RESEARCH SKILLS:

What is research?
According to Hatch and Farhady (1981) research is a systematic approach to finding answers to
questions. We begin research by asking questions and by using a systematic approach in
investigation and end with answers to questions. There are many possible interpretations for
any answers to every question.
However, our task is to ask appropriate questions, select the best and optimally the shortest
way to find answers and to interpret the findings in a way which we can justify.
In order to conduct useful research, we must find a systematic way of searching for valid
answers to appropriate questions.
A systematic way means that, the research should follow established principles i.e. one should
avoid ad hoc solutions. Research therefore is;
1) Systematic
It is based on some logical order or step. It has a well-defined methodology.
2) Empirical
This is because conditions and conclusions drawn are based on observed data or facts rather
than feelings.
3) Analytical
This means that conclusions drawn must be based on analyzed data.
4) Cumulative
This is because findings are related to existing knowledge to which it is added to build a body
of knowledge in the field.
5) Communicable
The findings must be made known to others.
Importance of Research
1. Findings can be used to develop a new theory.
2. The findings can be used to compare two or more theories.
3. Findings can be used to resolve contradictions derived from a theory or theories.
4. Research findings are used to fill gaps in knowledge.
5. Research is used to follow up recommendations made in previous studies.

BASIC RESEARCH TERMS

Population
Population refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a common
observable characteristic. Population is the aggregate of all that conforms to a given
specification. Examples of population in research might be;

• All patients suffering from diabetes in the province:

• All indigenous trees in national forest: and
• All micro, small and medium entrepreneurs (MSMEs) in urban areas of Kenya.
A researcher first defines the population to which s/he wants to generalize the results.
Sample
Dealing with all the members even of the smaller accessible population would still involve a
tremendous amount of time and resources. Researchers therefore further select a given number
of members or cases from the accessible population. This sub group is carefully selected so as to
be representative of the whole population with the relevant characteristics. A sample therefore

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is a smaller group obtained from the accessible population. Each member or case in the sample
referred to as a subject. Sometimes the term “respondent” or interviewee is used.

Examples of samples:
 One hundred diabetic patients from Nairobi clinics; and
 500 MSMEs in Kisumu town.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the larger group which they were selected. The individuals
selected form the sample and the larger group which they were selected is the population.

Variable
A variable is measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects. It is
therefore a logical way of expressing a particular attribute in a subject. Some variables are
attributes that are expressed quantitatively. E.g., Age is expressed in years, height is expressed
in meters, area is expressed in square meters and weight is expressed kilograms. Other
variables are expressed in categories, e.g. Occupation may be expressed as farmer, teacher,
nurse, etc. Gender is expressed as male or female; and color may be expressed as green, yellow,
white, etc. There are different types of variables which we shall cover in the subsequent topics.

Data
Data refers to all the information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Researcher
recognizes two types of data: primary data and secondary data. Primary data refers to the
information a researcher obtains from the field i.e. from the subjects in the sample. These data
may be in form of values usually presented in the form of frequency distributions. Secondary
data refers to the information a researcher obtains from research articles, books, casual
interviews, etc. Data may also be classified as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (words,
phrases).

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Statistics
Statistics is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data. The term
statistics is also used to refer to indices which are derived from data through statistical
procedure.
Examples of such indices include: means, standard deviation, correlation coefficient etc.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the result of the
study. For example, in a study on productivity of labor within manufacturing industries, a
researcher may hypothesis that more monetary incentives would lead to increase in
productivity of labor or that provision of recreational facilities would raise productivity

Types of Research
1. Broad classification
This means that the classification has been done with no specific boundaries. Under the broad
classifications, we shall come across types like the ones highlighted here:
a) Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is used to answer questions about the complex nature of
phenomena, often with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena
from the participant’s point of view.
b) Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is used to answer questions about relationships among measured
variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena.
2. Classification by purpose
The classification here is done depending on what the purpose of undertaking that particular
research is. The following are the types in this class;
a) Basic Research
You can say that your research is basic if your main purpose is to obtain scientific
knowledge. Your aim will be to add to the existing knowledge of the universe, you
might want to create/generate new knowledge. This are the kinds of research that are
generated in laboratories. The knowledge we obtain from these types of research cannot
necessarily be applied practically to actual problems or solutions in human life. One
good example is the famous Pavlov’s laboratory dog on psychological conditioning.
b) Applied Research
The purpose of this type of research is usually to put into practice a certain theory, to
test it and assess if it is useful in solving certain problems. This type of research is used
widely in educational issues so that what is obtained is tested to see if it works.
c) Action Research
We can undertake this type of research if our main purpose is to solve an identified
specific problem, immediate to our environment. The issue of overcoming students’
unrest in (schools, universities) can be of concern and requiring immediate solution. If a
research is undertaken in any one of the institutions on the same issue, the results
obtained are not usually generalized to other areas or regions or another group. The
results will be used to solve the problems of that particular group immediately.

3. Classification by Method

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This classification is in relation to what you will be doing in the process of our research. There
are several methods of research and the following classification is derived from the common
research methods:
a. Descriptive Research
In this type of research, data is collected and analyzed in order to test hypothesis or to
answer questions that concern the subjects of study. You might want to describe
behavior, attitudes, values or even characteristics. There are five steps in this research.
i. Formulating objectives of study
ii. Design data collection methods
iii. Sample selection
iv. Data collection
v. Data analysis
b. Casual-Comparative Research
This type of research is used for exploring and explaining relationships. The purpose is
mainly to determine reasons of causes for say, current status of the ‘aspect’
(phenomenon) under study.it is closed to cause and effect procedures.
It is also done in five steps:
i. Define research question
ii. Select group with characteristics needed for study
iii. Select comparison group
iv. Data collection
v. Data analysis
c. Correlation Methods
These are methods that describe how variables are related. The purpose of such studies
is either to explore relationships between variables or to predict a subject score on one
variable given its score on another variable. This is done through four major steps:
i. Problem statement
ii. Subject selection
iii. Data collection
iv. Data analysis
Steps in Research
1. Select a problem
2. Literature review
3. Develop a theoretical framework (conceptual framework)
4. Objectives (research questions) and hypothesis
5. Proposal (plan of action)
6. Collect data (field works)
7. Analyze
8. Report of the research findings

