Math 107 (Spring 2022)

Week 1: Lecture 2

Emre Mengi

February 15, 2022

 Solving a System of Linear Equations

A system of m linear equations in n variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

..
.

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

1
 Solving a System of Linear Equations

A system of m linear equations in n variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

..
.

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

Corresponding Augmented Matrix

2 3
a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
6 a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 7
6 7
6 .. .. 7
4 . . 5
am1 am2 . . . amn bm

1
 Solving a System of Linear Equations

Augmented
A system of m linear equations in n variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 matrix

8
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

echelon
38 79
..
.
3 4
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm
form
Corresponding Augmented Matrix
2 3
3 egns 3 variables
a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
6 a
6 21 a22 . . . a2n b2 7
6 ..
4 . .
.
7
7
. 5 2x 3 2 43 7
am1 am2 . . . amn bm

x2 2 5
System of linear equations is solved by
3
3
• applying row operations to the augmented matrix
3 9
1
 Solving a System of Linear Equations

A system of m linear equations in n variables

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2

..
.

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

Corresponding Augmented Matrix

2 3
a11 a12 . . . a1n b1
6 a21 a22 . . . a2n b2 7
6 7
6 .. .. 7
4 . . 5
am1 am2 . . . amn bm

System of linear equations is solved by

• applying row operations to the augmented matrix, and

• reducing it to echelon or reduced echelon form.

1
 Echelon Form

A leading entry of a matrix is the left-most nonzero entry in a

I
row of the matrix.

leading entries

2
 Echelon Form

A leading entry of a matrix is the left-most nonzero entry in a

row of the matrix.

Definition 2.1.

A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

• all zero rows (if there are any) are underneath the nonzero
rows,

2
 888
f
Echelon Form

A leading entry of a matrix is the left-most nonzero entry in a

not
row of the matrix.

echelon
Definition 2.1.

A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

8.0027
• all zero rows (if there are any) are underneath the nonzero
rows,
i
• leading entries move to right as you move down the matrix.
i
not echelon

0008 0 02.7
echelon 2 echelon
 Echelon Form

A leading entry of a matrix is the left-most nonzero entry in a

row of the matrix.

Definition 2.1.

A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

• all zero rows (if there are any) are underneath the nonzero
rows,

• leading entries move to right as you move down the matrix.

Example
2 3 2 3
3 2 1 5 3 2 1 5

08
6 7 6 7

000
40 0 1 25 40 3 2 05
0 3 2 0 0 0 1 2

2
 Echelon Form

A leading entry of a matrix is the left-most nonzero entry in a

row of the matrix.

Definition 2.1.

A matrix is said to be in echelon form if

• all zero rows (if there are any) are underneath the nonzero
rows,

• leading entries move to right as you move down the matrix.

Example
2 3 2 3
3 2 1 5 3 2 1 5
6 7 6 7
40 0 1 25 40 3 2 05
0 3 2 0 0 0 1 2

not echelon echelon

2
 Reduced Echelon Form

Definition 2.2.

A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if

• it is in echelon form,

3
 Reduced Echelon Form

Definition 2.2.

A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if

• it is in echelon form,

• its each leading entry is 1,

3
 Reduced Echelon Form

Definition 2.2.

A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if

• it is in echelon form,
echelon
reduced
18 8t
a
echelon
• its each leading entry is 1,

• the column of each leading entry is formed of 0s

except the leading entry.

8
reduced
echelon O
µ
3 Headingtry
 Reduced Echelon Form

Definition 2.2.

A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if

• it is in echelon form,

• its each leading entry is 1,

• the column of each leading entry is formed of 0s

except the leading entry.

Example
2 3
1 0 0 5
6 7
40 1 0 05
0 0 1 2

is in reduced echelon form.

3
 Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are applied to the augmented matrix.

4
 Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are applied to the augmented matrix.

oil
E 2
(1) Row-replace
Add a multiple of a row to another row. o I
rj := rj + crk

(c times kth row is added to the jth row)

I h
I 2 1 3
3
84 Y

4
 Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are applied to the augmented matrix.

(1) Row-replace
Add a multiple of a row to another row.

rj := rj + crk

(c times kth row is added to the jth row)

(2) Row-interchange
Swap two rows.
rj ! rk
(swap jth and kth rows)

4
 Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are applied to the augmented matrix.

(1) Row-replace
Add a multiple of a row to another row.

rj := rj + crk

(c times kth row is added to the jth row)

(2) Row-interchange
Swap two rows.
rj ! rk
(swap jth and kth rows)

(3) Row-scale
Multiply a row by a nonzero scalar.

rj := crj

(multiply jth row by c 6= 0)

4
 Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are applied to the augmented matrix.

