1.

4 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware refers to the physical devices that make up the computer system. E.g. CPU,
Memory, I/O devices such as Printer, Mouse, Keyboard, Screen/Monitor, etc

There are six categories of computer hardware:

(i) Input devices for capturing information

(ii) Output devices for presenting information
(iii) CPU and RAM for creating new information
(iv) Storage devices for storing information
(v) Telecommunications devices for communicating information
(vi) Connecting Devices for moving information to and from various hardware
devices.

1.4.1 Functional Components of a Computer System

Computer systems ranging from a controller in a microwave oven to a large supercomputer

contain components providing five functions. A typical personal computer has hard disks,
floppy and CD/DVD-ROM drives for storage, memory and CPU chips inside the system unit, a
keyboard and mouse for input, and a display unit, printer and speakers for output. The
arrows represent the direction information flows between the functional units.

CPU (processor)

ALU

Control Unit

Input Devices Main Memory Output Devices

Storage Devices

Input Devices
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore
we need to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of
one or more input devices.

Storage Unit (Main Memory + storage devices)

the storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the

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input unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before
these are sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. Recall our
discussion on computer storage.

Memory Size
All digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0’s and 1’s. Each character or a number is
represented by an 8 bit code.
The set of 8 bits is called a byte.
A character occupies 1 byte space.
A numeric occupies 2 byte space.
Byte is the space occupied in the memory.

The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabytes). One KB is

equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1024 KB; 1 GB = 1024 MB; 1 TB = 1024 GB.

Output Devices
The output devices of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are LCD Projector etc.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also
does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations such as, greater
than (>), less than (<), equal to (=), ‘etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit
transfers the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are done, the results are
transferred to the storage unit by the control unit and then it is send to the output unit for
displaying results.

Control Unit
Controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where to
store the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions
from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage
unit. The control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of the computer
that control and synchronizes its working.

Central Processing Unit

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The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:

• It performs all calculations.

• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

The CPU is the most complex component in the computer system. It has the following parts:

 Control unit – controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.

 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) – performs the computer’s data processing
functions.

 Registers – provides storage internal to the CPU.

 CPU interconnections – some mechanism that provides for communication

among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

NB: The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs. A hertz is on cycle per second.

1.5 Other Hardware components on the Computer system

Motherboard - The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also

known as the main board or system board.

Bus - A bus is an electronic line that allows 1s and 0s to move from one place to another.

Expansion Slots - Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets into which
adapters are connected.

Ports and Connectors - A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a separate

adapter.

Power Supply - A power supply changes normal household electricity into electricity that a
computer can use.

Sound Components - A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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1.6 Computer Storage

How does your computer work?

Computers work only with 1s and 0s in terms bits and bytes. Normally your information in
the form of characters – (A-Z, a-z, symbols), and numbers 0-9 is converted into binary form.
A binary digit (bit) is the smallest unit of information processed by a computer. A bit can
either be a 1 (on) or a 0 (off). A byte is a group of eight (8) bits used to represent one natural
language character in ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) coding
system. A coding system is an agreed-upon standard for representing natural language
characters, special symbols, and numbers in binary form.

It may help to first review how quantities of memory/storage are measured. A bit (which is
contraction for “binary digit”) is the smallest unit of data, a single 0 or 1. Recall that
computers represent data (of all kinds, including numbers, characters, images, and audio)
using 0’s and 1’s. A byte is a unit of eight bits. A kilobyte (KB) is 210 (1024) bytes, a
megabyte (MB) is 220 (1024 KB) bytes, a gigabyte (GB) is 230 (1024MB) bytes, and a terabyte
(TB) is 240 (1024GB) bytes.

One could reasonably ask the question

Where are programs (i.e., software) and data stored?

The premise of the question is that the programs that a computer executes, and the data
that those programs manipulate, must have some physical manifestation on some kind of
storage medium that is part of the computer system (or accessible by it, at least). This gives
rise to the next question:

What kinds of storage devices are found in computer systems?

The answer may be a bit more involved than you would expect, because there are a perhaps
surprisingly large number of different kinds of storage devices. The outline below seeks to
identify these and to provide a logical way of organizing them.

1.6.1 Primary (or Main) Memory

Primary memory is used directly by the CPU.

 Registers: These are memory cells (typically four or eight bytes in size) that are part
of the processor itself, so that operations (e.g. addition, comparison, etc.) can be
performed directly upon data stored therein (and usually within a single clock cycle,
which is less than a billionth of a second!). Indeed, only data items (including
instructions) that are being held in a register can be operated upon by the processor.
Hence, any data item in RAM that is to be used for some purpose first must be
transferred into a register.

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 In order to keep the electronic circuitry of the processor at a reasonable level of
complexity, the number of registers is quite small, typically no more than a few
dozen.

