric field at A 𝐸 𝐶2 𝐶2
𝑁
𝐸⃗⃗𝑥 = 1𝑥106 𝑖̂ 𝑁2
𝐶 |𝐸⃗⃗ | = √19.0625𝑥1012
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸2𝑦 𝑗 − 𝐸1𝑦 𝑗 𝐶2
𝑁
|𝐸⃗⃗ | = 4.36𝑥106
𝐶
3. Two positive point charges, 𝑞1 = +16𝜇𝐶 and 𝑞2 = +4.0𝜇𝐶 are separated in a vacuum by a 3.0m.
Find the spot on the line between the charges where the net electric field is zero.

Solution
𝑄 16𝑥10−6 𝐶 4𝑥10−6 𝐶
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑟2 𝑑2 (3 − 𝑑)2
16𝑥10−6 𝐶 16 4
⃗⃗
𝐸1 = 𝑘 =
𝑑2 𝑑 2 (3 − 𝑑)2
4𝑥10−6 𝐶 16(3 − 𝑑)2 = 4𝑑 2
𝐸⃗⃗2 = 𝑘 16(9 − 6𝑑 + 𝑑2 ) = 4𝑑 2
(3 − 𝑑)2
4(9 − 6𝑑 + 𝑑2 ) = 𝑑 2
𝐸⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⃗⃗1 − 𝐸⃗⃗2 = 0
36 − 24𝑑 + 4𝑑 2 = 𝑑2
𝐸⃗⃗1 = 𝐸⃗⃗2 36 − 24𝑑 + 4𝑑 2 − 𝑑 2 = 0
36 − 24𝑑 + 3𝑑 2 = 0
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13
 12 − 8𝑑 + 𝑑2 = 0 8±4
𝑑=
𝑑2 − 8𝑑 + 12 = 0 2
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 8+4 8−4
𝑑= 𝑑= 𝑜𝑟
2𝑎 2 2
𝑑 = 6𝑚 𝑜𝑟 2𝑚
−(−8) ± √(−8)2 − 4(1)(12)
𝑑= 𝐴𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑 = 2𝑚
2(1) 𝑑 = 6𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑞2 .
8 ± √64 − 48 𝑆𝑜 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑=
2
8 ± √16
𝑑=
2
Electric flux
 Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines that crosses a given area.

 One of the properties of electric field lines is that, the number of field lines crossing a unit area, placed
normal to the field at a point, is a measure of the strength of electric field at that point.
 This means that the number of field lines per unit area, is proportional to the magnitude of the electric
field.
𝑁
𝐸∝
𝐴
 The number of field lines is proportional to the product of E and A.
𝑁 ∝ 𝐸𝐴
 The product of the electric field and the surface area A, perpendicular to the field is called the electric
flux.
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴
 In a vector form, the above equation can be written as the dot product of the electric field vector and area
vector.
𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗
 The area vector of a flat surface of area A has the following magnitude and direction:
Magnitude is equal to area of the surface (A)
Direction along normal or perpendicular to the surface.
 If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field the expression for the electric flux
became
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the projection of area normal to E.

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14
 𝜃 is the angle between the electric field lines and the normal (perpendicular)to the surface.

 This means, if the electric field vectors are tangent to the surface at all points, that is if they don't
penetrate the surface, the electric flux through the surface is zero.
𝑁𝑚2
 Electric flux 𝜙 is a scalar quantity, whose SI unit is .
𝐶
Example
1. A 2cm × 2cm square lies in the xy-plane. Find the electric flux through the square for the electric
𝑁
field vectors (𝐸⃗⃗ = 50𝑘̂ + 20𝑗̂) 𝐶
Solution
 In this case direction of the area vector, which is perpendicular to the surface, is in the z-axis. Because
the square lies in the xy-plane.
𝜙 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗
𝑁
𝜙 = (50𝑘̂ + 20𝑗̂) . (4𝑥10−4 𝑚2 𝑘̂)
𝐶
𝑁
𝜙 = (50𝑘̂ + 20𝑗̂) . (4𝑥10−4 𝑚2 𝑘̂)
𝐶
2
𝑁𝑚
𝜙 = 200𝑥10−4
𝐶
𝑁𝑚2
𝜙 = 0.02
𝐶

𝐴⃗ = (2𝑐𝑚𝑥2𝑐𝑚)𝑘̂
𝐴⃗ = 4𝑐𝑚2 𝑘̂ = 4𝑥10−4 𝑚2 𝑘̂
2. Find the electric flux through the surface with sides of 15𝑐𝑚 × 15𝑐𝑚 positioned in a uniform electric
field of 𝐸 = 150𝑁/𝐶 as shown in the figure below.

Solution
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴 = 15𝑐𝑚 × 15𝑐𝑚 = 225𝑐𝑚2
𝜙
𝑁
= (150 ) (225𝑥10−4 𝑚2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠600
𝐶
𝑁𝑚2
𝜙 = 1.6875
𝐶

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15
 𝑁
3. A rectangular surface of sides 10 cm and 15 cm is placed in a uniform electric field of 120 𝐶 such
that the surface makes an angle of 300 with the direction of electric field. Find the flux through the
rectangular surface.
Solution 𝑁
𝜙 = (120 ) (150𝑥10−4 𝑚2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠600
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐶
𝑁𝑚2
𝐴 = 10𝑐𝑚 × 15𝑐𝑚 = 150𝑐𝑚2 𝜙 = 0.9
𝐶
6.3. Electric Potential
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define the terms electric potential, equipotential surface.
 Solve problems involving electric potential.
 Explain the meaning of a volt, potential difference, and emf.
Brainstorming Questions
1. Discuss the concepts and recall the equations of (a) gravitational potential, and (b) gravitational potential
energy.
 Gravitational potential is defined as the amount of work done by the gravitational field per unit mass
in bringing a small test mass from infinity to that point, without any change in its kinetic energy.
 Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its position in a
gravitational field.
2. What is the relationship between the following pair of quantities?
A. Electric potential and electrical potential energy?
B. Electrical potential energy and electric work?
C. Electric potential and potential difference?
D. Potential difference and electric field?
E. Electrical potential and gravitational potential?
Electrical potential energy
 Electric charges have fields around them and thus a charge has to do work if it intends to change its
position.
 This work is the electric energy or the electric potential energy of the charge.
 Just like mass in a gravitational field has gravitational potential energy, charges in an electric field have
an electric potential energy.
 Electric potential energy is the energy that is needed to move a charge against an electric field.

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16
 A positive charge 𝑞0 is placed in the field. If the charge moves upward a distance d, the work done by the
electric force is negative.

𝑊 = −𝐹𝑑 𝑄
∆𝑈 = 𝑞0 (𝑘 2 ) 𝑑
 The change of the potential energy is 𝑑
∆𝑈 = −𝑊 𝑄𝑞0
∆𝑈 = 𝑘
∆𝑈 = −(−𝑞0 𝐸𝑑) 𝑑
∆𝑈 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑 𝑄1 𝑄2
∆𝑈 = 𝑘
𝑄 𝑟
𝐸=𝑘 2
𝑑
 As the positive charge moves in the direction of the field, its electric potential energy decreases and its
kinetic energy increase. So, the change in potential energy is negative.
Example
𝑁
1. The electric field in a particle-accelerator machine is 4.5 × 105 𝐶 . How much work is done to move a
proton 25 cm through that field?
Solution
𝑊 = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑
𝑁
𝑊 = (1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶) (4.5 × 105 ) (25𝑥10−2 𝑚) = 1.8𝑥10−14 𝐽
𝐶
5𝑁
2. A uniform electric field of magnitude 4 × 10 𝐶 points in the positive x direction. Find the change in
electric potential energy of a 45µ𝐶 charge as it moves from the origin to 𝑥 = 3𝑚.
Solution
𝑁
∆𝑈 = (45𝑥10−6 𝐶) (4 × 105 ) (3𝑚) = 5.4𝐽
𝐶
Electric potential
 The electric potential (absolute potential) at a point is the electric potential energy divided by charge.
 Electric potential, also known as voltage, is a scalar quantity that describes the electric potential energy
per unit charge at a given point in an electric field.
 It represents the amount of work required to move a positive test charge from a reference point (usually
infinity) to the given point, divided by the charge of the test particle.
 Electric potential is measured in volts (V).
∆𝑈 𝑊
𝑉= =
𝑞0 𝑞0
𝑄𝑞0
∆𝑈 = 𝑘
𝑑
𝑄𝑞0 1
𝑉=𝑘 𝑥
𝑑 𝑞0
𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝑉= ⇒𝑉=
𝑑 𝑟

