I

3.1 THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER:

To coordinate the access to the channel, multiple access protocols are requiring.
All these protocols belong to the MAC sub layer. Data Link layer is divided into two
sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)- is responsible for error control & flow control.
2. Medium Access Control (MAC)- MAC is responsible for multiple access
resolutions

3.2 THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM

In broadcast networks, single channel is shared by several stations. This channel

can be allocated to only one transmitting user at a time. There are two different
methods of channel allocations:

1. Static Channel Allocation- a single channel is divided among various users

either on the basis of frequency (FDM) or on the basis of time (TDM). In FDM,
fixed frequency is assigned to each user, whereas, in TDM, fixed time slot is
assigned to each user.
2. Dynamic Channel Allocation- no user is assigned fixed frequency or fixed
time slot. All users are dynamically assigned frequency or time slot, depending
upon the requirements of the user
3.3 MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS
Many protocols have been defined to handle the access to shared link. These
protocols are organized in three different groups:
 Random Access Protocols
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 Controlled Access Protocols

 Channelization Protocols

Fig 3.1 types of Multiple acess protocols

3.3.1 Random Access Protocols
There is no rule that decides which station should send next. If two stations
transmit at the same time, there is collision and the frames are lost. The various
random access methods are:
1. ALOHA
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
3. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
4. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

3.3.1.1 ALOHA
ALOHA was developed at University of Hawaii in early 1970s by Norman
Abramson. It was used for ground based radio broadcasting. In this method, stations
share a common channel. When two stations transmit simultaneously, collision occurs
and frames are lost. There are two different versions of ALOHA:
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
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Fig 3.2 protocol flow chart for ALOHA

Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send. When two
stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and frames are lost. In pure
ALOHA, whenever any station transmits a frame, it expects an acknowledgement from
the receiver. If acknowledgement is not received within specified time, the station
assumes that the frame has been lost. If the frame is lost, station waits for a random
amount of time and sends it again. This waiting time must be random; otherwise,
same frames will collide again and again. Whenever two frames try to occupy the
channel at the same time, there will be collision and both the frames will be lost. If first
bit of a new frame overlaps with the last bit of a frame almost finished, both frames will
be lost and both will have to be retransmitted.

Fig 3.3 ALOHA Protocol

The probability of having k arrivals during a time interval of length t is given by:

(t)k et
Pk (t) 
k!
where λ is the arrival rate. Note that this is a single-parameter model; all we have to
know is λ.

Analysis of Pure ALOHA:

 Notation:
– Tf = frame time (processing, transmission, propagation)
– S: Average number of successful transmissions per Tf ; that is, the
throughput or efficiency.
– G: Average number of total frames transmitted per Tf
– D: Average delay between the time a packet is ready for transmission and
the completion of successful transmission.
The following assumptions are
– All frames are of constant length
– The channel is noise-free; the errors are only due to collisions.
– Frames do not queue at individual stations
– The channel acts as a Poisson process.
Since S represents the number of “good” transmissions per frame time, and G
represents the total number of attempted transmissions per frame time, then we have:
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S = G ´ (Probability of good transmission)

• The vulnerable time for a successful transmission is 2Tf
• So, the probability of good transmission is not to have an “arrival” during the
vulnerable time .

Fig 3.4 collision of frames

Using : (t)k et
Pk (t) 
k! get
And setting t = 2Tf and k = 0, we
(  2T )0 e 2Tf
P0 (2Tf )   e2G
f

0!
G
becasue   . Thus, S  G  e2G
Tf

If we differentiate S = Ge-2G with respect to G and set the result to 0 and solve for G,
we find that the maximum occurs when G = 0.5, and for that S = 1/2e = 0.18. So, the
maximum throughput is only 18% of capacity

Slotted ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA. In slotted
ALOHA, time of the channel is divided into intervals called slots. The station can send
a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame is sent in each slot. If any
station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it
has to wait until the next time slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two stations
try to send at the beginning of the same time slot.

