BMP syllabus

MODULE - I (10 LECTURES)

• Foundry :Types of patterns, pattern materials and pattern allowances.
Moulding Materials -sand moulding, metal moulding, investment moulding,
shell moulding.
• Composition of molding sand, Silica sand, Zircon sand, binders, additives,
Binders - clay, binders for CO2 sand, binder for shell moulding, binders for
core sand.
• Properties of moulding sand and sand testing, Melting furnaces - cupola,
resistance furnace, induction and arc furnace.
• Solidification of castings, design of risers and runners, feeding distance,
centre line freezing resistance chills and chaplets.
• Degasification and inoculation of metals. Casting methods like
continuous casting, centrifugal casting, disc casting. Casting defects.
BMP syllabus
MODULE – II (8 LECTURES)
• Welding and cutting: Introduction to gas welding, cutting, Arc
welding and equipment’s.
• TIG(GTAW) and MIG (GMAW) welding, resistance welding and
thermit welding.
• Weldablity,Modern Welding methods like plasma Arc, Laser
Beam, Electron Beam, Ultrasonic, Explosive and friction welding,
edge preparation in butt welding. Brazing and soldering.
• welding defects. Destructive and non-destructive testing of
castings and welding.
BMP syllabus
MODULE – III (08 LECTURES)
• Brief introduction to powder metallurgy processes.
• Plastic deformation of metals: Variables in metal forming and
their optimization. Dependence of stress strain diagram on Strain
rate and temperature.
• Hot and cold working of metals, classification of metal forming
processes.
• Rolling: Pressure and Forces in rolling, types of rolling mills,
Rolling defects. Forging: Smith Forging, Drop and Press forging,
M/c forging, Forging defects.
BMP syllabus
MODULE – IV (08 LECTURES)
• Extrusions: Direct, Indirect, Impact and Hydrostatic extrusion
and their applications, Extrusion of tubes.
• Wire drawing methods and variables in wire-drawing, Optimum
dies shape for extrusion and drawing.
• Brief introduction to sheet metal working: Bending, Forming and
Deep drawing, shearing. Brief introduction to explosive forming,
coating and deposition methods.
Books

• [1] Manufacturing technology by P.N.Rao, Tata McGraw Hill publication.

• [2] Welding Technology by R.A. Little, TMH
• [3] Manufacturing Science by A.Ghosh and A K Malick, EWP
• [4] Fundamentals of metal casting technology by P.C. Mukherjee, Oxford
PIBI.
• [5] Mechanical Metallurgy by Dieter, Mc-Graw Hill
• [6] Processes and Materials of Manufacture by R.A Lindberg, Prentice
hall (India)
• [7] A Text Book of Production Engineering by P.C.Sharma, S.Chand.
Introduction to Casting
• There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings,
factories, schools, and homes.
• Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape
to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal
object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the
mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting.
• By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently
not obtainable by any other manufacturing process.
• The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting
material.
• The sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten
metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products.
Advantages

• Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by
this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding,
can be minimized or eliminated.
• It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
• As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be achieved.
• The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result,
for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
• There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.
• Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are
a limitation to this technique.

• The metal casting process is a labor intensive process

Nomenclature of sand casting
• drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper moulding flask, cheek – intermediate moulding flask used
in three piece moulding.

• Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the help of
pattern.

• Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the mould.

• Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

• Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
• Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

• Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is
poured.

• Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mould
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

• Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
• Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the
mould cavity.

• Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the

mould cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the
metallostatic force.

• Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the

castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.

• Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and

gases.
Pattern with gating and riser
Steps in making sand castings

• (i)Pattern making,
• (ii) Core making,
• (iii) Moulding,
• (iv) Melting and pouring,
• (v) Cleaning
• Pattern making
• Pattern: Replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the mould
cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to make the mould.
Made of either wood or metal.

• The mould is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material,

such as moulding sand, surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is
withdrawn, its imprint provides the mould cavity. This cavity is filled with
metal to become the casting.

• If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to

form these cavities.
• Core making
• Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void
space is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the casting.
• Moulding
• Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for receiving molten metal.
• Moulding usually involves: (i) preparing the consolidated sand mould around a pattern
held within a supporting metal frame, (ii) removing the pattern to leave the mould cavity
with cores.
• Mould cavity is the primary cavity.
•
• The mould cavity contains the liquid metal and it acts as a negative of the desired
product.
•
• The mould also contains secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid
material in to the primary cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.
• Melting and Pouring
• The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. The molten
metal is transferred to the pouring area where the moulds are filled.