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17
 Example
1. What is the potential at in space 1mm from a 1𝑛𝑐 point charge?
Solution
𝑘𝑄
𝑉=
𝑟
2
9 𝑁𝑚
(9𝑥10 ) (1𝑥10−9 𝐶)
𝐶2
𝑉=
1𝑥10−3 𝑚
𝑁𝑚
𝑉 = 9𝑥103 = 9000𝑉
𝐶
2. What is the electric potential between two terminals of a cell if it requires 7J of work to transfer 3C
between the terminals?
Solution
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
7𝐽
𝑉= = 3.5𝑉
3𝐶
3. What is the potential 2 × 10−14 m from a fragment that has 46 protons in it?
Solution
𝑄 = 46𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 = 73.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
𝑁𝑚2
9𝑥109 2 (73.6𝑥10
−19
𝐶)
𝑉= 𝐶 = 3.312𝑥106 𝑉
2 × 10−14 m
Exercise
1. Determine the electric potential at a point located at 1 cm from a charge 5.0 𝜇𝐶.
Electrical Potential Difference
 Electric potential difference is the work done per unit charge when moving a charge between two points
in an electric field.
 Potential difference is the potential created (the work done per unit charge) when moving a charge from
one point in the field to another whereas electric potential is the work done per unit charge to get a
charge from infinity to a point in an electric field
 The potential difference between two points A and B in an electric field is defined as the work required
to moving a unit positive test charge from the point of lower potential to that of higher potential.
∆𝑈
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
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18
 If an amount of work W is required to move a charge Q from one point to another, then the potential
difference between the two points is given by
𝑊
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑞∆𝑉
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑞(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
⇒ 𝑊 = 𝑞( − )
𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
 Units of potential difference are joules per coulomb, given the name volt (V) after Alessandro Volta.
Example
1. What potential difference is required to do 100 J of work to carry a charge of 10 C between two points?
Solution
𝑊
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
100𝐽
∆𝑉 = = 10𝑉
10𝐶
𝑁
2. What is the voltage difference between the positions 𝑥𝑓 = 11𝑚 and 𝑥𝑖 = 5𝑚 in an electric field of 6 𝐶 ?
Solution
∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑁
∆𝑉 = (6 ) (6𝑚) = 12𝑉
𝐶
3. The work needed to move a 10C charge between two charged plates is 500 J. What is the voltage
between the plates?
Solution
𝑊
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
500𝐽
∆𝑉 = = 50𝑉
10𝐶
Potential difference in a uniform electric field
 If one of the plates is positively charged and the other negatively charged, the space between the plates
will have a constant electric field except near the edges of the plates.

 A uniform electric field E is produced by placing a potential difference (or voltage) ∆𝑉 across two
parallel metal plates, labeled A and B.

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19
  The work done by the electric field in to move a positive charge q from A, the positive plate, higher
potential, to B, the negative plate, lower potential, is
𝑊 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑞∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝐸=
𝑊 = 𝑞∆𝑉 𝑑
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑞∆𝑉 𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞𝐸𝑑 = 𝑞∆𝑉 𝑞
𝐸𝑑 = ∆𝑉 𝑭 ∆𝑽
⇒ =
∆𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅 𝒒 𝒅
 The motion of a charged particle in an electric field depends on the direction of the electric field.
 With the force on a charged particle in a uniform field established, the acceleration of a particle can be
easily established from Newton's second law.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ∆𝑽𝒒
𝒂=
𝐹 ∆𝑉 𝒅𝒎
=
𝑞 𝑑
𝑚𝑎 ∆𝑉
=
𝑞 𝑑
 From work energy theorem
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸
𝑊 = 𝑞∆𝑉
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑞∆𝑉
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝑞∆𝑉
2 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
2 2
Example
1. If a potential difference of 20 V applied across two parallel plates produces an electric field of 500 N/C (or
V/m) what distance separates these two plates?
Solution
∆𝑉 20𝑉
𝑑= = = 0.04𝑚
𝐸 𝑉
500 𝑚
2. An electric field of 4200 N/C exists between two parallel charged plates separated by 15 cm. What is the
potential difference that is causing this?
Solution
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20
 ∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑁
∆𝑉 = 4200 𝑥15𝑥10−2 𝑚 = 630𝑉
𝐶
3. What is the electric field that could be created by two parallel charged plates separated by 20 cm that have
a potential difference of 140 V?
Solution
∆𝑉 140𝑉 𝑉
𝐸= = = 700
𝑑 20𝑥10−2 𝑚 𝑚
3𝑁 𝑚
4. An electron accelerates from rest in a uniform electric field 6.0𝑥10 𝐶 to a speed of 2.0𝑥104 𝑠 . How far
did it travel and through what potential difference was the electron accelerated?
Solution
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑
2 2
1 𝑚 2 1 𝑁
(9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔) (2.0𝑥104 ) − (9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔)(0)2 = (1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶) (6.0𝑥103 ) 𝑑
2 𝑠 2 𝐶
1 𝑚 2
(9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔) (2.0𝑥104 )
𝑑= 2 𝑠 = 1.9𝑥10−7 𝑚
𝑁
(1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶) (6.0𝑥103 )
𝐶
∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑁
∆𝑉 = (6.0𝑥103 ) (1.9𝑥10−7 𝑚) = 1.1𝑥10−3 𝑉
𝐶
Exercise
1. An ion accelerated through a potential difference of 115 V experiences an increase in kinetic energy
of 7.37 𝑥 10−17 𝐽 . What is the charge on the ion? (EUEE:2004)
A. 6.41 x 10-19 C C. 4.51 x 10-15 C

B. 2.32 x 10-15 C D. 2 x 10-21 C

Potential due to a system of point charges

 The electric potential at a point due to a group of point charges is the algebraic sum of all the potentials due to
individual charges.
 Consider a system of charges 𝑄1, 𝑄2 , ..., 𝑄𝑛 with position vectors 𝑟1 , 𝑟1 , ..., 𝑟𝑛 relative to some origin.

 By the superposition principle, the potential V at O due to the total charge configuration is the algebraic sum of
the potentials due to the individual charges.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
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 𝑘𝑄1 𝑘𝑄2 𝑘𝑄3 𝑘𝑄𝑛
𝑉= + + + ⋯+
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛
𝑛
𝑄𝑖
𝑉 = 𝑘∑
𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1

Note
► The sum in this equation is an algebraic sum.
► It is not a vector sum. It means the signs of the charges are used in calculating the potential.
► As a result, the potential of a positive charge is positive and the potential of a negative charge is
negative.

Example
1. Two point charges 3.0 µC and −6.0 µC are separated by 1.20 m. What is the electric potential midway between
them?
Solution
𝑘𝑄1 𝑘𝑄2
𝑉= +
𝑟1 𝑟2
2 −6
𝑁𝑚 3x10 C 𝑁𝑚2 −6x10−6 C
𝑉 = (9𝑥109 ) + (9𝑥109
)
𝐶2 (0.6𝑚) 𝐶2 (0.6𝑚)
2 −6
𝑁𝑚 3x10 C 𝑁𝑚 6x10−6 C
2
𝑉 = (9𝑥109 ) − (9𝑥109
)
𝐶2 (0.6𝑚) 𝐶2 (0.6𝑚)
𝑉 = 45000𝑉 − 90000𝑉
𝑉 = −45000𝑉
Exercise
1. Two-point charges are located on the corners of a rectangle with a height of 0.05 m and a width of 0.15 m. The
first charge (𝑞1 = − 5𝜇𝐶 ) is located at the upper left-hand corner, while the second charge (𝑞1 = +2𝜇𝐶 )is
at the lower right-hand corner. (a) Determine the electric potential at the upper right-hand corner of the
rectangle. (b) What is the potential difference for a point at the right-hand corner of the rectangle relative to the
lower left-hand corner?
Equipotential
 An equipotential is a line joining points within an electric field with the same potential.
 Equipotential Points: If the points in an electric field are all at the same electric potential, they are known as
the equipotential points.
 If these points are connected by a line or a curve, it is known as an equipotential line.
 If such points lie on a surface, it is called an equipotential surface.
 Further, if these points are distributed throughout a space or a volume, it is known as an equipotential volume.
 Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to the electric field.
 In three dimensions, the lines form equipotential surfaces.
 Movement along an equipotential surface requires no work because such movement is always perpendicular to
the electric field.
 If a charge moves along a line of equipotential then its potential remains constant and there is no change in its
electrical potential energy.
 This means all lines of equipotential are perpendicular to the electric field lines.