Analysis of Slotted ALOHA

Note that the vulnerable period is now reduced in half. Using:
(t)k et
Pk (t) 
k!
And setting t = Tf and k = 0, we get
(  T )0 e T f
P0 (Tf )   eG
f

0!
G
because   . Thus, S  G  eG
Tf
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Fig 3.5 Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA systems.

3.3..2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

` CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Carrier Sense means, stations
has an additional property with them, that they can sense the channel (carrier) and tell
if the channel is in use or not. What we want, that at the start of the slot, stations
should sense the channel first, and then act accordingly.
CSMA was developed to overcome the problems of ALOHA i.e. to minimize the
chances of collision. The chances of collision reduces to a great extent if a station
checks the channel before trying to use it.
There are three different types of CSMA protocols:
1. 1-Persistent CSMA
2. Non-Persistent CSMA
3. P-Persistent CSMA

3.3.2.1 1-Persistent CSMA

In this method, station that wants to transmit data, continuously senses the
channel to check whether he channel is idle or busy. If the channel is busy, station
waits until it becomes idle. When the station detects an idle channel, it immediately
transmits the frame. This method has the highest chance of collision because two or
more stations may find channel to be idle at the same time and transmit their frames.

3.3.2.2 Non-Persistent CSMA

A station that has a frame to send senses the channel. If the channel is idle, it
sends immediately. If the channel is busy, it waits a random amount of time and then
senses the channel again. It reduces the chance of collision because the stations wait
for a random amount of time. It is unlikely that two or more stations will wait for the
same amount of time and will retransmit at the same time.

3.3.2.3 P-Persistent CSMA

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In this method, the channel has time slots such that the time slot duration is
equal to or greater than the maximum propagation delay time. When a station is ready
to send, it senses the channel. If the channel is busy, station waits until next slot. If
the channel is idle, it transmits the frame. It reduces the chance of collision and
improves the efficiency of the network.

3.3.2.4 CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

In this protocol, the station senses the channel before transmitting the frame. If
the channel is busy, the station waits. Additional feature in CSMA/CD is that the
stations can detect collisions. The stations abort their transmission as soon as they
detect collision. This feature is not present in CSMA. The stations continue to
transmit even though they find that collision has occurred.
In CSMA/CD, the station that sends its data on the channel, continues to sense
the channel even after data transmission. If collision is detected, the station aborts its
transmission and waits for a random amount of time & sends its data again. As soon
as a collision is detected, the transmitting stations release a jam signal. Jam signal
alerts other stations. Stations are not supposed to transmit immediately after the
collision has occurred.

Fig 3.6 Flowchart for CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.

Fig 3.7 Frame format for CSMA/CD

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3.3.2.5 CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

This protocol is used in wireless networks because they cannot detect the
collision. So, the only solution is collision avoidance. It avoids the collision by using
three basic techniques:
 Interframe Space
 Contention Window
 Acknowledgements

Interframe Space: Whenever the channel is found idle, the station does not transmit
immediately. It waits for a period of time called Interframe Space (IFS). When
channel is sensed idle, it may be possible that some distant station may have already
started transmitting. Therefore, the purpose of IFS time is to allow this transmitted
signal to reach its destination. If after this IFS time, channel is still idle, the station can
send the frames.

Contention Window: Contention window is the amount of time divided into slots.
Station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its waiting time.
The number of slots in the window changes with time. It means that it is set of one
slot for the first time, and then doubles each time the station cannot detect an idle
channel after the IFS time. In contention window, the station needs to sense the
channel after each time slot.

Acknowledgment: Despite all the precautions, collisions may occur and destroy the
data. Positive acknowledgement and the time-out timer help guarantee that the
receiver has received the frame.