Research as a scientific process;

Research is not the only method that can be used to discover and explain or even predict the
unknown. There are various other approaches for example; intuition, palm reading, astrology,
magic, prophecy & many others.
Research however is a Scientific method. As a scientific method, it is
- Systematic
- Empirical

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 - Analytical
- Cumulative &
- Communicable
An overview of Research process; (steps)
1) Select a problem
↓
2) Literature review
↓
3) Develop a theoretical framework (conceptual framework)
↓
4) Objectives (research questions, hypothesis)
↓
5) Proposal (plan of action)
↓
6) Collect data (field work)
↓
7) Analyze (are your research objectives met?)
If If
NO YES
↓ ↓
8) Develop alternative Report of research
Explanation

PROPOSAL
What is proposal?
It is the first formal step in the research process. It is a written outline of problem identified and
ways in which such problem is to be investigated and what the hoped for outcome will be. In
short, a proposal deals with 6WH questions i.e.
a) What is the problem to be investigated?
b) Why should it be investigated?
c) How should the investigation be?
d) When should it be investigated?
e) Who should benefit from the study?
f) Where will the study be conducted?

Importance of writing a Proposal

The importance of a proposal does not need to be over emphasized. Some of the benefits
include;
a) It provides the researcher with a systematic plan of the procedure to follow in his work
during the period of doing the research. It therefore helps the researcher to avoid
changes during the time of doing research.
b) A proposal should be written and clearly written from the word go. A poor proposal
may mean repeating certain steps or redoing the whole research process. Such changes
are both expensive and time consuming.
c) It provides clarifications and we'll thought out methods of research especially as regards
the kind of materials and tools required.

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 d) It guides the researcher in the kind of budget he/she will need and the procedure to
follow.
e) It can be used to solicit for funds for the research
f) It is a basis for evaluation to establish
i. The relevance of the research/ project
ii. Usefulness (significance) of research
iii. Appropriateness of the methods to be used even before the study commences.

The Structure of a Proposal

A proposal begins with;
The top page- which consists of:
-The title of the research
-Name of the school- A project proposal submitted to department or school of business in
partial fulfillment of the requirements from the award of a degree in Bcom. Etc
- Name of institution
- Year in which you are submitting the work.
Declaration and approval page.
-Begin with the declaration.
-This is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any University.
 Name
 Sign
 Date
 Approval
This degree project or B.com project has been submitted for examination with my approval as a
university supervisor.
 Name
 Sign
 Date
Abstract
It is an executive summary of what is intended to be included in the work.
It includes all the major parts of a proposal. It contains;
a) Background to the study
b) Statement of the problem
c) Objectives of the study
d) Hypothesis
e) Significance/ importance/ rationale/ justification etc.
f) Conceptual framework.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
This refers to the research method to be used for example; it can be a case study experiment,
survey.
3.2 Target population
Refers to the entire group of interest
3.3 Sampling Procedure
-Refers to the procedure used in selecting a few elements from the entire populations so as to
constitute a sample.
-A sample- is a portion of the population that is studied and the findings, generalized on the
entire population.
Reasons for sampling
1) Cost- It is too costly to study entire population when they are too large.
2) Time- Studying entire population can consume a lot of time.
3) Destructive nature of some researches.
Types of sampling
Probability sampling
-Chance/ random.
-Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling
- Systematic sampling
Non-probability sampling
- Judgment sampling
- Convenient sampling
- Quota sampling
- Snow ball.
3.4 Data Collection
-This involves conducting the research or the experiment.
There are two types of data:
1) Primary data.
First hand data. It’s the data that is collected using;
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Observation
- Tape recording
- Oral or written tests
2) Secondary data.
Collected from:
- Journals
- Articles
- Books
- Maps etc.
3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation
The aim of this is to obtain meaningful information from the data.
After chapter three there is work plan, budget then reference list and the appendices

Selection and Definition of a Research problem;

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Selection
A problem for research may be identified in any one of the following ways:
i. From suggestions, assignments or recommendations from previous researches
Experienced researchers know what has been done and what has not been done in their fields.
Sometimes such researchers have ongoing researches part of which they may lack the time to
carryout and would appreciate if others would take up such parts of research.
ii. Personal and Professional Experience
A person may come across a problem in workplace or day to day experiences which a research
may give answers.
iii. Available Literature

Literature can stimulate research in the following ways;

 The literature may sometimes point at a relatively explosive area or suggest a topic that
needs further development through research.
 Sometimes literature may show contradictions among the accumulated study as well as
indicate ambiguous issues among the studies and writings on a given problem. A
research would resolve such discrepancies
 A researcher reading on a subject may discover that a new approach is probably needed
to solve an old problem even though the problem has been well studied in the past.

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

A report does not consist of a work plan and a budget but consist of a reference list and
appendices.

Writing a Research Report

Regardless of how well a research has been done, the project is a failure if the research fails in
its mission which is to communicate with the reader.
The research report is the only yardstick for evaluating the quality of research work that has
been done well.
A researcher can do thorough and fine work at all phases of research but all may be in vain if
the research report fails to do justice to the quality of the work actually done.
Qualities of a Good Research Report
1. It should be complete (completeness)
A report is complete when it does not leave out any important processes or details for
example; details regarding how the research was carried out.