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Equipotential Lines: Constant Field (Uniform Field)
In a uniform field the lines of equipotential are equidistant parallel lines.

Equipotential Lines: Radial field

In a radial field such as the field around a point charge the line of equipotential are concentric circles centred on
the single charge.

These lines moves further apart as the distance from the charge increases. This is due to fact that the field gets
weaker as the distance increases.
Equipotential Lines: More complex fields
If multiple charges or different shapes are involved the lines of equipotential can get much more complex.
However in each case they are always perpendicular to the electric field lines.

Characteristics of equipotential lines/surfaces

1. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.
2. The equipotential lines of a uniform field are parallel to each other and the equipotential lines of a point charge
are concentric sphere.

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3. Since the electric field (E) is stronger near the charge, so equipotential surfaces of point charge are crowded
near the charge.
4. No work is required to move a charge along an equipotential line because there is no change in potential.
𝑊 = 𝑞∆𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑞(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) = 0
5. Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to the electric field lines.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠900
𝑊=0
6.4. Electric Current, Resistance and ohm’s law
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define the terms electric current, current density, resistance, conductivity, resistivity and drift velocity.
 Explain the effect on the current (brightness) and potential difference of connecting light bulbs in series.
 Explain the effect on the current (brightness) and potential difference of connecting light bulbs in parallel.
 Draw electric circuits consisting of three resistors connected in series and parallel.
 Determine equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series and parallel.
 Describe the principles of potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge.
 Describe how to convert galvanometer to a voltmeter and ammeter.
 Explain the meaning of an ohm, resistance.
 Explain the SI units of electric current, current density, resistance, resistivity, conductivity.
 State and apply Kirchhoff’s laws.
 Solve problems involving network of resistors.
Electric Current, Resistance and Ohm’s law
Electric current
 An electric current is a flow of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical
conductor or space.
 It is defined as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface.
 The moving particles are called charge carriers (In conductors charge carriers are free electrons and in electrolytes
charge carriers are ions), which may be one of several types of particles, depending on the conductor.
 In electric circuits the charge carriers are often electrons moving through a wire.
 In semiconductors they can be electrons or holes.
 In an electrolyte the charge carriers are ions, while in plasma, an ionized gas, they are ions and electrons.
 Electric current is a flow of charge.

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 In metals, current is due to a flow of electrons.
 When a voltage source is connected to a conductor, it applies a potential difference V that creates an electric
field.
 The electric field in turn exerts force on the free or conduction charges of the conductor, causing current.
 Electric currents create magnetic forces, which are used in motors, generators, inductors, and transformers.
 In ordinary conductors, they cause Joule heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs.
 Time-varying currents emit electromagnetic waves, which are used in telecommunications to broadcast
information.
 The conventional direction of current, also known as conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the
direction in which positive charges flow.
 Current flows from positive to negative.
 The flow of electrons is termed electron current.
 Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive.
 Current and electron flow in the opposite direction.

 Current is determined by the number of electrons passing through a cross-section of a conductor in one
second.
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
 One ampere is a flow of one coulomb (1 C) of charge in 1 s.
 In the International System of Units (SI), electric current is expressed in units of ampere (sometimes called an
"amp", symbol A), which is equivalent to one coulomb per second.
 The ampere is an SI base unit and electric current is a base quantity in the International System of Quantities
 Electric current is also known as amperage and is measured using a device called an ammeter.
 Small current are measured in milliampere (mA) and microampere ( 𝜇𝐴).
 When describing voltage, current, and resistance, a common analogy is a water tank.
 In this analogy, charge is represented by the water amount, voltage is represented by the water pressure, and
current is represented by the water flow.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Consider a water tank at a certain height above the ground. At the bottom of this tank there is a hose.

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 Voltage is like the pressure created by the water.

DID YOU KNOW?

If two wires are placed 1 m apart and carry the same current, if the force between them is 2𝑥10−7 𝑁 then the
current flowing in each wire is 1 A. How??

Example:
1. 300 C of charge passes in 1 minute. What is the current?
Solution
𝑄 300 𝐶
I= = = 5𝐴
𝑡 60 𝑠
2. How long will a current of 5 A take to pass 100 C of charge?
Solution
𝑄 100 𝐶
t= = = 20 𝑠
𝐼 5𝐴
Exercise:
1. A steady current of 20 A is maintained in a metal conductor for 1/3 minute. What charge is transferred
through it in that time?
2. A charge of 600 C flows through a resistor in which a steady current is maintained for 120 s. what is the
current?
3. There is current of 10mA in a wire. How much charge passes any cross-section of the wire in 30 s? If this
current is caused by the flow of electrons, then how many electrons pass through the wire during this time?
Drift velocity
Suppose current flow through the conductor of length l between two ends X and Y due to difference in electric
potential (voltage), then there are basic terms in microscopic model of current and these are:
1. Net charges (∆𝑸)
Suppose N number of charges flow through the conductor between X and Y, then the net charge is given as
∆Q = Nq

2. Charge density (n)

It is the measure of number of charges (electrons) (N) per unit volume (V).

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 N
n= ⇒ 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑉
V
But volume (V) can be given as: 𝑉 = 𝐴∆𝑙
⇒ 𝑁 = 𝑛𝐴∆𝑙
Therefore the net charge (∆𝑄) can be given as
∆Q = Nq
∆Q = 𝑛𝑞𝐴∆𝑙
Where
n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume
A is the cross sectional area
∆𝑙 a small length along the wire
q is the charge of the charge carriers
3. Drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ) 5. Current density (J)
It is the measure of average velocity of charges It is the measure of amount of current to cross
in the conductors for the length l. sectional area.
∆𝑙 𝐼
𝑣𝑑 = 𝐽=
∆𝑡 𝐴
∆𝑙 = 𝑣𝑑 ∆𝑡 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝐽=
Since net charge 𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑
∆Q = 𝑛𝑞𝐴∆𝑙 𝑱
∆Q = 𝑛𝑞𝐴(𝑣𝑑 ∆𝑡) 𝒗𝒅 =
𝒏𝒒

∆𝐐 = 𝒏𝒒𝑨𝒗𝒅 ∆𝒕 𝑱 = 𝒏𝒒𝒗𝒅

∆𝑸 Where 𝑣𝑑 is the drift velocity

𝒗𝒅 = J is the current density
𝒏𝒒𝑨∆𝒕
n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume
4. Electric current (I)
q the elementary charge on the charge carriers
It is the rate flow of charges.
There is a common approximation to the
∆𝑄
𝐼= current density which assumes that the current
∆𝑡 is proportional to the electric field E
𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑣𝑑 ∆𝑡
𝐼= 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬
∆𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝑰
𝒗𝒅 =
𝒏𝑨𝒒
𝑰 = 𝒏𝒒𝑨𝒗𝒅

Example
1. Find the approximate current density when an electric field of 5 V/m is applied to a copper conductor.
𝑆
The conductivity of copper is 59.6𝑥106 𝑚.
Solution