(1) Row-replace
Add a multiple of a row to another row.

rj := rj + crk

(c times kth row is added to the jth row)

(2) Row-interchange
Swap two rows.
rj ! rk
(swap jth and kth rows)

(3) Row-scale
Multiply a row by a nonzero scalar.

rj := crj

(multiply jth row by c 6= 0)

Remark: Elementary row operations preserve the solution.

4
 Example

Bring the matrix

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

into an echelon form by applying (elementary) row operations.

5
 Example

Bring the matrix

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

into an echelon form by applying (elementary) row operations.

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

5
 Example

Bring the matrix

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

into an echelon form by applying (elementary) row operations.

2 3 2 3
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 0
6 7 6 7
41 2 2 05 !
|{z} 40 1 1 15
1 4 3 0 r1 !r2 1 4 3 0

5
 Example

Bring the matrix

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

into an echelon form by applying (elementary) row operations.

2 3 2 3
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 0
6 7 6 7
41 2 2 05 !
|{z} 40 1 1 15
1 4 3 0 r1 !r2 1 4 3 0

2 3
1 2 2 0
6 7

Og
!
|{z} 40 1 1 15
r3 := r3 r1 0 2 1 0

5
 Example

Bring the matrix

2 3
0 1 1 1
6 7
41 2 2 05
1 4 3 0

into an echelon form by applying (elementary) row operations.

2 3 2 3
0 1 1 1 1 2 2 0
6 7 6 7

sample
41 2 2 05 !
|{z} 40 1 1 15
1 4 3 0 r1 !r2 1 4 3 0

complicated 2
6
1 2 2 0
3
7 2 2 2
XztXz
! 40 1 1 15

41
|{z}
r3 := r3 r1 0 2 1 0

x 2 2 2 3 0 2 3
XztXz
6
1 2 2 0
7
3 2
0
! 4 0 1 1 15
x 4 3
|{z}

2
r3 := r3 2r2 0 0 1 2
a
3
| {z }
Echelon Form

5
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Overall Procedure

Augmented Matrix (1) Echelon Form (2) Reduced Echelon Form

6
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Overall Procedure

Augmented Matrix (1) Echelon Form (2) Reduced Echelon Form

(1) Forward Stage (by applying row operations)

6
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Overall Procedure

Augmented Matrix (1) Echelon Form (2) Reduced Echelon Form

(1) Forward Stage (by applying row operations)

(2) Backward Stage (by applying row operations)

6
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Forward Stage (reduction into echelon form)

7
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

I
Forward Stage (reduction into echelon form)

(1) Start with the left-most column, say `th, with a nonzero entry.

E
x a nonzero
entry
fig

8 I 8
7
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Forward Stage (reduction into echelon form)

(1) Start with the left-most column, say `th, with a nonzero entry.

(2) If entry at position (1, `) is 0, perform

E
rj ! r1

where rj is a row such that entry at position (j, `) is not zero.

7
 ÉiiI
The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Forward Stage (reduction into echelon form)

(1) Start with the left-most column, say `th, with a nonzero entry.

T28 I T2 T
(2) If entry at position (1, `) is 0, perform

rj ! r1

where rj is a row such that entry at position (j, `) is not zero.

(3) Introduce zeros on the `th column underneath entry

at position (1, `) by row-replace operations.

7
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Forward Stage (reduction into echelon form)

(1) Start with the left-most column, say `th, with a nonzero entry.

(2) If entry at position (1, `) is 0, perform

rj ! r1

where rj is a row such that entry at position (j, `) is not zero.

(3) Introduce zeros on the `th column underneath entry

at position (1, `) by row-replace operations.

(4) Repeat steps (1)-(4) after removing the first row.

on this
7 part it'd
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the forward stage)

x2 + 3x3 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 9
x1 x2 + 3x3 = 2

8
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the forward stage)

interchange
x2 + 3x3 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 9
x1 x2 + 3x3 = 2

need
2 3

gf
0 1 3 8
6 7
6 3 2 1 97
4 5
1 1 3 2

8
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the forward stage)

x2 + 3x3 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 9

3
x1 x2 + 3x3 = 2

add
3rd row
2 3 2 3
6
6 3
0 1
2
3
1
8
97
7
!
6
6 0
3 2
1
1
3
9
87
7 to
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r1 !r2

0
1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2

needs to be

8
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the forward stage)

x2 + 3x3 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 9
x1 x2 + 3x3 = 2

2 3 2 3
0 1 3 8 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 3 2 1 97 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r1 !r2
1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2