2. It should be accurate
A report is accurate if the details are not reported with exaggerations, distortions or
omissions. It is important that the research provide an accurate review of what has been
done and found at the various phases of research.
There should be no cheating. Otherwise the researcher may lose credibility and
integrity. Inaccuracy in research reports sometimes occur because of poor and careless
use of language.
3. A report should be clear
It should be easily understood by the reader. This requires a careful use of words and
expressions to avoid ambiguity and misinterpretations. It also requires clear and logical
thinking and the ability to exercise precision.

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 Generally, the words used should be precise and not vague. They must be formal and
not informal; they must be definite but not ambiguous. The rules of grammar and
punctuations should be observed.
4. It should be concise
A report is concise when it does not do well on unnecessary details. Details such as
methods and procedures that are well known should be left out and only their results
reported. Readers who are not well conversant with certain well known methods can
read them elsewhere and therefore they should not be taught by the reporter.
Ethical issues Related in Research
1. Ethics
This is a branch of philosophy which deals with ones conduct and services as a guide to one’
behavior. Researchers should be people of integrity who will not undertake research for
personal gain or research that will have a negative impact on others.
2. Plagiarism and fraud
Plagiarism refers to a situation where a researcher refers to another person’s work without
acknowledging the author. It involves stealing ideas from another scholar. It is punishable by
law and it erodes the integrity of the nation leading to serious professional consequences.
A researcher should not commit plagiarism.
Fraud refers to the situation where a researcher fakes data that has not actually been collected. It
refers to false presentation of research methodology and results
3. Misuse of privileges
A researcher has some power over the subjects (elements) owing to the training and their
expertise, their legal authority and their perceived ability to provide help.
It is unethical for a researcher to abuse his trust and use power negatively. It is unethical to
collect data in order to get someone else in trouble.

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is an overall scheme of activities in which scientists engage in order to
produce knowledge; it is a paradigm of scientific enquiry. The research process consists of the
following main stages:
1) Problem statement
2) Defining objectives
3) Formulating hypothesis
4) Reviewing literature
5) Selecting a research method
6) Preparing a sample frame
7) Constructing research instruments
8) Pre-testing research instrument
9) Writing research proposal
10) Data collection
11) Data presentation, analysis and interpretation
12) Making generalization, conclusions and recommendations.
Note that the research process identified here is somewhat. It is a rational reconstruction of the
scientific practice. However, it is not intended to be rigid but rather to convey the underlying
themes of social science research.

1) Problem Statement
At the root of all research, there is a problem. You should therefore show a clear awareness of
what particular problem you propose to deal with. An adequate problem statement should
express a relation between two or more variables, for example the relationship between
student’s self-concept and their performance at school. A research problem should pose a
certain question or questions which call for research in order to solve them. The problem
statement should also imply the possibilities of the empirical testing of emerging hypothesis.

While stating your research and the second phase to the limited area. It is the second phase with
which you should concern yourself. Describe the factors that make the stated problem a critical
issue to warrant the study. For example if the problem is high dropout rate among female
pupils in primary schools, the researcher could elaborate on the consequences of the girls
dropping out of school; for example-marginalization in the formal sector, a high fertility rate,
child labor, poor family nutritional status. Only relevant issues should be briefly discussed
under this section since these can be elaborated under the literature review. The problem
statement may range from half a page to two pages.

1. Defining objectives
The research objectives should be stated clearly and should be testable. Some researchers write
both the purpose and the objectives. The difference between the purpose statements is broad,
while the objectives are derived from the purpose and are more specific. Objectives mean what
you aim at achieving through the proposed research. Objectives determine the data collection
and analysis procedure to be used. It is therefore important for the objectives to be clear,
unambiguous and brief. The acronym ‘’smart’’ is a quick way of remembering the qualities of a
good objectives. ‘’SMART’’ refers to:
Specific- the objectives identify specific variables and activity

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Measurable- it must be possible to determine if the objective has been met by using relevant
indicators.
Achievable- is it feasible or viable in relation to researches, activities and time available.
Reliable- so that once accomplished, the result will have solved the problem it was intended to.
Time bound- one should be able to schedule a specific time period to accomplish the activity.
Research questions- these refer to questions which a researcher would like answered by
undertaking the study. The difference between research questions and objectives is that a
research question is stated in a question form while an objective is a statement.

Formulating Hypothesis
A hypothesis, very simple speaking is an educated guess. It is a ‘proposition made as a basis for
reasoning, without assumption of its truth’. It is a declarative statement which could be both in
a positive form as well as negative form. A hypothesis in a negative form is known as null
hypothesis. Null hypothesis are used for statistical research pertaining to market surveys. A
hypothesis looks forward. It is a predictive statement. A research hypothesis should be
scientifically testable. It should also indicate a relationship between two or more variables. In
brief a good hypothesis should have the following characteristics.
a. It should be clear and precise.
b. It should be specific and limited, should be related to purpose of study and
manageable.
c. It should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.
d. It should be empirically testable; hence avoid moral judgments, which cannot be
verified.
e. It should be amenable to available techniques in research

Literature Review
Whether your research is purely library based or includes field research, you will have to
review critically the available literature in your area of interest.
Literature review enables the researcher to know what has been done in that particular field of
study. It makes us aware of what achievements have been made and what challenges remain. It
also gives a good suggestions on the variables and methodology that should be used. A critical
review of literature will help you to state your hypothesis accurately and acceptably. A
researcher should only report findings from other researchers and scholars. An analysis of the
information must be done to reveal the gaps that need attention and also to show how the
existing literature ties with the objective of the study.

Research Methodology
The methodology component of research mainly includes the type of research, population and
sample, research instruments and data collection procedure.
Sometimes the term methodology is used to include analysis procedures and measurements of
variables or hypothesis testing.
a) Research design.
You should specify the type of research design to be used. For example, experimental,
observational, correlational, case study, survey etc.
It is also important to briefly point out why the chosen design is appropriate for the proposed
study.
b) Population and sample.