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 𝑆 𝑉 𝐴 𝐴
J = σE = 59.6𝑥106 (5 ) = 298𝑥106 2 = 2.98𝑥108 2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
2. Find the number of charge carriers per unit volume in a copper wire of cross sectional area 1mm2
carrying a current of 3 A if the drift velocity of the charge carriers is 0.00028 m/s. ( The elementary
charge is 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶)
Solution
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑
𝐽
𝑛=
𝑣𝑑 𝑞
𝐼 3𝐴 3𝐴 𝐴
𝐽= = 2
= −6 2
= 3𝑥106 2
𝐴 1𝑚𝑚 1𝑥10 𝑚 𝑚
𝐴 𝐴
3𝑥1062 3𝑥106 2
𝑛= 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 6696.42𝑥1025 = 6.7𝑥1028
0.00028 m/s(1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶) 0.000448 𝑥10−19 m/s𝐶
Exercise:
1. Find the approximate current density when an electric field of 12 V/m is applied to a copper
𝑆
conductor. The conductivity of copper is 63.0𝑥106 𝑚.
2. Find the number of charge carriers per unit volume in a copper wire of cross sectional area 2mm2
carrying a current of 6 A if the drift velocity of the charge carriers is 0.00028 m/s. (The elementary
charge is 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶)
3. A wire with a circular cross-sectional area 10-6 m2 carries current of 1A. Find the drift speed of
electrons if the number of mobile charge carriers is 1028 electrons per cubic meter.
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
Resistance
 An electric wire is made of metal.
 Inside a metal, there are negatively charged electrons that are free to move. This free electron is called
conduction electrons (free electrons).
 Conduction electrons are the particles that allow a metal to conduct an electric current.
 Conduction electrons are called valence electrons.
 The atoms of a metal bind tightly together; they usually form a regular array.

 In a typical metal, such as copper or silver, one or more electrons from each atom break free to become
conduction electrons.
 Since there are equal numbers of free electrons (negative) and ions (positive), the metal has no overall
charge - it is neutral.

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 When electrons are moving through a conductor, they collide with each other and with the fixed positive
ions of the material.
 This electric property that impedes current is called resistance.
 Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
Ohm’s Law
 According to Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor at constant temperature is precisely
proportional to the potential difference across the conductor's ends.

 Voltage is directly proportional to current.

𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
R is the proportionality constant, often known as conductor resistance.
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
 Ohmic conductors are those electrical conductors that follow Ohms law.
 In other words there is a linear relationship between voltage and current for all values.
 Devices that have a constant resistance, as described above, are known as Ohmic conductors.
 The graph of V versus I is a straight line that must go through the origin.
 If the graph is not a straight line then the device is called a non-Ohmic conductor.

 Non-Ohmic conductors are those electrical conductors that do not follow Ohms law.
 In other words the relationship between voltage and current is not linear for all values.
 Light bulbs such as car headlamps are common examples of non-Ohmic conductors.
 As the voltage increases, the current will not increase in proportion, as shown in the graph below.
 Other non-Ohmic conductors include devices whose resistance changes with light or temperature.
 These are particularly useful as detectors in sensors which need to respond to changes in light (see diode
graph below) or temperature levels.

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 Resistors
 A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic
circuit.
 The IEC (International Electro-technical Commission) standard and American standard fixed and
variable resistor symbol is shown in the below figure.

Combination of Resistors
 There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two resistors. They are series and parallel.
1. Resistors in Series
In series connection:
 Resistors are connected end-to-end in a line to form a single path for electrons to flow.
 There is only one path for electrons to flow.
 Current is constant at every point.
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼

 The total potential difference in the system is the sum of individual p.d across each resistor.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 +. . . + 𝑉𝑛
V = IR
𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 +. . . 𝐼𝑛 𝑅𝑛
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼
I𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 +. . . 𝐼𝑅𝑛
I𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +. . . 𝑅𝑛 )
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +. . . 𝑅𝑛
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +. . . 𝑅𝑛
Example
1. Find the current in the circuit

Solution
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 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇 = 1Ω + 2Ω + 3Ω = 6Ω
𝑉 30𝑉
𝐼= = = 5𝐴
𝑅 6Ω
2. Three resistors 20Ω, 30Ω, and 50Ω are connected in series to a battery which provides 240V. calculate
A. The total resistance
B. The current in the circuit
C. The voltage drop a cross each resistors
D. Compare the sum of the voltage drops with voltage provided by the battery.
Solution
A. For resistors in series:
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 = 20Ω + 30Ω + 50Ω = 100Ω
V 240V
B. I = R = 100Ω = 2.4A

C. The same current I = 2.4A flows through each resistor.

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = (2.4𝐴)(20Ω) = 48V
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = (2.4𝐴)(30Ω) = 72V
𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 = (2.4𝐴)(50Ω) = 120V
D. V1 + V2 + V3 = 48V + 72V + 120V = 240V
Hence, the sum of the voltage drop across each resistor is equal to the voltage of the source.
3. Calculate the size of resistor X in Figure below.

Solution
V
First look at the 5 Ω resistor. From I = R a p.d. of 10 V across it must mean that a current I is flowing
through it, given by:
V 10V
I= = = 2A
R 5Ω
Now look at resistor ‘X’. Since they are in series the same 2 A is flowing through it. To achieve this there is
a p.d. of 50 V across it.
V 50V
R= = = 25Ω
I 2A

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 2. Resistors in parallel
In parallel connection:
 Resistors are connected face to face.
 The current has many paths.
 Since the polarity of each p.d on each resistor is the same, the potential drop in the system is equal to the
potential drop across each resistor.
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉
 The total current flowing in the circuit is the sum of individual current flowing.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 +. . . +𝐼𝑛
V
V = IR → I =
R
𝑉𝑇 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉𝑛
= + + +. . . +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + + +. . . +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
V( ) = 𝑉( + + +. . . + )
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +. . . +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
Example
1. Three resistors of 8Ω, 12Ω, and 24Ω are connected in parallel, and a current of 20A. determine
A. The potential difference across the combination.
B. The current through each resistor.

Solution
1 1 1 1 1 6
= + + =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑇 24Ω
1 1 1 1 𝑅𝑇 24Ω
= + + =
𝑅𝑇 8Ω 12Ω 24Ω 1 6
1 3+2+1 6 𝑅𝑇 = 4Ω
= =
𝑅𝑇 24Ω 24Ω
2. For the circuit shown in figure below.
A. Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor
B. Calculate the current through each resistor
C. Calculate the effective resistance of the circuit.

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 Solution
A. 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 12𝑉 1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑉 12𝑉 𝑅𝑇 12Ω 6Ω 4Ω
B. 𝐼1 = 𝑅1 = 12Ω = 1𝐴
1 1 1+2+3
𝑉2 12𝑉 =
𝐼2 = = = 2𝐴 𝑅𝑇 12Ω
𝑅2 6Ω 1 6
𝑉3 12𝑉 =
𝐼3 = = = 3𝐴 𝑅𝑇 12Ω
𝑅3 4Ω 𝑅𝑇 12Ω
1 1 1 1 =
C. = 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 1 6
𝑅𝑇 1 2 3
𝑅𝑇 = 2Ω
Exercise
1. In the circuit shown below, what is the potential difference between points A and B if the reading on
the ammeter is 1.2 A? Assume that the ammeter has zero resistance.

A. 0.24 V B. 4.4 V C. 6 V D. 10.8 V

2. What is the potential difference across the section of the circuit shown above if the input current is
6.0 A?

A. 3 V B. 3.3 V C. 12 V D. 36 V
3. What is the value of the resistor marked 'R' shown above?

A. 1Ω B. 2Ω C. 3Ω D. 4Ω

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33
 Measuring Instruments
1. Moving-coil galvanometer
A galvanometer is an instrument used for measuring small electric current in electric circuit.
A galvanometer is very sensitive instrument to detect the current.
It can be easily converted into ammeter and voltmeter.
In the moving-coil pointer-type meter, a coil is pivoted between the poles of a permanent magnet.
Current enters and leaves the coil by hair springs above and below it.
The greater the current, the greater the deflection which is shown by a pointer attached to the coil.