 Cache: This is a block of very high-speed (and expensive) memory cells (typically four
bytes in length) used for storing copies of data items also being held in RAM (see
below) that have been accessed very recently or are anticipated to be accessed in
the very near future. Due to its high cost, cache capacity is typically limited to the
neighboured of 512KB (one-half MB) to 4MB.

Some processors have multiple levels of cache (usually referred to as L1 and L2, for
example), with L1 being faster (access within a few clock cycles) but having lower
capacity (e.g., tens of KB) than L2 (access to which requires tens of cycles).

 Random Access Memory (RAM): This is a block of fairly high-speed memory cells
that are used for storing (portions of) currently-executing programs and data that
those programs are using.

The term “random” is meant to suggest that the time required to access any
particular memory location in RAM is independent of which memory location was
accessed most recently.

RAM usually stores data and instructions that are used by the CPU to perform some task.
These instructions are usually loaded into RAM from a secondary storage device.

RAM is also used to store instructions that tell the CPU how to work with its parts. These
instructions are usually called drivers.

The instructions in RAM are constantly changing, depending on the needs of the CPU.

o When the computer is turned off the information/instructions in RAM is erased;

hence RAM is volatile.
o The information in RAM needs to be saved to secondary storage before the
computer is turned off.

 Read-only Memory (ROM): A small block of (non-volatile) memory having as one of

its purposes to store instructions that are executed whenever the computer is
turned on, commencing the so-called “boot-strapping” process by which (crucial
components of) the operating system is loaded into RAM, thereby allowing the
computer to begin functioning. (From this description, it should be fairly clear why it
is vital for ROM to be non-volatile.)

o ROM can also hold programs that are directly accessed by the CPU. One such
program is the self-test program that executes when the computer is first
turned on. The self-test instructions tests to see if all the parts on the main
circuit board (mother board) are working correctly.
o The instructions are built into the electronic circuits of the chips
o These instructions in ROM are called firmware

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 o To change the instructions in ROM you need to usually change the chips or do
some other special process that is normally not available to an average user.
o The instructions in ROM are non-volatile. They stay in ROM even when the
computer is turned off.

1.6.2 Secondary Storage

The purpose of secondary storage is to store data and programs on a long-term basis.
(Hence, all forms of secondary storage are non-volatile, meaning that they retain the data
stored on them (for a long period of time) without the need for electrical power.) As data
(or a program) is needed in RAM (e.g., when a program is called upon to be executed, such
as when the user double clicks upon an icon representing that program), it is copied from
secondary storage into RAM, where it can be accessed quickly.

Among the types of secondary storage media are these:

 Solid-State: For example, flash memory sticks; these usually are attached to a
computer via a USB port and have a capacity in the hundreds of MB or a few GB’s.
They are highly mobile and have largely supplanted floppy disks in recent times. This
kind of storage is widely used in devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
and digital cameras.
 Magnetic Disk: These are disks on which data is recorded on a set of concentric rings
(or “tracks”) using properties of magnetism.
o Hard disk: high storage capacity (typically in the range of 80 to 500GB) and
much cheaper than RAM.
o Removable/portable disk: zip disk, disk cartridge, floppy disk
 Optical Disc: These are discs on which data is represented by a spiralling track of
“pits and lands” (or valleys and bumps, if you prefer). A laser beam is used to “read”
the data on the surface.
o CD-ROM: Compact Disc – Read Only Memory (used for distribution of
commercial software, for example) Standard storage capacity is 700 MB.
Information cannot be changed.
o CD-R (or CD-WORM): Compact Disc – Recordable. “Write Once, Read Many”
times
o CD-RW: Compact Disc – Rewritable. You can save, change, and delete files as
often as you like. Rewritable multiple times (but you can’t really delete a file
without deleting all of them!)
o DVD: Similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity. There are
several categories of DVD just as in the case of CD. That is, we have DVD-
ROM, DVD-R, and DVD-RW. (There is no agreement as to what DVD stands for. Some
argue it stands for Digital Versatile Disc. Others, say its Digital Video Disc.)

NB: Magnetic disk ends in “k” whereas Optical disc ends in “c”. Putting information
onto a disc is known as “burning” the CD or DVD. A CD burner is a drive that helps
read and write information to a CD. Similarly, a DVD burner helps read and write
information to a DVD.

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  Magnetic Tape: usually used for making backup copies of disk (so that if the disk
fails, a recent copy of its contents can be recovered and written onto a new
replacement disk) or for archival storage. Tapes that are kept offline (meaning that
they sit on a shelf and are “mounted” onto a tape drive (by a human or a robotic
device) only when needed) are sometimes put into the category of tertiary, as
opposed to secondary, storage. Tape drives are what you see spinning in the
background in numerous scenes in movies and TV shows depicting a large computer.