Fig 3.8 Flow chart for CSMA/CA

3.4 ETHERNET

Ethernet, developed in 1976, is the most widely-installed LAN technology, and

typically uses coaxial or UTP cable. Ethernet technology uses broadcast topology with
baseband signaling and a control method called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to transmit data. The IEEE 802.3 standard
defines Ethernet protocols for (Open Systems Interconnect) OSI’s Media Access
Control (MAC) sublayer and physical layer network characteristics. The IEEE 802.2
standard defines protocols for the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer.
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The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T, which
provides transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. 'Fast Ethernet' or 100BASE-T provides
transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second and is typically used for servers,
LAN backbone systems and in workstations with high-bandwidth needs. Gigabit
Ethernet provides an even faster level of backbone support at 1000 megabits per
second (1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second).
Ethernet is a passive, contention-based broadcast technology that uses
baseband signaling. Baseband signaling uses the entire bandwidth of a cable for a
single transmission. Only one signal can be transmitted at a time and every device on
the shared network hears broadcast transmissions. Passive technology means that
there is no one device controlling the network. Contention-based means that every
device must compete with every other device for access to the shared network. In
other words, devices take turns. They can transmit only when no other device is
transmitting.
Physical layer configurations are specified in three parts
-Data rate (10, 100, 1,000) Mbps
-Signaling method –Baseband(Digital signaling) and Broadband(Analog signaling)
-Cabling (2, 5, T, F, S, L)
– 5 - Thick coax (original Ethernet cabling)
– F – Optical fiber
– S – Short wave laser over multimode fiber
– L – Long wave laser over single mode fiber
Frame format

Fig 3.9 Frame format of Ehernet

Preamble is a sequence of 7 bytes, each set to “10101010”. Used to synchronize

receiver before actual data is sent
Addresses: -unique, 48-bit unicast address assigned to each adapter
• example: 8:0:e4:b1:2
• Each manufacturer gets their own address range
– broadcast: all 1s
– multicast: first bit is 1
Type field is a demultiplexing key used to determine which higher level protocol the
frame should be delivered to.
Body can contain up to 1500 bytes of data.

3.4.1 Ethernet working

When a node wants to communicate to another node, it transmits its frame. The
frame travels to every node on the segment. Each node inspects the frame to see if it
is addressed to him. If the frame is not addressed to the node, the node ignores it. If
the frame is addressed to the node, the node opens the frame and reads its contents.
The exception is a broadcast address, which is a special message intended to be read
by every node (like a message on the P.A. as opposed to a comment from one person
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to another).Token Ring, the main alternative to Ethernet, uses a different strategy to

avoid computers talking at the same time.

Ethernet popularity is a result of several factors. Ethernet technology is:

 Inexpensive
 Easy to install, maintain, troubleshoot and expand
 A widely accepted industry standard, which means compatibility and
 equipment access are less of an issue
 Structured to allow compatibility with network operating systems
 (NOS)
 Very reliable

3.5 wireless LAN

wireless LAN technology based on IEEE 802.11 standard. Its predecessor the
IEEE 802.3, commonly referred to as the Ethernet, is the most widely deployed
member of the family. IEEE 802.11 is commonly referred to as wireless Ethernet
because of its close similarity with the IEEE 802.3. Like IEEE 802.3, it also defines
only two bottom levels of ISO’s open system Interconnection (OSI) model. There are
three media that can be used for transmission over wireless LANs. Infrared, radio
frequency and microwave.

3.5.1 Framing

The frames can be categorized into three types; management frame, control
frame and data frame. The management frames are used for association and
disassociation of stations with at the AP, authentication and de-authentication, and
timing and synchronization. Each frame consists of a MAC header, a frame body and
a frame check sequence (FCS).
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Fig3.10 The frame format of the IEEE 802.11

AC header will be described in a little while. Frame Body varies from 0-2312
bytes. At last is the FCS field. The frame check sequence is a 32-bit cyclic redundancy
check which ensures there are no errors in the frame.