View from above

The soft iron cylinder at the centre of the coil is fixed and along with the concave poles of the magnet
it produces a radial field i.e. the field lines are directed to and from the centre of the cylinder.
2. Ammeters and shunts
 An ammeter is a device used to measure current flowing in a circuit.
 An ammeter is a galvanometer that has a known low resistance, called a shunt, in parallel with it to take
most of the current.
 An ammeter is placed in series in a circuit and must have a low resistance.

The basic Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by adding a low resistance (shunt).

3. Voltmeters and multipliers

Voltmeter is a device used to measure the potential difference between two points in the circuit.
A voltmeter is a galvanometer having a known high resistance, called a multiplier, in series with it.

A voltmeter is placed in parallel with the part of the circuit across which the p.d. is to be measured and
must have a high resistance otherwise the total resistance of the whole circuit is reduced so changing the
current and the p.d. measured.
You convert a galvanometer to be a voltmeter by adding a large resistance in series with the meter.

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 Converting a galvanometer into an ammeter
 A galvanometer can detect only small currents.
 Thus, to measure large currents it is converted into an ammeter.
 It can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance called shunt resistance in parallel to
the galvanometer.
 This low resistance is called shunt resistance S.
 The scale is now calibrated in ampere and the range of ammeter depends on the values of the shunt
resistance.

𝐼 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡.

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ ⇒ 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔
 The potential difference galvanometer is same as the potential difference across shunt resistance.
𝑉𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑆ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑆
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆
𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( )𝑅
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 𝑔
Example
1. A galvanometer of full-scale deflection 5mA is to be converted into a 0-10A ammeter. If its coil has a
resistance of 50Ω, what value shunt must be fitted?
Solution
𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( )𝑅
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 𝑔
0.005𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 50Ω
10𝐴 − 0.005𝐴
0.005𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 50Ω = 0.025Ω
9.995𝐴
2. A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 59 Ω. It shows a full-scale deflection for a
current of 50 mA. How will you convert it to an ammeter having a range of 0 to 3A?
Solution
𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( )𝑅
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 𝑔

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35
 0.05𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 59Ω
3𝐴 − 0.05𝐴
0.05𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 59Ω = 1Ω
2.95𝐴
3. A galvanometer of resistance 100Ω gives a full-scale deflection for a current of 10−5 A. To convert it
into an ammeter capable of measuring up to 1A we should connect a resistance of___________.
A. 1Ω in parallel B. 10−3 Ω in parallel C. 105 Ω in series D. 103 Ω in series
Solution
𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( )𝑅
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 𝑔
10−5 𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 100Ω
1𝐴 − 0.00001𝐴
10−5 𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ = ( ) 100Ω = 10−3 Ω
0.99999𝐴
Exercise
1. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 55Ω produces a full scale deflection for a current of 250 mA.
How will you convert it into an ammeter with a range of 0-3A? (Answer: 5Ω)
2. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 15 Ω and the metre shows full scale deflection for a current of 4
mA. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A? (Answer: 0.01Ω)
3. A galvanometer has a resistance of 16Ω. It shows full scale deflection, when a current of 20 mA is passed
through it. The only shunt resistance available is 0.06 which is not appropriate to convert a galvanometer
into an ammeter. How much resistance should be connected in series with the coil of galvanometer, so
that the range of ammeter is 8 A? (Answer: 7.94Ω)
Converting a galvanometer into voltmeter
 A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting with it with a very high resistance (R)
called multiplier in series with it.

 Potential difference across the given load resistance is the sum of potential difference across
galvanometer and potential difference across the high resistance.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 + 𝐼𝑔 𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅)
𝑉
= 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅
𝐼𝑔
𝑉
𝑅 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
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36
 Example
1. A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 25Ω and gives a full scale deflection for a current of
10mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter having range 0 – 100V?
Solution
𝑉
𝑅= − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
100𝑉
𝑅= − 25Ω
10𝑥10−3 𝐴
𝑅 = 10000Ω − 25Ω = 9975Ω
2. Find the resistance that must be placed in series with a 150Ω galvanometer having a 5000μA sensitivity
to allow it to be used as a voltmeter with a 0 – 100V full-scale reading.
Solution
𝑉
𝑅= − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
100𝑉
𝑅= − 150Ω
5000𝑥10−6 𝐴
𝑅 = 20000Ω − 150Ω = 19850Ω
Exercise
1. 100 mA current gives a full scale deflection in a galvanometer of 2Ω resistance. The resistance
connected with the galvanometer to convert it into a voltmeter to measure 5 V is
A. 40Ω B. 36Ω C. 48Ω D. 28Ω
2. An ammeter of 5Ω resistance can read 5 mA. If it is to be used to read 100 volts, how much
resistance is to be connected in series?
A. 19.9995Ω B. 199.995 Ω C. 1999.95 Ω D. 19995 Ω

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37
 The Potential divider
 A potential divider is a circuit arrangement (configuration) used in an electronics to obtain a desired
voltage output from a voltage source.
 A potential divider consists of two or more resistors in series with each other and with a source of fixed
potential difference.
 The potential difference of the source is divided between the components in the circuit.

 If we put a load resistance 𝑅𝐿 in parallel with 𝑅2 as shown in figure below, then the potential
difference 𝑉𝐿 across 𝑅𝐿 can be calculated as follows.

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿 1 1
1 1 = + = 𝑉𝐿 ( + )
Since 𝑅2 & 𝑅𝐿 are parallel together, 𝑅 =𝑅 + 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
2 𝑅𝐿 2
1 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅2 1 1 1
= 𝑉𝑠 ( ) = 𝑉𝐿 ( + )
𝑅𝐿 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 ( ) = 𝑉𝐿 ( )
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑉𝑠 ( ) = 𝑉𝐿 ( )
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 ) 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1 1
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑉𝑠 ( ) = 𝑉𝐿 ( )
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠
=
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝐿 𝑅2
𝐼2𝐿 = 𝐼 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐿 , 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐿 since they are parallel. 𝑉𝐿 = ( )𝑉
𝑉 𝑅𝐿 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠
From Ohm’s law: 𝐼 = 𝑅 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅
𝐿
𝑉𝑠 𝑉 𝑉 ( )
𝐼2𝐿 = 𝑅 , 𝐼2 = 𝑅2 , 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
𝑒𝑓𝑓 2 𝐿
𝑉𝑠 𝑉2 𝑉𝐿
= +
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿

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 𝑅2
𝑉𝐿 = ( )𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅
𝐿
 If 𝑅𝐿 is large in comparison with 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 [𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 ] ( as it would be in a practical
application such as the input to an operational amplifier) then this equation cab be:
𝑅2
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑠
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝑛
 If 𝑅𝐿 is in parallel with 𝑅1 , the potential difference 𝑉𝐿 is given by:
𝑅1 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠
 If 𝑅𝐿 is large in comparison with 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 [𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 ]
𝑅1
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑠
Examples
1. The circuit is designed to light up a lamp when the input voltage exceeds a preset value. It does this by
comparing 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 with a fixed reference voltage of 5.3 V.
𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝑛
12𝑘Ω
5.3𝑉 = 𝑉
12𝑘Ω + 20𝑘Ω 𝑖𝑛
12
5.3𝑉 = 𝑉
32 𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 8.48𝑉

Solution
2. A thermistor is connected in a circuit shown in figure below. The resistance of the thermistor varies with
temperature. It has a resistance of 12Ω at a temperature of 00C and a resistance of 0.25kΩ at the temperature of
250C. Find the output p.d (𝑉𝐿 ) at a) 00C and b) 250C
𝑅2 = resistance of thermistor = 12Ω
𝑅1 = 4Ω
𝑅2 12
a) 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑠 = 4+12 𝑥12 = 9𝑉
1 +𝑅2
𝑅2 0.25
b) 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅 𝑉𝑠 = 4+0.25 𝑥12 = 0.706𝑉
Solution 1 +𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑠

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 Potentiometer
 A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor in which the
resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric current.

 A potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.