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Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn. The sample size and sample
selection methods must also be explained. For example, one may want to study lecturers in
pupil’s universities-population. A random sample of two hundred lectures drawn from all the
public universities constitute the sample. In this context, population is defined as a complete set
of individual’s cases of objects with same common observable characteristics. A subset of a
particular population is called a sample. It is often impossible to study the whole of the target
population. The target population is that population to which a researcher wants to generalize
the results of a study. From the target population, the researcher draws the accessible or survey
population.
The next step is to select a sample from the accessible population. The sample must be large
enough to represent the salient characteristics of the accessible population and hence the target
population. Generally, sample size depends on factors such as the number of variables in the
study, the type of research design, the method of data analysis and the size of accessible
population. Experts have suggested that for experimental and correlational research, 30 cases or
more are required; for surveys, ten percent of the accessible population is enough.

c) Sampling procedure:
to select a representative sample, a researcher must first have a sampling frame. A sampling
frame is a list of cases from which a sample can be selected. Examples of sampling frame
includes: a national census list, list of professionals in a particular field, student’s registers etc.
in some situations, a sampling frame does not exist or is not readily available. In such cases, a
researcher could decide on any other method of selecting a sample provided that such a
procedure is described in detail in the research report. At other times, the target population is so
small that selecting a sample will be meaningless.
d) Sampling Methods:
there are two broad ways of selecting a sample. Samples from specific population (listed) are
normally selected by the method commonly known as ‘probability sampling’ while those from
unspecific population are normally selected by non-profitability sampling. Previous studies
have indicated that probability sampling can give more accurate information, and is a key to
obtaining a representative sample. Here every member of the accessible population has an
equal chance of being selected.

Probability samples are therefore deemed free at conscious or unconscious bias of the
researcher. Four common probability (random) samples are:
a) Simple random sampling.
b) Systematic random sampling
c) Stratified random sampling and
d) Cluster sampling
Non-probability sampling is used when a researcher is dealing with unspecified (unlisted)
accessible populations. Four common non-probability samples are:
a) Purposive sampling
b) Quota sampling
c) Voluntary sampling and
d) Convenient sampling

Research Instruments:

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A researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary data. In social
sciences research, the most commonly used instruments are: questionnaires, interviews,
schedules, observational forms and standardized tests.
1) Questionnaires:
Questionnaires are commonly used to obtain important information about the population. Each
item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objectives of the study. There are
two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaires:
a) Structured or closed-ended:
structured or closed ended questions are accompanied by a list of all possible alternative from
which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation. In many cases the
category ‘other’ is included to take care of responses, which may not fit in the given categories.
e.g. What is your level of education?
(a) Primary (b) secondary (c) degree (d) others

Closed ended questions have certain advantages:

 they are easier to analyze since they are immediate usable forms
 They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers
 they are economical to use in terms of time and money
Its disadvantages are:
 They are difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out
 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to
the researcher’s choice.
Unstructured or open-ended questions:
Unstructured or open-ended questions gives the respondent complete freedom of responses. An
individual can use his or her own words.
Its advantages.
 They permit a greater depth of response
 They are simpler to formulate- no need for response categories.
 The responses may give an insight into the background, motivation, feelings and
interests.
 They can stimulate a person to express what he considers most important.
Its disadvantages
 There’s a tendency to give irrelevant answers
 The responses are difficult to analyze quantitatively
 It is time consuming for the respondents and this may put off some of them.
NOTE:
To construct a good questionnaire, be clear, define confusing concepts, use short questions, state
items positively, avoid biased questions and avoid sensitive questions. Items must be arranged
in a logical sequence: begin with non-threatening questions, put more important questions at
the beginning, group together related items, use content sub-sections if necessary, each
questionnaire should be given an identification number. Make the questionnaire attractive, easy
to complete, number pages and items, include brief but clear instructions and make your
questionnaire short. Questionnaires may be self-administered (completed by respondents) or
researcher administered. You may also use the internet.

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 I. Interviews
An interview is an oral administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule. Interviews
are therefore face to face encounter with respondents. To obtain accurate information through
interviews, a researcher needs to obtain the maximum co-operation from respondents. The
researcher must therefore establish a friendly relationship with the respondent prior to
conducting the interview. The interview must be pleasant, show genuine interest, create good
rapport and be relaxed and friendly. The interview should have a guide showing order of
questions and should interact with the respondent as an equal. The interviewer should not ask
leading questions. He should inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the information
given and remain as neutral as possible.
The interviewer normally uses an interview schedule- a set of questions to be asked. The
schedule makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study. It is
also used to standardize the interview situation.
An interview schedule can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Structured questions
usually have categories with responses and answers not probed. Unstructured interviews
(sometimes called guides) have a general plan that the interviewer follows.
Semi-structured interviews have some questions with categories and some open-ended ones.
Interviews have certain advantages. They provide in-depth data which is not possible to get for
a questionnaire, it is possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives, interviews
guard against confusing the questions, they are more flexible than questionnaires, they may
elicit very sensitive and personal information and the interviewer can clarify the purpose of
research and get more information by probing. Interviews yield higher level of skill, they can
introduce bias and sensitivity into the study and interviews are more suitable for smaller
samples. Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

II. Tests:
These may be standardized or non-standardized. A standardized test is one that has consistency
and uniform procedures for administering, scoring and interpreting the behavior of subjects.
E.g. GRE (Graduate Record Exam) and I.Q tests. Non- standardized tests are those that have not
established a considerable procedure nor gone through the construction process to minimize
errors. Examples are classroom tests.