3.5.2 Frame Control Field (in MAC header)

The protocol version field is 2 bits in length and will carry the version of the
802.11 standard. The initial value of 802.11 is 0; all other bit values are reserved.
Type and subtype fields are 2 and 4 bits, respectively. They work together
hierarchically to determine the function of the frame. The remaining 8 fields are all 1
bit in length. The DS field is set to 1 if the frame is destined for the distribution
system. From DS field is set to 1 when frames exit the distribution system. Note that
frames which stay within their basic service set have both of these fields set to 0. The
More Frag field is set to 1 if there is a following fragment of the current MSDU. Retry
is set to 1 if this frame is a retransmission. Power Management field indicates if a
station is in power save mode (set to 1) or active (set to 0). More data field is set to 1
if there is any MSDUs are buffered for that station. The WEP field is set to 1 if the
information in the frame body was processed with the WEP algorithm. The Order field
is set to 1 if the frames must be strictly ordered. The Duration/ID field is 2 bytes long.
It contains the data on the duration value for each field and for control frames it carries
the associated identity of the transmitting station. The address fields identify the basic
service set, the destination address, the source address, and the receiver and
transmitter addresses. Each address field is 6 bytes long. The sequence control field
is 2 bytes and is split into 2 subfields, fragment number and sequence number.
Fragment number is 4 bits and tells how many fragments the MSDU is broken into.
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The sequence number field is 12 bits that indicates the sequence number of the
MSDU. The frame body is a variable length field from 0 - 2312. This is the payload.
Advantages:
 Availability of low-cost portable equipments: Due to the technology
enhancements, the equipment cost that are required for WLAN set-up have
reduced a lot.
 Mobility: An increasing number of LAN users are becoming mobile. These
mobile users require that they are connected to the network regardless of
where they are because they want simultaneous access to the network. This
makes the use of cables, or wired LANs, impractical if not impossible. Wireless
LAN can provide users mobility, which is likely to increase productivity, user
convenience and various service opportunities.
 Installation speed and simplicity: Wireless LANs are very easy to install.
There is no requirement for wiring every workstation and every room. This ease
of installation makes wireless LANs inherently flexible. If a workstation must be
moved, it can be done easily and without additional wiring, cable drops or
reconfiguration of the network.
 Installation flexibility: If a company moves to a new location, the wireless
system is much easier to move than ripping up all of the cables that a wired
system would have snaked throughout the building. This also provides
portability. Wireless technology allows network to go anywhere wire cannot
reach.
 Reduced cost of ownership: While the initial cost of wireless LAN can be
higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware, it is envisaged that the overall
installation expenses and life cycle costs can be significantly lower. Long-term
cost-benefits are greater in dynamic environment requiring frequent moves and
changes.
 Scalability: Wireless LAN can be configured in a variety of topologies to meet
the users need and can be easily scaled to cover a large area with thousands
of users roaming within it.

Limitation:

 Lower reliability due to susceptibility of radio transmission to noise and

interference.
 Fluctuation of the strength of the received signal through multiple paths causing
fading.
 Vulnerable to eavesdropping leading to security problem.
 Limited data rate because of the use of spread spectrum transmission
techniques enforced to ISM band users.

3.6 BROADBAND WIRELESS

Wireless broadband is high-speed Internet and data service delivered through a
wireless local area network (WLAN) or wide area network (WWAN). broadband means
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"having instantaneous bandwidths greater than 1 MHz and supporting data rates
greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s

As with other wireless service, wireless broadband may be either fixed or

mobile. A fixed wireless service provides wireless Internet for devices in relatively
permanent locations, such as homes and offices. Fixed wireless broadband
technologies include LMDS (Local Multipoint Distribution System) and MMDS
(Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service) systems for broadband microwave
wireless transmission direct from a local antenna to homes and businesses within a
line-of-sight radius. The service is similar to that provided through digital subscriber
line (DSL) or cable modem but the method of transmission is wireless. One particular
access technology was standardized by IEEE 802.16, with products known as
WiMAX.
A mobile broadband service provides connectivity to users who may be in
temporary locations, such as coffee shops. WiMAX supports both fixed and mobile
wireless and is often predicted to become the standard for wireless broadband.