 A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider.
 It works by varying the position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance wire.
 In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor, and the output
voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding contact.
 Thus, a potentiometer is essentially a type of potential divider circuit.
 There are two main types of potentiometers:
1. Rotary potentiometer 2. Linear potentiometer
Rotary potentiometer
 Rotary potentiometer is used mainly for obtaining adjustable supply voltage to a part of electronic circuits
and electrical circuits.
 The volume controller of a radio transistor is an example of a rotary potentiometer where the rotary knob of
the potentiometer controls the supply to the amplifier.

Linear potentiometer
 A linear potentiometer, also known as a slide potentiometer or a slider potentiometer, is a type of
potentiometer that has a linear resistive element. It is commonly used to control or vary electrical signals such
as voltage or audio levels.

 The Potentiometer can also be used for the following purposes.

► To measure the emf of a given cell,
► To measure the internal resistance of a cell,
► To compare the emf of different cells, and used as a variable resistor.
Exercise: A potentiometer can be used to measure
A. Emf of newly designed cell
B. Internal resistance of a cell
C. Unknown resistance
D. Potential difference across a resistor
E. All
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40
 Potentiometer to measure the emf of a cell
 The principle of a potentiometer is that the potential dropped across a segment of a wire of uniform cross-
section carrying a constant current is directly proportional to its length.
 The potentiometer is a simple device used to measure the electrical potentials (or compare the e.m.f of a cell).
 One form of potentiometer is a uniform high-resistance wire attached to an insulating support, marked with a
linear measuring scale.
 In use, an adjustable regulated voltage source 𝑉𝑠 , of greater magnitude than the potential to be measured, is
connected across the wire so as to pass a steady current through it.

 Now, suppose we wish to measure the emf of cell X (𝐸𝑥 ) (this must have a value less than that of the driver
cell). The positive terminal of cell X is connected to point A.
 Both cells have their positive terminals connected to A.
 A lead from the negative terminal is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, and a lead from the other
terminal of the galvanometer ends with a metal jockey.
 This is a simple connecting device with a very sharp edge that allows very precise positioning on the wire.
 If the jockey is touched onto the wire close to point A, the galvanometer needle will deflect in one direction.
 If the jockey is touched close to B, the galvanometer needle will deflect in the opposite direction.
 Clearly, there must be some point Y along the wire that, when touched by the jockey, gives zero deflection.
 In finding this position, the jockey must be touched gently and briefly onto the wire; the deflection of the
galvanometer shows whether the jockey is too far to the left or right.
 It is important not to slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire as this may scrape its surface, making it
non-uniform so that the voltage does not vary uniformly along its length.
 When the jockey is positioned at Y, the galvanometer gives zero deflection, showing that there is no current
through it.
 This can only happen if the potential difference across the length of wire AY is equal to the emf of cell X.
 We can say that the potentiometer is balanced.
 If the balance point was exactly halfway along the wire, we would be able to say that the emf of X was half
that of the driver cell.
 This technique finding a point where there is a reading of zero is known as a null method.
𝐴𝑌 𝐴𝐽 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
= =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐸0
𝐴𝑌 𝐸𝑥
=
𝐴𝐵 𝐸0
 Now we can calculate cell voltage as
𝐴𝑌
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥𝐸
𝐴𝐵 0

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 Potentiometer to compare the emf of two cells
 Suppose we have two cells whose emfs 𝐸𝑥 and 𝐸𝑦 we want to compare.
 Each is connected in turn to the potentiometer, giving balance points at C and D.

 In the diagram, we can see immediately that 𝐸𝑦 must be greater than 𝐸𝑥 because D is further to the right than
C.
 The ratio of the emfs of the two cells will be equal to the ratio of the two lengths AC and AD:
𝐸𝑥 𝐴𝐶
=
𝐸𝑦 𝐴𝐷
𝐸2 𝑙2
=
𝐸1 𝑙1
Example
1. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 volts gives a balance point at 35 cm length of the wire.
If the cell is replaced by another cell and balance point shifts to 63 cm, what is the emf of the second cell?
Solution
𝐸2 𝑙2 63𝑐𝑚
= 𝐸2 = 𝑥1.25𝑉
𝐸1 𝑙1 35𝑐𝑚
𝑙2 𝐸2 = 2.25𝑉
𝐸2 = 𝑥𝐸1
𝑙1
2. When the emf of two cells is compared in a potentiometer experiment, the ratio of balancing length is
obtained as 2: 5. If one of the cells has an emf of 1.2 V, calculate the other cell's emf.
Solution
𝐸2 𝑙2 𝐸2 = 0.48𝑉
=
𝐸1 𝑙1 1.2𝑉 2
=
𝐸2 2 𝐸1 5
=
1.2𝑉 5 𝐸1 = 3𝑉
Exercise
1. Consider a potentiometer set-up where a cell of emf 2.25 V gives a balance point at 63.0 cm length of the
wire. Now the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 21.0 cm. Then the emf of the
second cell is:
A. 1.25V B. 0.75V C. 1.75V D. 0.35V

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42
 Measurement of Resistance
 Resistance can be measured directly by using ohmmeter.
 Experimentally resistance is measured using the following two methods.
1. The ammeter-voltmeter method.
2. Using Wheatstone bridge
1. The ammeter-voltmeter method
 The ammeter-voltmeter method is a general method for measuring electrical resistances.
 The readings of current (I) and voltage (V) allow the calculation of electrical resistance (R) using Ohm's
law
V
R =
I

 The variable resistor is used to adjust the current and voltage as needed.
2. Using Wheatstone bridge
 Wheatstone bridge is an instrument designed to measure unknown resistance in electrical circuits.
 It calculates the unknown resistance by balancing the two legs of the bridge circuit where one leg contains
both known resistors and the other leg contains one known (variable) and one unknown resistor.
 Since it estimates unknown resistance in an electric circuit, it is also known as a resistance bridge.
 Wheatstone bridge is a very reliable instrument as it measures the resistance very precisely.
 Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection i.e., there is no current flowing through the
galvanometer, and its needle shows no deflection.
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑅3 𝑅𝑥
𝑅1 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑥 =
𝑅1

 If four resistors with resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are connected to form a loop there are four joints A, B, C
and D.

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43
  A battery is connected between two opposite joints A and B and a galvanometer is connected between the
other two opposite joints C and D.
 The current in 𝑅2 is the same as the current in 𝑅1 and the current in 𝑅4 is the same as that in 𝑅3 .
 When no current is flowing through, the bridge, it is said to be balanced.
 As there is no current through the galvanometer, the potential difference across its terminals is zero.
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Examples
1. A Wheatstone bridge circuit is set up as shown below. It is balanced. What is resistance 𝑅𝑥 ?

Solution
𝑅3 100Ω 𝑥 200Ω
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅2 𝑥 = = 200Ω
𝑅1 100Ω
2. Resistances of the ratio arms of a Wheatstone bridge are 300 Ω and 30Ω. The fourth arm is connected to an
unknown resistor. Find the value of the unknown resistance if the third arm has a resistance of 250Ω in a
balanced condition?
Solution
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
300Ω 250Ω
=
30Ω 𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = 25Ω
3. In the following circuit if deflection in the galvanometer is zero then calculate the value of resistance R.

Solution
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅𝑥
2Ω 3Ω
=
4Ω 𝑅𝑥
𝑅𝑥 = 6Ω
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 Comparing the Brightness of Bulbs
 Watts are not measure brightness; they're a measure of energy consumption per unit time.
 It measures, how much electricity a bulb uses.
 The amount of light emitted by a bulb (brightness) is measured in Lumens.
 A lumen is a measure of the amount of brightness of a lightbulb.
 The higher the lumens, the more light the bulb emits.
 We can use power (watts) to compare the brightness of bulbs.
 The higher the wattage rating, the more energy consumed.
 From the equation for electric power, we can see that brightness depends on current and resistance.
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅

Example
1. Three 60W, 120V light bulbs are connected across a 120 V power source. If resistance of each bulb does
not change with current then find out total power delivered to the three bulbs.

Solution

𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑉 2 2𝑉 2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = =
3 3𝑅
𝑅
2
2 𝑉2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ( )
3 𝑅
2 2
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑃) = (60𝑊) = 40𝑊
3 3
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 Kirchhoff’s Rules
 Kirchhoff's rules can be used to analyze any DC circuit, regardless of how many loops and cells are in the
circuit.
 The procedure for analyzing more complex circuits is greatly simplified if we use two principles called
Kirchhoff’s rules.
1. Kirchhoff’s first rule (point or junction rule).