III. Observation forms, schedules or checklists:

A researcher utilizes an observation checklist to record what he observes during data collection.
The researcher must define the behaviors to be observed and then develop a detailed list of
behaviors. During data collection, the researcher checks off each as it occurs. This permits the
observer to spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to record it, and
this enhances the accuracy of the study. The researcher should limit behaviors to be observed.
About ten are satisfactory. The number of subjects must be controlled. The behavior should be
described in sufficient detail and when more than one observer is used, training is necessary.
Observation schedules may also be structured or non-structured. In terms of advantages:
 Observation schedules gives more accurate information
 They can be used alongside other instruments
 Observation can be done repeatedly to verify information.
In terms of disadvantages:
 They are time consuming
 Not very suitable for surveys because only a few cases can be observed in detail

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  It requires further training of observers. (in case of more than one)
 Sometimes it is biased because people may choose to pay undue attention on some
aspects and ignore others.

Pretesting research instruments (pilot study):

it is important to pretest a research instrument on a small sample of respondents in a
preparatory exercise before commencing the actual research project. This is because even the
most carefully constructed research instrument cannot guarantee to obtain one hundred percent
reliable data. This preparatory exercise is known as ‘pilot study’.

Writing a research proposal:

A research proposal is the written description of a project that has not yet been undertaken. The
proposal describes the nature of the project and sets forth the plan for carrying it out. All the
previous steps discussed in the research process from defining the problem to pretesting the
instruments are necessary components of the research proposal. It should go further and
mention how the data will be collected, analyzed and interpreted.

Data collection
After obtaining the necessary approvals, permissions and documents, the researcher must
embark on collection of primary data from the field using the appropriate techniques. Make
adequate arrangements for the coordinating of research assistants (where applicable), checking
all your data and storing the data.

Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation

After you have collected all your primary data from the field, you need to present it logically
and interpret accurately. First, you will present data in the aggregate with the help of suitable
statistical devices (charts, graphs, tables, diagrams, histograms etc.). This will help our readers
to discern the emergent patterns in your data (e.g. greater and lesser frequencies). Then you will
interpret these patterns in order to test your hypothesis and solve your research problem.

Discussion of findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

This is the final, and perhaps the most important step of your research work. Summarize your
findings in such a way that a reader may understand what you really found out. Write the
summary logically, addressing your questions, objectives and hypothesis as applicable. Link
these to your theoretical framework and literature review. In writing your conclusions, it is
important to discuss the practical application and implications of your findings in the real
world. Your conclusions pull all the strands together in a broader perspective and indicate
possible action, where appropriate. Your summary and conclusions should lead logically to
recommendations. These must be consistent with the objectives of the study, the data presented
and interpretation given. Recommendation should be practical and achievable.

15
 SHUM 321 RESEARCH METHODS AND ANALYSIS

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research in common language refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research
as a scientific and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic. In fact, research
is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge. “

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It
is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when
the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full
and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge
and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown,
can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization
and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the
systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting
the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.

Research may also be defined as a systematic attempt to obtain meaningful questions about
events, problems, issues or phenomena. Research also involves a critical analysis of existing
conclusions or theories with regard to newly discovered facts. Research, therefore, means
continued search for new knowledge and understanding of the world around us.

In order to conduct useful research, we must find a systematic way of searching for valid
answers to appropriate questions. A systematic way means that the research should follow
established principles i.e., one should avoid impromptu solutions.

16
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH

Research therefore is:

a) Systematic

It is based on some logical order or step. It has a well-defined methodology.

b) Empirical

This is because conditions and conclusions drawn are based on observed data or facts rather
than feelings.

c) Analytical

This means that conclusions drawn must be based on analyzed data.

d) Cumulative

This is because findings are related to existing knowledge to which it is added to build a body
of knowledge in the field.

e) Communicable

The findings must be made known to others.

f) Logical

It entails rational understanding of behavior. Research goes beyond the ‘common sense’
understanding, which is neither formally testable nor empirically verifiable.

g) Determines

It attempts to determine the cause and effect of an issue e.g. why a particular phenomenon
comes into being and what cause it.

h) General

It deals with observing the overall pattern of events. It is usually generalizes (especially in social
sciences) the results of a study to other subjects, groups, and conditions.

i) Specific

It specifies its methods of operation and analysis and adheres to these methods.

j) Inter-disciplinary

That is, it seeks to relate one subject to another.

k) Empirically verifiable

17
That is, it deals with facts that can be tested under controlled observation and from which
viable recommendation can be made.

l) Open to modification

This happens both in its theories as well as methodology. A researcher must therefore keep
updated with the latest theories and methods in light of current developments.

m) Applies the scientific methods in the study of problems

It attempts to obtain answers to meaningful questions about phenomena or events through the
application of scientific procedures.

THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

a) To discover new knowledge. This involves the discovery of new facts, their correct
interpretation, and practical application.

b) To describe a phenomenon. That is to answer the question what, how, when and where
about a given object, institution, person or event.

c) To enable prediction.

d) To enable control, ability to regulate, and manipulate phenomenon under study.

e) It enhances theory development.

f) Findings can be used to develop new theories.

g) The findings can be used to compare two or more theories.

h) Findings can be used to resolve contradictions derived from a theory or theories.

i) Research findings are used to fill gaps in knowledge.

j) Research is used to follow up recommendations made in previous studies.

k) Research provides a basis for government policies e.g. education, health, etc.

l) Career facilitation by attaining of higher position in the social structure.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the
significance of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress
possible. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development
of logical habits of thinking and organization.

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The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational
problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for
government and business.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to
probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can
devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.

Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of
the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and
nature of defense services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary
with regard to the allocation of nation’s resources.

Another area in government, where research is necessary, is collecting information on the

economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is happening in
the economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such statistical information is by no
means a routine task, but it involves a variety of research problems. These days nearly all
governments maintain large staff of research technicians or experts to carry on this work. Thus,
in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of
operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
(ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and
(iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking
business decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a
market for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales.

Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques
to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can
be termed as optimization problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave
as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with
the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market) behaviour. All these are of
great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for taking business decisions.
Research with regard to demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given
knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust
its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity.

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Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting,
which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales
estimates which in turn depend on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient
production and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the
purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more
logical and scientific decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to
know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with
knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps
especially appropriate in the case of social science.

On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles that make
possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On the
other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical
guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”

In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:

a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;

b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;

c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;

e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

Therefore, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments
in one’s field in a better way.

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

20
 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening,
and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

BASIC TERMS USED IN RESEARCH

a) Population

This is a group of objects, individuals, or events with the same observable characteristics e.g. all
university students, all indigenous forests, etc.

b) Sample

This is a part of a population because the researcher cannot study a whole population, e.g. all
first year university students.

c) Subject

This is the object or individual under the study. They are individuals; they are sometimes
referred to as respondents.

d) Sampling

This is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study. The purpose of sampling is
to secure a representative group, which will enable the researcher to get information for a whole
group.

e) Variable

It is a measurable characteristic, or an attribute of expressing a particular attribute in a subject.

Some variables are expressed quantitatively, e.g. age, weight, height, etc. others are expressed in
categories such as teachers, accountants, students, etc. it is what we can observe or quantify in
humans, units, or objects.

f) Objective

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This is a specific aspect of a phenomenon under the study that the researcher desires to bring
out at the end of the study.

g) Hypothesis

This is a tentative answer to the research problem under study. It is an intellectual guess about
the outcome of the study.

h) Problem statement

This is a statement that conveys the purpose of the research study.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

a) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.

The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables;
he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research
projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as,
for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies
also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all
kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.

In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

b) Applied vs. Fundamental:

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalizations about human
behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain

22
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research.

Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution
or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base
of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

c) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand,
is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or
kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour
(i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such
research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and
similar other projective techniques.

Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance
from experimental psychologists.

d) Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other
hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus

23
characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

e) Some Other Types of Research

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based
on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. From the
point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.

Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending

upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such researches follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of
things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data
gathering devices.

The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research
is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies
are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study
events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point
of time.

Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing

conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as
he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always
for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

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RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The former
involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified
into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research.

The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it
is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.

Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic
behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.

The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the
operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the
values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to
represent the behaviour of the process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in
building models for understanding future conditions.

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions

and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or
in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques
of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are
explained at length in chapters that follow.

RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those
methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem
are termed as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it
to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view,
research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;

25
 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along
with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the
standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why.

Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they
need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will
be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the
researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to
problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the
basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size,
number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not
others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to
evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what
decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research
methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis
has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been
adopted, why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of similar other
questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research
problem or study.

26
THE RESEARCH PROCESS (STAGES OF RESEARCH)

The research process is the overall scheme of activities in which scientists engage in so as to
produce knowledge. It consists of the following main stages:

a) Problem statement

b) Defining objectives

c) Formulating hypothesis

d) Reviewing literature

e)Selecting a research method

f) Preparing a sample frame

g) Constructing research instruments

h) Pre-testing research instruments

i) Writing a research proposal

j) Data collection

k) Data presentation, analysis, and interpretation

l) Making generalizations, conclusions, and recommendations

a) Problem statement

At the root of all research, there is a problem. A researcher identifies a research problem
through various ways like:

 Reading research reports on various fields

 Personal experience

 Discussion

 Observation

 Listening

Characteristics of a Research Problem (topic)

 It is clear and easily captures the reader’s attention.

27
  It must be researchable.

 It indicates the scope of the research (area of research).

 It indicates the importance of the study in adding new knowledge. The researcher
should describe the factors that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the
study. For example, if the problem, is high drop-out rate among female pupils in
primary schools, the researcher could elaborate on the consequences of the girls
dropping out of school; for example, marginalization in the formal sector, high fertility
rate, child labour, poor family nutritional status.

b) Defining Objectives and Research Questions

Objectives are what a researcher aims at achieving through the proposed research. Objectives
determine the data collection and analysis procedures to be used. It is therefore important for
the objectives to be clear, unambiguous and brief.

Characteristics of a Good Objective (SMART)

 Specific: - The objective identifies specific variables and activity.

 Measurable: - It must be possible to determine if the objective had been met by using
relevant indicators.

 Achievable: - It is feasible or viable in relation to researches, activities, and the time

available.

 Reliable: - so that once accomplished, the results will have solved the problem it was
intended to.

 Time bound: - One should be able to schedule a specific time period to accomplish the
activity.

Research questions are questions which a researcher would like answered by undertaking the
study. The difference between research questions and objectives is that a research question is
stated in a question form while an objective is a statement.

c) Formulating Hypothesis (Predictive Statement)

A hypothesis, very simply speaking, is an educated guess. It is a declaration statement, which

could be both in a positive form as well as in a negative form. A hypothesis in a negative form is
known as a null hypothesis. A hypothesis should indicate a relationship between two or more
variables.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

 It should be clear and precise.

28
  It should be related to the purpose of the study.

 It should show the relationship between the variables.

 It should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.

 It should be empirically testable; hence avoid moral judgments, which cannot be

verified.

d) Literature Review

This involves a systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing

information related to the research problem being investigated.

Purposes of literature review

 To determine what has been done in the area being studied.

 Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication of work.

 Form framework from which research findings are interrupted.

 Demonstrate writer’s familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.

 Reveal strategies, procedures, and instruments that have been found useful in
investigating the problem in question, hence avoiding mistakes from previous
researches.

Steps in carrying out Literature Review

 Make a list of key phrases to guide your literature research.

 With these phrases, go to the library and find out sources of such information.

 Summarize the references.