2 3
3 2 1 9

I
6 7
! 6 0 1 3 87
|{z} 4 5
r3 :=r3 1/3r1
0 5/3 10/3 5

needs to be O

8
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the forward stage)

x2 + 3x3 = 8
3x1 + 2x2 x3 = 9
x1 x2 + 3x3 = 2

2 3 2 3
0 1 3 8 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 3 2 1 97 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r1 !r2
1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2

2 3
3 2 1 9
6 7
! 6 0 1 3 87
|{z} 4 5
r3 :=r3 1/3r1
0 5/3 10/3 5

2 3
3 2 1 9
6 7

000
! 6 0 1 3 87
|{z} 4 5
r3 :=r3 +5/3r2
0 0 25/3 25/3

8
 echelon
The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Backward Stage (reduction into reduced echelon form)

isO x x x

I
809 I toy
reduced echelon
9
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Backward Stage (reduction into reduced echelon form)

start with

EI EI
1. Start with the right-most column with a leading entry.

9
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Backward Stage (reduction into reduced echelon form)

scale
1. Start with the right-most column with a leading entry.

tow
2. Set that leading entry equal to 1 by a row-scale.

1 O x XO x

9
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Backward Stage (reduction into reduced echelon form)

1. Start with the right-most column with a leading entry.

2. Set that leading entry equal to 1 by a row-scale.

row replace
3. Introduce 0s on that column above the leading entry

Eitel
by row-replace operations.

9
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Backward Stage (reduction into reduced echelon form)

1. Start with the right-most column with a leading entry.

2. Set that leading entry equal to 1 by a row-scale.

3. Introduce 0s on that column above the leading entry

by row-replace operations.

4. Move to the left to the nearest column with a leading entry,

and repeat (2)-(4).

9
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

2 3
3 2 1 9
6 7
6 0 1 3 87
4 5
0 0 25/3 25/3

10
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

2 3 2 3
3 2 1 9 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 0 1 3 87 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r3 :=3/25r3
0 0 25/3 25/3 0 0 1 1

10
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

reef be O
If
2 3 2 3
3 2 1 9 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 0 1 3 87 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r3 :=3/25r3
0 0 25/3 25/3 0 0 1 1

2 3
3 2 0 10
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r2 :=r2 3r3 , r1 :=r1 +r3
0 0 1 1

on
this
repeatcolumn

10
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

2 3 2 3
3 2 1 9 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 0 1 3 87 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r3 :=3/25r3
0 0 25/3 25/3 0 0 1 1

2 3
3 2 0 10
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r2 :=r2 3r3 , r1 :=r1 +r3
0 0 1 1

2 3
3 0 0 0
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r1 :=r1 2r2
0 0 1 1

10
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

2 3 2 3
3 2 1 9 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 0 1 3 87 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r3 :=3/25r3
0 0 25/3 25/3 0 0 1 1

2 3
3 2 0 10
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r2 :=r2 3r3 , r1 :=r1 +r3
0 0 1 1

2 3
3 0 0 0
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r1 :=r1 2r2
0 0 1 1

2 3
1 0 0 0
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r1 :=(1/3)r1
0 0 1 1

10
 The Row-Reduction Algorithm

Example (to illustrate the backward stage)

2 3 2 3
3 2 1 9 3 2 1 9
6 7 6 7
6 0 1 3 87 ! 6 0 1 3 87
4 5 |{z} 4 5
r3 :=3/25r3
0 0 25/3 25/3 0 0 1 1

2 3
3 2 0 10
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r2 :=r2 3r3 , r1 :=r1 +r3
0 0 1 1

2 3
3 0 0 0
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r1 :=r1 2r2
0 0 1 1

2 3
1 0 0 0
6 7
! 6 0 1 0 5 7
|{z} 4 5
r1 :=(1/3)r1
0 0 1 1

Solution: x1 = 0, x2 = 5, x3 = 1

10
 Example

Find the quadratic polynomial q(t) through

(1, 1), (2, 0), (3, 2).

11
 Example variables
É3t
Find the quadratic polynomial q(t) through
Find
pct
Got tazÉ
such that p117 1 p122 0 p137
(1, 1), (2, 0), (3, 2).

25

ao a azs.t
20

15
Equivalently find
10 near ie
0
5 systems do t 2 a t Gaz
0
zegns
variables
row reduction alg
-5
z
the
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

interchange Apply to the augmented matrix

040
form

Backside 11
L Earl idea
 Summary

• Echelon and Reduced Echelon Forms

• Elementary Row Operations

• The Row-Reduction Algorithm

12
 1 Exercise — Temperature Example
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
System of Linear Equations
0.1
4T1 T2 T3 = 70
0
0 0.1 T1 0.2 0.5 ,
+ 4T20.3 T30.4 = 50 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

T1 T2 + 4T3 = 80

13