• Cleaning
• Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. Burned-on
sand and scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the casting. Excess
metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the
casting for defects and general quality is performed.
Making of sand mold
 Making of sand mold
1. The drag flask is placed on the board
2. Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board
3. Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould board. Dry facing sand will
provide a non-sticky layer.
4. Molding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and then the
drag is filled completely
5. Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. Peen
hammers (used first close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used for surface
ramming) are used.
6. The ramming must be proper
7. After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is leveled/removed with a straight
bar known as strike rod.
Making of sand mold
8) Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to
the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and
solidification. Done by vent rod.
9) The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the pattern.
10) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern using locating
pins. The cope flask is also located with the help of pins. The dry parting
sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and on the pattern.
11) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some distance
from the pattern edge. Riser pin is placed at an appropriate place.
12) Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done in the same manner.
Making of sand mold
13.The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made at the top
to pour the liquid metal.
14. Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.
15.Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a gate
cutter. A gate cutter is a piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.
16. The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould cavity in
the drag. Rests in core prints.
17.Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.
Pattern
• It’s a replica of the part to be made
• Functions of the Pattern
• A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
• A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting
requires a core and need to be made hollow.
• Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity
may form a part of the pattern.
• Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce
casting defects.
• A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.
• Pattern size =Casting size±allowance
Pattern allowances
5 different types of allowances
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Machining allowance
3. Draft allowance
4. Shake allowance
5. Distortion allowance
 Shrinkage allowance
• Pouring temperature should be greater than melting temperature to
avoid solidification in the passage.
• Pouring temperature=Meeting temperature+ degree of super heat

PT FT FT RT
• Liquid shrinkage:the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature.
• Solid shrinkage:the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature In solid state.
• Liquid shrinkage will be compensated by riser
• Solid shrinkage will be compensated by providing shrinkage allowance
Shrinkage allowance
• Table 1: Rate of Contraction of Various Metals

Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron

Up to 2 feet 0.125
2 feet to 4 feet 0.105
over 4 feet 0.083

Cast Steel
Up to 2 feet 0.251
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155

Aluminum
Up to 4 feet 0.155
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125

Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173

Over 4 feet 0.155
Problem on shrinkage allowance

1) The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern.All Dimensions are in Inches
Solution
• The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet (as per Table 1)
• For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch » 0.2 inch
• For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch » 0.15 inch
• For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch » 0. 09 inch
• For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch » 0. 07 inch
• The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:
Machining allowance
• Surface finish is very poor
• So after casting machining is needed
• Always first add machining allowance then shrinkage allowance
Table 2 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)
Up to 12 0.12
Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25
Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Up to 8 0.09
Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
Problem on machining allowance
1. The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only machining
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches
Solution
• The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch and from 12 inch to 20 inch
is 0.20 inch ( (Table 2)
• For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
• For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
• For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
• For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
• The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in Figure below
Draft allowance
Draft allowance

• Table 3: Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Pattern material Height of the Draft angle Draft angle
given surface (External surface) (Internal surface)
(inch)
1 3.00 3.00
1 to 2 1.50 2.50
Wood 2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00
1 to 2 1.00 2.00
Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
Shake allowance
• Before removal we need to shake the pattern
• This is the only negative allowance
Distortion allowance
• Not required on all
• U or V shaped(shapes having high l/t ratio)
Pattern material
Properties needed for pattern material
• Minimum moisture absorption
• Low density
• Cheap
• Easyness in fabrication
• Excellent surface finish
Pattern material
1. Wood :
• Except moisture absorption all other properties ar there
• Choose wood having low misture absorption.
• Teak wood, mahagony are suitable
2. Metal:
• Having high density and difficult to make shapes
• Some lighter metals like aluminum is used
• But double shrinkage allowance on wooden pattern
Pattern material
3. Plastics:
• Having all required properties
• Most commonly used pattern material in industry
4.Wax
5.Frozen Hg
Types of pattern

1. Single piece pattern

2. Split or two piece pattern
3. Match plate pattern
Core and core prints
Molding
Molding Sand Composition
• The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
• Base sand,
• Binder, and
• Moisture
 Molding
Base Sand
• Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite
sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available.

Binder
• Binders are of many types such as:
• Clay binders,
• Organic binders and
• Inorganic binders
• Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular
clay types are:
• Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
• Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.

Moisture
• Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it
penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used
should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding,
while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.
 Natural and synthetic molding sand
Natural molding sand:
• This is ready for use as it is dug from the ground. Good natural molding sand are obtained from Albany, New
york etc.
• The following average compositions are seen in natural molding sand:
• 65.5% silica grains, 21.7% clay content, 12.8% undesirable impurities.
• Too much clay content and other impurities fill up the gaps between the sand grains. This will hinder the
necessary passage of steam and other gases during pouring of the mold.