 Using headings and sub-headings organize and report the literature in an orderly
manner.

e) Research Methodology

In this section, the study describes the procedures that have been followed in conducting the
study.

i. Research Design

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You should specify the type of research design to be used. For example, experimental,
observational, correlational, case study, survey, etc. it is also important to briefly point out why
the chosen design is important for the proposed study.

ii. Population and Sample

Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn. Population is defined as a
complete set of individual cases of objects with same common observable characteristics. A
subset of a particular population is called a sample. For example, one may want to study
lecturers in public universities. A sample of two hundred lecturers drawn from all the public
universities constitutes the sample.

iii. Sampling Procedures

To select a representative sample, a researcher must first have a sampling frame. A sampling
frame is a list of cases from which a sample can be selected. Examples of sampling frame
include: a national census list, list of professionals in a particular field, students’ registers, etc.
in some cases, one may not have a sampling frame.

iv. Sampling Methods

There are two types of sampling procedures. These are the probability and the non-probability
sampling procedures.

Theprobability sampling is used on samples from a specified population. Probability sampling

includes the following:

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic random sampling

 Stratified random sampling

 Cluster sampling

Non-probabilitysampling is used when a researcher is dealing with unspecified (non-listed)

accessible populations. This includes:

 Purposive sampling

 Quota sampling

 Voluntary sampling

 Convenient sampling

f) Research Instruments

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A researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary data. In social
science research, the most commonly used instruments are: questionnaires, interview schedules,
observational forms, and standardized tests.

i. Questionnaires

There are two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaires:

 Structured or closed-ended.

 Unstructured or open-ended.

Structured/closed-ended questions are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from

which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation. In many cases the
category ‘other’ is included to take care of the responses which may not fit in the given
categories.

e.g.: what is your level of education?

(a) Primary (b) Secondary (c) Degree (d) Others

Advantages

 They are easier to analyze since they are in immediate usable form.

 They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative answers.

 They are economical to use in terms of time and money.

Disadvantages

 They are difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out.

 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to
the researcher’s choices.

Unstructured/open-ended questions give the respondent complete freedom of responses. E.g.

How do you keep record of your monthly expenditure in your household?

Advantages

 They permit a greater depth of responses.

 They are simpler to formulate hence no need for response categories.

 The responses may give an insight into the background, motivation, feelings, and
interests.

 They can stimulate a person to express what he considers most important.

31
Disadvantages

 There is a tendency to give irrelevant answers.

 The responses are difficult to analyze quantitatively.

 It is time consuming for the respondents and this may put off some of them.

ii. Interviews

Interviews are face-to-face encounters with respondents. The interviewer usually uses an
interview schedule (a set of questions to be asked). An interview schedule can be structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured. Structured questions usually have categories with responses
and answers.

Unstructured interviews (sometimes called guides) have a general plan that the interviewer
follows. The interviewer asks questions intended to meet the study objectives (here probing is
commonly used).

Some interviews are semi-structured. Semi-structured interviews have some questions with
categories and some open-ended ones.

An interviewer may take notes or use tape/video recording (each of these has advantages and
disadvantages). Telephone interviews can also be used when appropriate.

Advantages

 They provide in-depth data which is not possible to get for a questionnaire.

 Interviews guard against confusing the questions.

 They are more flexible than questionnaires.

 They may elicit very sensitive and personal information.

 The interviewer can clarify the purpose of research and get more information by
probing.

Disadvantages

 They can introduce bias and subjectivity into the study.

 Interviews are more suitable for smaller samples.

 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

iii. Observation

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When using this as a data collection instrument, during the data collection the researcher checks
off behavior as it occurs. The behavior should be described in sufficient detail.

Advantages

 Observation gives more accurate information.

 It can be used alongside other instruments.

 Observation can be done repeatedly too verify information.

Disadvantages

 It is time consuming.

 It is not very suitable for surveys because only a few cases can be observed in detail.

 It might require further training of observers (in case of more than one).

 Sometimes it is biased because people may choose to pay undue attention on some
aspects and ignore others.

g) Data Collection

After obtaining the necessary approvals, permissions, and documents, the researcher must
embark on collection of primary data from the field using the appropriate techniques. Make
adequate arrangements for the coordinating of research assistants (where applicable), checking
all your data, and storing the data.

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of
collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey,
data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The
information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated
by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This
method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this
method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where
large samples are concerned.

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 (ii) Through personal interviews: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This
method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves

contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions,
particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact
with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most
extensively used method in various economic and business surveys. Before applying
this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is conduced which
reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire? Questionnaire to be used must
be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the
relevant information.

(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up
the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much
depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is concerned.
Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere
work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources,
available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these
factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the researcher.

h) Execution of the Project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the
survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the
data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper
selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of
instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional

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field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job
sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to
keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be
taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in
accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not
cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of
dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small
sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.

i) Analysis of Data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then
drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw
data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and
counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this
juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample
being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values,
then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the
difference is just a matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether
such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens
to be real, the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the
difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same
universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing whether three
or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In
brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various statistical measures.

j) Hypothesis-testing

After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending

35
upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting
the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by
subsequent researches in times to come.

k) Generalizations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive
at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The
process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.

l) Preparation of the report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of
report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

a) The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(i) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(ii) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should
be summarized.

(iii) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

(iv) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

b) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

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c) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.

d) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.