3.6.1 WiMAX

WiMAX Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is Based on

Wireless MAN technology. A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP
centric services over a wide area. It is a scalable wireless platform for constructing
alternative and complementary broadband networks. WiMAX is such an easy term
that people tend to use it for the 802.16 standards and technology themselves,
although strictly it applies only to systems that meet specific conformance criteria laid
down by the WiMAX Forum.

The 802.16a standard for 2-11 GHz is a wireless metropolitan area network (MAN)
technology that will provide broadband wireless connectivity to Fixed, Portable and
Nomadic devices.

It can be used to connect 802.11 hot spots to the Internet, provide campus
connectivity, and provide a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile
broadband access.

WiMax Speed and Range:

WiMAX is expected to offer initially up to about 40 Mbps capacity per wireless channel
for both fixed and portable applications, depending on the particular technical
configuration chosen, enough to support hundreds of businesses with T-1 speed
connectivity and thousands of residences with DSL speed connectivity. WiMAX can
support voice and video as well as Internet data.

WiMax developed to provide wireless broadband access to buildings, either in

competition to existing wired networks or alone in currently unserved rural or thinly
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populated areas. It can also be used to connect WLAN hotspots to the Internet.
WiMAX is also intended to provide broadband connectivity to mobile devices. It would
not be as fast as in these fixed applications, but expectations are for about 15 Mbps
capacity in a 3 km cell coverage area.

With WiMAX, users could really cut free from today's Internet access arrangements
and be able to go online at broadband speeds, almost wherever they like from within a
Metro Zone. WiMAX could potentially be deployed in a variety of spectrum bands:
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.5GHz, and 5.8GHz. Support different application classes at the
same time i.e Interactive gaming, VOIP & video conferencing, Streaming media (real
time), Web browsing & instant messaging Media content download (store & forward).

3.7 BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short

distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485
GHz) from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks (PANs).
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth both occupy a section of the 2.4 GHz ISM band that is 83
MHz-wide. Bluetooth uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and is
allowed to hop between 79 different 1 MHz-wide channels in this band.
3.7.1 Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth architecture defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scattemet
1. Piconet

Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven
active secondary (slave) nodes. Thus, piconet can have upto eight active nodes (1
master and 7 slaves) or stations within the distance of 10 meters. There can be only
one primary or master station in each piconet. The communication between the
primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many. All communication is
between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not possible. In addition to
seven active slave station, a piconet can have upto 255 parked nodes. These parked
nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in communication until it is
moved from parked state to active state.
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Fig 3.11 a)Bluetooth architecture a) piconet b) scatternet

3. Scatternet
Scattemet is formed by combining various piconets. A slave in one piconet can act as
a master or primary in other piconet. Such a station or node can receive messages
from the master in the first piconet and deliver the message to its slaves in other
piconet where it is acting as master. This node is also called bridge slave. Thus a
station can be a member of two piconets. A station cannot be a master in two
piconets.
Bluetooth layers and Protocol Stack
Bluetooth standard has many protocols that are organized into different layers. The
layer structure of Bluetooth does not follow OS1 model, TCP/IP model or any other
known model.

Fig 3.12 Different layers and Bluetooth protocol architecture.

Radio Layer
The Bluetooth radio layer corresponds to the physical layer of OSI model. It deals with
ratio transmission and modulation. The radio layer moves data from master to slave or
vice versa. It is a low power system that uses 2.4 GHz ISM band in a range of 10
meters. This band is divided into 79 channels of 1MHz each. Bluetooth uses the
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical layer to avoid
interference from other devices or networks. Bluetooth hops 1600 times per
 I