 The sum of the currents entering any junction in a circuit must equal the sum of the currents leaving that
junction:
I in
  I out
It is a statement of conservation of charge
A large number of electrons enter the battery at the positive terminal every second is equal to the number of
electrons leaves the battery at the negative terminal every second.
Similarly the rate at which electrons arrive at one end of a wire is exactly the same as the rate at which they
leave the other. This is Kirchhoff’s point (junction) rule.
The total current flowing into a point is equal to the total current flowing out of that point.

 By convention, currents going into a junction are positive but currents leaving a junction are
negative.
 The sum of currents at any junction is zero.
𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

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 1. Look at the figure below, state the value of current in each of the resistors A, B, C

Solution
Resistor A has the full 4.0 A flowing through it.
For resistor B, we need to consider junction x. there are 6.0 A leaving x and which means a total of 6.0 A must
enter x. since 4.0 A enter from the left, Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that 2.0 A must enter from the right, as
shown below.

For resistor C we need to consider junction y.

There are 3.0 A flowing into the junction, so a total 3.0 A must leave the junction (2.0 A flow through B
and 1.0 A
2. In the following circuits find the current at points A, B, C, and D.

Solution Since R1 and R 2 are parallel, the p.d.

From Kirchhoff’s junction rule (V) across them will be the same.
4.8𝐴 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 … … … … . (1) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅1 = 3𝑅2 V1 = I1 R1

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 V2 = I2 R 2 4.8𝐴 = 1.2𝐴 + 𝐼2
V1 = V2 𝐼2 = 3.6𝐴
I1 R1 = I2 R 2 Now use Kirchhoff’s junction rule at junction.
I1 (3𝑅2 ) = I2 R 2 Current in = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 4.8 A
3I1 = I2 … … … … . (2) Current out = 𝐼𝐷 = 4.8 A
Use equation 1 into 2 So at A, current is 1.2 A
4.8𝐴 = 𝐼1 + 3I1 at B, current is 3.6 A
4.8𝐴 = 4𝐼1 at C, current is 3.6 A
4.8𝐴 at D, current is 4.8 A
= 𝐼1
4
𝐼1 = 1.2𝐴

Kirchhoff’s second rule (loop rule)

 The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero:
∑ ∆𝑉 = 0
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
Kirchhoff’s second rule is based on conservation of energy.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule state that: In any closed loop in a circuit the sum of the emf is equal to the sum of
the p.ds.
Some conventions: 3. Potential is gained on crossing a battery from
1. Potential across a resistor is negative in the negative to positive terminal
direction of current

4. Potential drops on crossing a battery from

2. Potential across a resistor is positive in the positive to negative terminal
direction opposite to current

Examples
1. Find the current flowing in each of the resistors in this circuit.

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 Solution

At junction A, from Kirchhoff’s junction rule, −9 + 30𝐼2 + 30𝐼3 = 0

𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 (1) −9 + 30𝐼2 + 30𝐼3 = 0
+{ }
In loop 1, from Kirchhoff’s loop rule, 𝑉1 − 𝐼1 𝑅4 − −3 − 30𝐼2 + 20𝐼3 = 0
𝑉2 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 0 −12 + 50𝐼3 = 0
3 − 10𝐼1 − 6 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼1 = 0 12 = 50𝐼3
−3 − 20𝐼1 − 10𝐼2 = 0 (2) 12
𝐼3 =
In loop 2, from Kirchhoff’s loop rule, 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 − 50
𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝑨
𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0
Put 𝐼3 in equation (3)
9 − 6 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼3 = 0
3 − 10𝐼2 − 10(0.24𝐴) = 0
3 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼3 = 0 (3)
3 − 10𝐼2 − 2.4 = 0
From equation (1) we can derive 𝐼1
(4) 0.6 − 10𝐼2 = 0
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼3
Now we can use equation (4) in equation (2) 0.6 = 10𝐼2
0.6
−3 − 20(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) − 10𝐼2 = 0 𝐼2 =
10
−3 − 20𝐼2 + 20𝐼3 − 10𝐼2 = 0
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝑨
−3 − 30𝐼2 + 20𝐼3 = 0 (5)
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼3
Multiply equation (3) by -3 and add with equation
𝐼1 = 0.06𝐴 − 0.24𝐴
(5)
𝑰𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝑨
−3(3 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼3 = 0)

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 6.6. Capacitors and Capacitance
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Define the terms capacitors, capacitances, dielectric.
 Explain the effect of inserting dielectric in the gap between the plates of a capacitor.
 Solve problems related to capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
 Calculate the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in series and parallel.
Capacitor and Capacitance
 A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an electric charge.
 It consists of two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance.
 The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an insulating material known as a
dielectric.
 The ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as capacitance.

 A combination of two conductors placed close to each other but not touching form a capacitor.
 In charging a capacitor one of the plates is connected to the positive terminal and the other to the negative
terminal of a DC source.
 The electric field created forces electrons to flow from the positive plate to the negative plate until the potential
difference between the plates of the capacitor becomes equal to the emf of the battery.
 For a given capacitor, the charge Q stored on the capacitor is proportional to the potential difference V between
the plates.
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
 The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
 It is independent of Q and V but depends on geometrical factors.
 The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F). Small values of capacitances are measured in micro, nano and pico
farads.
Example
1. What is the capacitance of a capacitor which can store 18mC of charge when the pd across it is 6V?
Solution 18𝑥10−3 𝐶
𝐶=
𝑄 6𝑉
𝐶= 𝐶 = 3𝑥10 −3
𝐹
𝑉
𝐶 = 3𝑚𝐹
2. How much charge will be stored on this capacitor if the voltage is increased to 20 V?
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 = 3𝑥10−3 𝐹 𝑥 20𝑉
𝑄 = 60𝑥10−3 𝐶
Exercise
1. A conductor gets a charge of 50 C when it is connected to a battery of e.m.f. 5 V. Calculate capacity of the
conductor.

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50
2. A 10-farad capacitor connected to a 12-volt battery what is amount of charge can be stored in the capacitor?
3. A capacitor having a capacitance of 6𝜇𝐹 is connected to a 100 V battery. What charge will be stored in the
capacitor?
4. What amount of charge accumulates on the plates of a 30𝜇𝐹 capacitor when it is connected to a 300 V power
supply?
5. What is the capacitance of a capacitor which acquires a charge of 600𝜇𝐶 when connected to a 1200 V power
supply?
Parallel-plate Capacitor
 A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two large plane plates placed parallel to each other with a small
separation between them.
 Suppose, the area of each of the facing surfaces is A and the separation between the two plates is d. Also,
assume that the space between the plates is filled with vacuum.
 If a charge Q is stored on the positive plate, a charge -Q will be stored on the negative plate. The charges will
appear on the facing surfaces.
 Charge density is the charge per unit area on a charged surface.
 For a given plate with a charge Q and an area A the charge density 𝜎 is given by:
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
 The charge density on each of these surfaces has a magnitude
𝑄
𝜎=
𝐴
 Using Gauss’s law we can derive an expression for the electric field strength between the plates.
 Gauss's Law states that the net electric flux through any surface is equal to the total charge enclosed within
that surface divided by the permittivity of free space.
𝑄
𝚽𝑬 =
𝜀𝑜
 This statement basically implies that any particular surface will only have a net flux as long as a net charge is
found inside that surface.
 Using Gauss’s law the electric field through each plate is
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀𝑜
As the plates have an equal but opposite charge they mutually attract and hold each other together. Therefore in between
plates the electric fields are in the same direction.
The total electric field between the plates is the sum of the two electric fields.
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= + = 2( )
2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀𝑜
 An electric field can cause charged particles to move.