As for why there are so many varieties of storage devices, it boils down mostly to
considerations of cost, mobility (removability), and advances in technology.

As a general rule of thumb (and not surprisingly), the cost of memory/storage (in dollars per
unit of storage) varies with the “speed” of the storage device: the faster the device, the
higher the cost (per MB). For example, main memory costs much more than an equal
quantity of space in secondary storage, by a factor in the hundreds. Hence, even if RAM
were designed to be non-volatile (and hence suitable for storing data on a long-term basis)
it would be prohibitively expensive to replace hundreds of gigabytes of hard disk storage
space with an equal quantity of RAM. (Do the calculation: 100GB of RAM would cost about
$2500 compared to $15 for 100GB of hard disk space. Hence, substituting non-volatile RAM
for hard disk would increase the cost of a PC substantially!)

1.7 What is the difference between Data and Information?

We have seen that a computer processes data with regard to the desires of the user. Is there a
difference between data and information? Data: refers to raw facts e.g. numbers like 4, 3 or
characters (Kenya, World). Information: refers to meaningful and arranged form of data or simply
processed data.

1.8 Classification of Computer Systems

On the basis of Technology: generations of computers.

On the basis of Purpose: General Purpose and Special Purpose computers.
On the basis of Size and Speed: Microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe and supercomputer.
On the basis of how it functions: Analog, Digital, and Hybrid computers.

1.8.1 Classification Based on Generations of computers

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
efficient and reliable devices.

 First generation: between 1940’s – 1950’s. Technology used was vacuum tubes. Computers
in this generation were huge and therefore occupied an entire room and were very slow.
They also used a great deal of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

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  Second generation: 1950’s – 1960’s. Technology used was transistors. Unlike the first
generation, here computers had a lesser size and increased speed. They were also more
efficient and reliable. Though the transistors still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
 Third generation: late 1960’s – 1970’s. Technology used was integrated circuits (ICs). The
size of the computer became lesser here and speed further increased. In this third
generation, Operating System software was developed.
 Forth generation: 1970’s – today. The technology in use is microprocessor. The size of the
computer greatly reduced and has tremendous speed. The cost also has decreased.

1.8.2 Classification based on Size and Speed of computers

 Supercomputer: this is the fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive
and are employed for special applications that require immerse amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting. Other uses of supercomputers include
animated graphics, nuclear energy research and petroleum exploration. E.g. the IBM’s Blue
Gene/L Supercomputer can perform 70.7 calculations per second making it the fastest
machine known so far.
 Mainframe: the term mainframe has fallen out of use in favour of enterprise server.
Characteristics of mainframe: expensive, powerful and fast, is not limited to one job, and can
be used by business and small government organizations. The main difference between a
supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into
executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs simultaneously.
 Minicomputer: another term rarely used anymore, minicomputers fall in between
microcomputers (PCs) and mainframes (enterprise servers). Currently, Minicomputers are
normally referred to as mid-range servers. Characteristics include: smaller than mainframe,
can do several jobs at once, can be used by many people at one time and are used by small
companies.
 Microcomputers / Personal Computer (PC): the term microcomputer, also known as
personal computer (PC), or a computer that depends on a microprocessor. A microcomputer
contains a central processing unit (CPU) on a microchip (the microprocessor), a memory
system (read-only memory-ROM and random access memory –RAM), placed on a
motherboard. Example: desktop computer, notebook laptop, handheld devices etc.
Characteristics: developed in 1980; designed for single user; not very powerful or expensive;
and is found in homes.

Further classification of micro-computers:

o Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) – small hand-held devices computer used for
surfing the Web and perform simple tasks such as note taking, calendaring,
appointment scheduling, and maintenance of address book. PDAs screen is touch
sensitive.
o Tablet PCs – a pen-based computer that provides the screen capabilities of a PDA
with the functional capabilities of a notebook or desktop computer.
o Notebook computers – small, portable, fully-functional, battery-powered computer.
Commonly referred to as “laptop” computers.
o Desktop computers – the most popular choice for personal computing needs.

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1.8.3 Classification of computers on the basis of how they function

 Analog computers: operate on continuous data, like measuring temperature changes. They
are faster compared to their digital counterpart. Their accuracy is restricted to the accuracy
of which physical quantities can be sensed and displayed. They are special purpose
computers.
 Digital computers: work on discrete data. A digital computer can process data with greater
accuracy. Are generally used for business and scientific data processing.
 Hybrid computers: comprise features of analog computers and digital computers. The
digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while
the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

1.8.4 Purpose Based Classification of Computer Systems

 General purpose computers: perform a wide range of tasks

 Special purpose computer: are dedicated computers that perform specific tasks. For
example, controlling the temperature and humidity; monitoring your heart rate; monitoring
your house security system among others.

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