second, i.e. each device changes its modulation frequency 1600 times per second. In
order to change bits into a signal, it uses a version of FSK called GFSK i.e. FSK with
Gaussian bandwidth filtering.
Baseband Layer
Baseband layer is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. Bluetooth uses a form of
TDMA called TDD-TDMA (time division duplex TDMA). Master and slave stations
communicate with each other using time slots. The master in each piconet defines the
time slot of 625 µsec. In TDD- TDMA, communication is half duplex in which receiver
can send and receive data but not at the same time. If the piconet has only no slave;
the master uses even numbered slots (0, 2, 4, ...) and the slave uses odd-numbered
slots (1, 3, 5, ). Both master and slave communicate in half duplex mode. In slot 0,
master sends & secondary receives; in slot 1, secondary sends and primary receives.
If piconet has more than one slave, the master uses even numbered slots. The slave
sends in the next odd-numbered slot if the packet in the previous slot was addressed
to it. In Baseband layer, two types of links can be created between a master and
slave. These are:
1. Asynchronous Connection-less (ACL)
It is used for packet switched data that is available at irregular intervals. ACL delivers
traffic on a best effort basis. Frames can be lost & may have to be retransmitted. A
slave can have only one ACL link to its master. Thus ACL link is used where correct
delivery is preferred over fast delivery. The ACL can achieve a maximum data rate of
721 kbps by using one, three or more slots.
2. Synchronous Connection Oriented (SCO)
sco is used for real time data such as sound. It is used where fast delivery is
preferred over accurate delivery. In an sco link, a physical link is created between
the master and slave by reserving specific slots at regular intervals. Damaged packet;
are not retransmitted over sco links. A slave can have three sco links with the master
and can send data at 64 Kbps.
Logical Link, Control Adaptation Protocol Layer (L2CAP)
The logical unit link control adaptation protocol is equivalent to logical link control
sublayer of LAN. The ACL link uses L2CAP for data exchange but sco channel does
not use it. The various function of L2CAP is:
1. Segmentation and reassembly
L2CAP receives the packets of upto 64 KB from upper layers and divides them into
frames for transmission. It adds extra information to define the location of frame in the
original packet. The L2CAP reassembles the frame into packets again at the
destination.
2. Multiplexing
L2CAP performs multiplexing at sender side and demultiplexing at receiver side. At
the sender site, it accepts data from one of the upper layer protocols frames them and
 I

deliver them to the Baseband layer. At the receiver site, it accepts a frame from the
baseband layer, extracts the data, and delivers them to the appropriate protocol1ayer.
3. Quality of Service (QOS)
L2CAP handles quality of service requirements, both when links are established and
during normal operation. It also enables the devices to negotiate the maximum
payload size during connection establishment.
Bluetooth Frame Format
The various fields of blue tooth frame format are:

Fig 3.12 Bluetooth frame format

1. Access Code: It is 72 bit field that contains synchronization bits. It identifies the
master.
2. Header: This is 54-bit field. It contain 18 bit pattern that is repeated for 3 time.
The header field contains following subfields:
(i) Address: This 3 bit field can define upto seven slaves (1 to 7). If the address is
zero, it is used for broadcast communication from primary to all secondaries.
(ii) Type: This 4 bit field identifies the type of data coming from upper layers.
(iii) F: This flow bit is used for flow control. When set to 1, it means the device is
unable to receive more frames.
(iv) A: This bit is used for acknowledgement.
(v) S: This bit contains a sequence number of the frame to detect retransmission. As
stop and wait protocol is used, one bit is sufficient.
(vi) Checksum: This 8 bit field contains checksum to detect errors in header.
3. Data: This field can be 0 to 2744 bits long. It contains data or control information
coming from upper layers.
3.8 Data Link Layer Switching.
LANs can be connected by devices called bridges, which operate in the data
link layer. Bridges examine the data layer link addresses to do routing. Repeaters,
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bridges, switches, hubs, routers, and gateways all of these devices are in common
use, but they all differ in subtle. These devices operate in different layers. The layer
matters because different devices use different pieces of information to decide how
to switch. In a typical scenario, the user generates some data to be sent to a remote
machine. Those data are passed to the transport layer, which then adds a header,
for example, a TCP header, and passes the resulting unit down to the network layer.
The network layer adds its own header to form a network layer packet, for example,
an IP packet. Then the packet goes to the data link layer, which adds its own header
and checksum (CRC) and gives the resulting frame to the physical layer for
transmission, for example, over a LAN.

Fig 3.13 a) Device operated in each layer b) Frames, Packets and header