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A Level Physics OCR 

2.2 Measurements & Uncertainties

CONTENTS
2.2.1 Sources of Uncertainty
2.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties
2.2.3 Determining Uncertainties from Graphs

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2.2.1 Sources of Uncertainty YOUR NOTES


Random & Systematic Errors
Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity as there will always be a
degree of uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the
true value
Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors that lead to
uncertainty
Random error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results
about the mean value
To reduce random error:
Repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them
Systematic error
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the
experimental method
This type of error is repeated consistently every time the instrument is used or the method is
followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors:
Instruments should be recalibrated, or different instruments should be used
Corrections or adjustments should be made to the technique

Systematic errors on graphs are shown by the offset of the line from the origin
Zero error
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This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the YOUR NOTES
true reading is zero 
For example, a top-ban balance that starts at 2 g instead of 0 g
Zero errors can be removed by taking the difference of the offset from each value
Eg. If a scale starts at 2 g instead of 0 g, a measurement of 50 g would actually be 50 -
2 = 48 g
The offset could be positive or negative

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Precision & Accuracy YOUR NOTES

Precision 
Precise measurements are ones in which there is very little spread about the mean value, in
other words, how close the measured values are to each other
If a measurement is repeated several times, it can be described as precise when the values
are very similar to, or the same as, each other
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded - measurements to a
greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole
number
Accuracy
A measurement is considered accurate if it is close to the true value
The accuracy can be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean of the
results
Repeating measurements also helps to identify anomalies that can be omitted from the
final results

The difference between precise and accurate results

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Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

 Exam Tip
It is a very common mistake to confuse precision with accuracy - measurements
can be precise but not accurate if each measurement reading has the same
error.Make sure you learn that precision refers to the ability to take multiple readings
with an instrument that are close to each other, whereas accuracy is the closeness
of those measurements to the true value.

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2.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties YOUR NOTES


Combining Uncertainties
Absolute & Percentage Uncertainties
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can
be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the
equipment or techniques used) and the true value
Uncertainties are not the same as errors
Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a
reading to be different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value
is expected to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a
balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the
measurement

To find uncertainties in different situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted
The uncertainty in the natural log of a value: absolute uncertainty in ln(x) =
uncertainty in x
x

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How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

Always make sure your absolute or percentage uncertainty is to the same number of
significant figures as the reading
Combining Uncertainties
When combining uncertainties, the rules are as follows:
Adding / Subtracting Data
Add together the absolute uncertainties

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Multiplying / Dividing Data

Add the percentage or fractional uncertainties

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Raising to a Power
Multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power

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 Exam Tip
Remember:
Absolute uncertainties (denoted by Δ) have the same units as the quantity
Percentage uncertainties have no units
The uncertainty in constants, such as π, is taken to be zero
Uncertainties in trigonometric and logarithmic functions will not be tested in the
exam, so just remember these rules and you’ll be fine!

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2.2.3 Determining Uncertainties from Graphs YOUR NOTES


Determining Uncertainties from Graphs
Error Bars
The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an error bar
This bar is drawn above and below the point (or from side to side) and shows the
uncertainty in that measurement
Error bars are plotted on graphs to show the absolute uncertainty of values plotted
Usually, error bars will be in the vertical direction, for y-values, but can also be plotted
horizontally, for x-values

Representing error bars on a graph

Determining Uncertainties from Graphs
To calculate the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines of best fit should be drawn on the graph:
The ‘best’ line of best fit, which passes as close to the points as possible
The ‘worst’ line of best fit, either the steepest possible or the shallowest possible line which
fits within all the error bars

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The line of best fit passes as close as possible to all the points. The steepest and shallowest
lines are known as the worst fit
The percentage uncertainty in the gradient can be found using:

The percentage uncertainty in the y-intercept can be found using:

Percentage Difference
The percentage difference gives an indication of how close the experimental value
achieved from an experiment is to the accepted value
It is not a percentage uncertainty
The percentage difference is defined by the equation:

The experimental value is sometimes referred to as the 'measured' value

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The accepted value is sometimes referred to as the 'true' value YOUR NOTES
This may be labelled on a component such as the capacitance of a capacitor or the 
resistance of a resistor
Or, from a databook
For example, the acceleration due to gravity g is known to be 9.81 m s-2. This is its accepted
value
From an experiment, the value of g may be found to be 10.35 m s-2
Its percentage difference would therefore be 5.5 %
The smaller the percentage difference, the more accurate the results of the experiment

 Worked Example
On the axes provided, plot the graph for the following data and draw error bars and
lines of best and worst fit.

Find the percentage uncertainty in the gradient from your graph.

Step 1: Draw sensible scales on the axes and plot the data

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Step 2: Draw the errors bars for each point

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Step 3: Draw the line of best fit

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Step 4: Draw the line of worst fit

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Step 5: Work out the gradient of each line and calculate the percentage uncertainty

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 Exam Tip
When drawing graphs make sure to follow these rules to gain full marks:
Ensure the scale is sensible and takes up as much paper as possible
Label the axes with a quantity and a unit
Precisely plot the points to within 0.5 squares
Leave a roughly equal number of points above and below the best fit line
Draw the error bars accurately

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