• Synthetic molding sand

• Synthetic molding sand is made by mixing together specially selected high quality clay free silica, with about
5% of clay. They are tailor made to give most desirable results.

• Some of the advantages of synthetic molding sand are:

1. Refractory grain sizes are more uniform, 2. Higher refractoriness (= 3000oF), 3. less bonding agent is required
(about 1/3rd of the clay percentage found in natural molding sand), 4. More suitable for use with mechanical
equipment
• Advantages of natural molding sand:
1. moisture content range is wide, 2. molds can be repaired easily
 Molding material and properties
• A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include
molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding
materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally required in molding materials
are:
• Refractoriness
• It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does
not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

• Permeability
• During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere
and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold,
they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding
material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside
the mold cavity.
 Molding material and properties
• Green Strength
• The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the
mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains
its shape.
• Dry Strength
• When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly
converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the
molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to
retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to
withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
• Collapsibility
• The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the
solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the
castings.Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap,
reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
 Permeability test
PROCEDURE
1. The experiment may be conducted in the two ways.
a. Vary clay content and keep water constant
b. Vary water content and keep clay constant
In both cases keep the no. of ramming of the specimen as three.

2. Weight quantities of sand, clay and water mixed thoroughly for

three minute this sand mixture is transferred to specimen tube and rammed
thrice under A.F.S sand rammer to get correct size specimen.

3. Place the specimen with the tube by inverting on the rubber pad of the permeability tester.

4. Collect 2000 cc of an air in the bell jar by keeping valve in the close position note down the manometer reading
and force the air through the specimen, soon after the air passing start the stop lock and once again take
manometer reading while pass air.

5. Note down the time to pass 2000 cc of air completely specimen, find the air pressure and substitute the values
Permeability number

PN=VH/PAT
PN= Permeability No
V= Volume of the Air in CC (2000cc)
H= Height of the specimen in cm (5.08cm)
P=Air pressure in gm/cm2
A= Cross section area of the specimen in cm2
D= Diar of specimen (5.08 cm)
T= Time in min.
Dry sand molding

When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the molds, air-dried molds are
sometimes preferred to green sand molds. Two types of drying of molds are often required.

• Skin drying and

• Complete mold drying.

• In skin drying a firm mold face is produced.

• The most common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame.

• Skin drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mold surface.
 Shell molding
• It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a
thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact
with a heated pattern plate (200 oC), this causes a
skin (Shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand/plastic
mixture to adhere to the pattern..
• Then the shell is removed from the pattern.
• The cope and drag shells are kept in a flask with
necessary backup material and the molten metal is
poured into the mold.
Shell molding
• This process can produce complex parts with good surface
finish 1.25 µm to 3.75 µm, and dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %.
• A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need
for machining.
• The process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced
machining and cleanup costs.
• The materials that can be used with this process are cast irons,
and aluminum and copper alloys.
 Sodium Silicate Molding Process

• In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate-based binder . After
compaction, CO 2 gas is passed through the core or mold. The CO 2 chemically reacts with the
sodium silicate to cure, or harden, the binder . After curing, the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.

• The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs
water, which causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid
mold wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down production.

Some of the advantages of the process are:

• A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives the casting good dimensional
tolerances;
• good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;
 Permanent mold process
• For large-scale production, making a mold, for every casting to be produced, may be difficult and expensive.
Therefore, a permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number of castings can be
produced.
• the molds are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as
mold materials.
• The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called permanent mold casting or gravity die
casting, since the metal enters the mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal
with a high pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting process.
Advantages
• Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior mechanical properties.
• The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher degree of dimensional accuracy than
castings produced in sand
• The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent quality of finish on castings
Disadvantages
• The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings
• The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple exterior design, although
complex castings such as aluminum engine blocks and heads are now commonplace.
 Investment casting

The basic steps of the investment casting process are :

1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene
patterns
2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. “Investing,” or covering the pattern assembly with refractory
slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing.
Centrifugal casting
• In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it.
Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies.
• The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate
towards the center. This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow
bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole.
• Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be
used for making the concentric hole.
• The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about its horizontal and
vertical axes simultaneously.
• The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter
is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the mold.
Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal casting
• Advantages

 Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

 Less material required for gate

 Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and
porosity

• Disadvantages

 More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation

 Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions

 Inaccurate internal diameter

Additives