 The electric field between the plates is given by the equation

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0

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 𝑄
𝐸=
𝐴𝜀0
 The potential difference between each plate is given by:
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
𝑄
𝑉=( )𝑑
𝐴𝜀0
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑄
(𝐴𝜀 ) 𝑑
0
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0
𝑑
 This equation gives the capacitance of two parallel plates in a vacuum.
 If a dielectric material of dielectric constant k is inserted between the plates, the equation for capacitance
became:
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑘𝜀0
𝑑
 The capacitance depends on:
The size of the plates
Their separation
The nature of the insulator between them
1. Two parallel plates are arranged as a capacitor having an air as the dielectric and being 1 cm apart. If the
plates is 200𝑐𝑚2 what is the capacitance of the capacitor?
Solution
C2
ε0 A 8.85x10−12 (200x10−2 m) C2
C= = Nm2 = 1770𝑥10 −12
= 1.77𝑥10−9 F = 1.77nF
d 1x10−2 m N𝑚2
Exercise
1. An air-filled parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area 2.30 cm2 separated by 1.50 mm.
A. Find the value of its capacitance. The capacitor is connected to a 12.0V battery.
B. What is the charge on the capacitor?
C. What is the magnitude of the uniform electric field between the plates?
2. Calculate the area of a parallel plate’s air capacitor having a capacitance of 8.85𝜇𝐹 and separated by 1mm.
Dielectrics
 A dielectric is an insulating or non-conducting material such as glass, paraffin, wood or plastic that is inserted
in the gap between the plates of a capacitor.
 When a dielectric is inserted in the electric field between the plates, there will be some charge distribution in it.
 The positive charges within the dielectric are displaced lightly towards the negative plate, and the negative
charges are displaced slightly towards the positive plate.
 This slight separation of charge is known as polarization.
 Due to polarization the potential difference and hence the electric field between the plates will decrease.
 Since, the dielectric is not disconnected from the source; the potential difference between the plates finally will
be that of the source.
 As a result, the capacitor can hold more charge, and thus, its capacitance increased,
𝐶 = 𝑘𝐶0
 A dielectric constant (k) is also called relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity.
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 It measures the ability of a capacitor to store charge.
 It is the property of the dielectric.
 It is equal to the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled with the given material to the capacitance of an
identical capacitor in a vacuum without the dielectric material.
𝐶
𝑘=
𝐶0
 The dielectric constant is a number without dimensions.
 The value of the dielectric constant for vacuum is one and for any other material is it is greater than one.
 Inserting a dielectric always increases the capacitance of the capacitor.
Dielectric strength
 For any insulator, there is a maximum electric field that can be maintained without ionizing the molecules.
 This means that there is a maximum allowable voltage that that can be placed across the conductors.
 This maximum voltage depends on the dielectric in the capacitor.
 The corresponding maximum field 𝐸𝑏 is called the dielectric strength of the material.
 It is the maximum electric field that the material can withstand without undergoing electrical breakdown and becoming
electrically conductive (i.e. without failure of its insulating properties).

Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field strength that a material can withstand before break down.

Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors in series
When capacitors are connected in series, they are connected one after the other.

 For a series connection, the charge stored in each capacitor is the same as the charge stored in the connection.
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄 … … … . . (1)
 The total potential is equal to the sum of the individual potential drops across each capacitor
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 … … … . . (2)
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄𝑇
𝐶 = 𝑉 And 𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇

𝑄𝑇 𝑄1 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Now, equation (2) became 𝐶𝑇
= 𝐶1
+ 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
2 3 𝑛

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
𝑄( ) = 𝑄( + + + ⋯+ )
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯ + . … … … (3)
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

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 Capacitors in parallel

When capacitors are connected in parallel, they are connected face to face.

For a parallel connection:

The total potential difference is the same as the potential drop across each capacitor
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉 … … … . . (1)
 The total charge stored in the system is equal to the sum of charges stored in each capacitor
𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ⋯ + 𝑄𝑛 … … … . . (2)
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑇 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 + 𝐶3 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑉𝑛
𝐶𝑇 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 𝑉
𝐶𝑇 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛 )
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
1. Four capacitors are connected as shown in figure below.
A. Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b.
B. Calculate the charge on each capacitor if 𝛥𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 15.0 𝑉.
1 1 1 285
= + =
𝐶𝑒𝑞 8.5𝜇𝐹 20𝜇𝐹 1700𝜇𝐹

1700𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = 5.96𝜇𝐹
285

B. 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉 = 5.96𝜇𝐹(15𝑉) = 89.5𝜇𝐶

on 20𝜇𝐹
Solution 𝑄 89.5𝜇𝐹
1 1 1 6
∆𝑉 = = = 4.47 𝑉
A. = 15𝜇𝐹 + 3𝜇𝐹 = 15𝜇𝐹 𝐶 20𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑠 ∆𝑉 = 15𝑉 − 4.47 𝑉 = 10.53𝑉
15𝜇𝐹
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉 = 6𝜇𝐹(10.53𝑉) = 63.2𝜇𝐶
𝐶𝑠 = = 2.5𝜇𝐹 on 6𝜇𝐹
6
89.5𝜇𝐶 − 63.2𝜇𝐶 = 26.3𝜇𝐶 on
𝐶𝑝 = 2.5𝜇𝐹 + 6𝜇𝐹 = 8.5𝜇𝐹 15𝜇𝐹 and 3𝜇𝐹

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 Exercise
1. Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and b in the combination of capacitors shown in
Figure below

2. For the system of capacitors shown in Figure below find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the system,
(b) the charge on each capacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor

The energy stored by a capacitor is given by:
1 1 𝑄2
𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2 =
2 2 2𝐶
Example: Two capacitors, of 6.0µ𝐹 and 12.0 µ𝐹 capacitance, are connected in parallel across a 300 V potential
difference. Calculate the total energy stored in the capacitors.
Solution
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 6.0µ + 12.0 µ𝐹 = 18µ𝐹 = 18𝑥10−6 𝐹
1 1
𝐸 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 (18𝑥10−6 𝐹)(300 V) = 2700𝑥10−6 𝐹𝑉 = 2.7𝑥10−3 𝐽 = 2.7𝑚𝐽
EXERCISE
1. A capacitor of capacitance 10µ𝐹 is fully charged from 20V power supply. Calculate the energy
stored in the capacitor.
2. Find the energy held in capacitors in the given circuit, given in mJ.

3. How much energy can be stored if 10V is applied to a 5F capacitor?

4. It takes 20V to store 80C of charge on a certain capacitor. (a) How much potential energy is stored in
this capacitor (b) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor.
5. How much energy is stored if 500C of charge rests on a 10F capacitor? (b) What is the voltage cross
this capacitor?
6. A certain capacitor has 25J of stored potential energy when connected across at 10V battery. How
much energy can the capacitor store when connected across a 20 V battery?
7. How much energy is stored in a 150uF capacitor if a 12V battery is connected across it? (b) How
much charge is stored in this capacitor?

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 6.7. Electric Circuits in Our Surroundings
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Apply the knowledge about electric circuits to explain household electric installation.
Household Electric Installations
 In our country Ethiopia, the voltages of the mains are 220 V - 240 V.
 Heating appliances include electric kettle, immersion heater, electric irons, hair driers and electric stoves.
 All heating appliances contain a heating element that converts electrical energy into heat energy.
Color Code of Resistors
 The value of the resistance of resistors in electronic devices is labeled by a color code.
 There are colored rings in any resistor.
 According to the international standard organization ISO, the orders of the rings are arranged and each color
is represented by a number.

 The first band represents the first digit number, the second band the second digit number and the third band
represents multiplier to the base 10.
 The fourth band is the tolerance (the permissible percentage error ± of the value.
 The trick in reading color code is noticing that the first three digits (numerical values) in a four band resistor
are closer in equal gap, whereas the fourth band (the tolerance) on the other end is in a bit wider gap
 In a five band resistor, the first four digits are closer in equal gap and the fifth band (the tolerance) is a bit
further
 The first three closer bands are: brown, black and red, which represent first digit number, second digit
number and the multiplier respectively.
 Referring the color chart, the first band is brown = 1 the second band is black = 0 , the third band is red= 2.

 5ppm/K means that the resistance will change by 5 parts per million per 1 Kelvin change in temperature.
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