3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

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 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by

replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

THE RESEARCH REPORT

A well written research report comprises of distinct sections. The following is a checklist of the
various components that should be included in the report:

1. Title page : (title, names, reason for thesis (e.g. partial fulfillment), to whom presented)

2. Declaration page: (declaration, names, and signatures)

3. Dedication

4. Acknowledgement: (expression of thanks)

5. Abstract: (Purpose of Study, Population studied, Methods used, Major results,

Conclusion ( a half to one page)

6. Table of contents: (involves major areas in the study and their page numbers)

7. List of tables: (should indicate the title of the table and the page it is found)

8. List of figures: (the title of the figure and the page it is found)

9. List of abbreviations and acronyms

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0. Introduction

1.1. Background of the Study

1.2. Statement of the Problem

1.3. Research Objectives

1.4. Research Questions

1.5. Research Hypothesis

1.6. Significance/Justification of the Study

1.7. Conclusion

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. ….Introduction

2.1. ….(1st subheading)

2.2. ….(2nd subheading)

2.3. …. (3rd subheading) etc.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

3.1. Study area

3.2. Research design

3.3. Sources of data

3.4. Population and sample

3.5. Research instruments

3.6. Data collection procedure

3.7. Conclusion

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CHAPTER 4: (DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION)

CHAPTER 5: (DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION)

5.1. Discussion

5.2. Conclusion

5.3. Recommendations

REFERENCES

APPENDICES:

 Questionnaire sample

 Interview guide

 Observation guide

 Photos, etc.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH REPORT

Many people often have creative research ideas but few of them gain their way into a neither
concrete research project proposal nor actual research publication. More often than not, this is
usually due to the fear of how one would come up with a good report write-up.

Nearly all research project reports follow a similar format of writing. This is because all such
write-ups are usually reports of what the researcher actually did and the results or conclusions
they came up with.

There are, however, some minor peculiar differences between the various reports and this result
from the nature of the study carried out. In this case, the research could be in the social science
field or a practical study investigating a certain practical scientific phenomenon.

Thus the qualities of an excellent polished research project reports include:

a) It must be written in easy to understand vocabulary as the aim of the report is to convey
the message in the write-up.

b) It must have clear and short title related to the research problem.

c) It must give a summary (abstract) of the whole research in the introductory pages of the
write-up.

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 d) The report must have the methodology section to show how the research was carried
out.

e) It must have a discussion of the findings and the conclusion section.

f) The report must be easily legible, written with good font type and font size even though
different authorities recommend different styles.

g) Ensure you reference all work that is not originally yours. This gives acknowledgement
to the original generators of such work. Different styles of referencing exist including
APA, MLA, etc. depending on the locality and nature of your research write-up.

h) Avoid plagiarism at all costs. It is the ‘HIV’ of intellectual resources.

i) Remember your audience. Be it a post graduate research dissertation, Masters Research

thesis, or a senior final year college research report; write with the end user in mind.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

When most people think of research ethics, they think about issues that arise when the research
involves human or animal subjects.

While these issues are indeed a key part of research ethics, there are also wider issues about
standards of conduct. These include the importance of publishing findings in a transparent
way, not plagiarizing others’ work, and not falsifying work.

The Importance of Research Ethics

Research ethics are important for a number of reasons:

a) They promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.

b) They support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect and
fairness. This is essential because scientific research depends on collaboration between
researchers and groups.

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 c) They mean that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many researchers
are supported by public money, and regulations on conflict of interest, misconduct, and
research involving humans or animals are necessary to ensure that money is spent
appropriately.

d) They ensure that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund research,
they have to be confident in it. They support important social and moral values, such as
the principle of doing no harm to others.

CODE OF ETHICS

Government agencies who fund or commission research often publish codes of conduct for
researchers, or codes of ethics.

Many or even most ethical codes cover the following areas:

a) Honesty and integrity

This means that you need to report your research honestly, and that this applies to your
methods (what you did), your data, your results, and whether you have previously published
any of it. You should not make up any data, including extrapolating unreasonably from some of
your results, or do anything which could be construed as trying to mislead anyone. It is better
to undersell than exaggerate your findings.

When working with others, you should always keep to any agreements and act sincerely.

b) Objectivity

You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of your research, including design, data analysis,
interpretation, and peer review. For example, you should never recommend as a peer reviewer,
someone you know, or who you have worked with, and you should try to ensure that all
groups are inadvertently excluded from your research. This also means that you need to
disclose any personal or financial interests that may affect your research.

c) Carefulness

Take care in carrying out your research to avoid careless mistakes. You should also review your
work carefully and critically to ensure that your results are credible. It is also important to keep
full records of your research. If you are asked to act as a peer reviewer, you should take time to
do the job effectively and fully.

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 d) Openness

You should always be prepared to share your data and results along with any new tools that
you have developed, when you publish your findings, as this helps to further knowledge and
advance science. You should also be open to criticism and new ideas.

e) Respect for intellectual property

You should never plagiarize, or copy, other people’s work and try to pass it off as your own.
You should always ask for permission before using other people’s tools or methods,
unpublished data, or results. Not doing so is plagiarism. Obviously you need to respect
copyrights and patents, together with other forms of intellectual property, and always
acknowledge contributions to your research. If in doubt, acknowledge to avoid any risk of
plagiarism.

f) Confidentiality

You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence. You should also follow
guidelines on protection of sensitive information such as patient records.

g) Responsible publication

You should publish to advance the state of research and knowledge, and not just to advance
your career. This means, in essence, that you should not publish anything that is not new, or
that duplicates someone else’s work.

h) Legality

You should always be aware of the laws and regulations that govern your work, and be sure to
conform to them.

i) Animal Care

If you are using animals in your research, you should always be sure that your experiments are
both necessary and well designed. You should also show respect for the animals you are using,
and make sure that they are properly cared for.

j) Human Subjects Protection

If your research involves people, you should make sure that you reduce any possible harm to
the minimum, and maximize the benefits both to the participants and other people.

This means that for example you should not expose people to more tests than are strictly
necessary to fulfill your research aims. You should always respect human rights, including the
right to privacy and autonomy. You may need to take particular care with vulnerable groups,
which include, but not limited to, children, older people, and those with learning difficulties.

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