MAT1005

WEEK 10

Chapter 4

Graphing and
Optimization

Section 2
Second Derivative
and Graphs
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 Concavity

The term concave upward (or simply concave up) is used to

describe a portion of a graph that opens upward. Concave
down(ward) is used to describe a portion of a graph that
opens downward.

Concave down

Concave up

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 Definition of Concavity

A graph is concave up on the interval (a,b) if any secant connecting

two points on the graph in that interval lies above the graph.
It is concave down on (a,b) if all secants lie below the graph.

down
up

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 Concavity Tests
The graph of a function f is concave upward on the interval (a,b)
if f ´(x) is increasing on (a, b), and is concave downward on the
interval (a, b) if f ´(x) is decreasing on (a, b).
For y = f (x), the second derivative of f, provided it exists, is the
derivative of the first derivative:

d2 f
y ′′ = f ′′(x) = 2 (x)
dx
The graph of a function f is concave upward on the interval (a,
b) if f ´´(x) is positive on (a, b), and is concave downward on the
interval (a, b) if f ´´(x) is negative on (a,b).

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 Example

Find the intervals where the graph of

f (x) = x3 + 24x2 + 15x – 12.
is concave up or concave down.

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 Example

Find the intervals where the graph of

f (x) = x3 + 24x2 + 15x – 12.
is concave up or concave down.
f ´(x) = 3x2 + 48x + 15
f ´´(x) = 6x + 48
f ´´(x) is positive when 6x + 48 > 0 or x > –8, so it is
concave up on the region (–8, ∞).
f ´´(x) is negative when 6x + 48 < 0 or x < –8, so it is
concave down on the region (–∞, –8).

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 Example
(continued)

f (x) f ´´(x)

- 8
–25 < x < 20,
– 400 < y <14,000 –10 < x < 1
–2 < y < 6

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 Inflection Points

An inflection point is a point on the graph where the concavity

changes from upward to downward or downward to upward.
This means that if f ´´(x) exists in a neighborhood of an
inflection point, then it must change sign at that point.

Theorem 1. If y = f (x) is continuous on (a, b) and has an

inflection point at x = c, then either f ´´(c) = 0 or f ´´(c) does
not exist.

continued
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 Inflection Points
(continued)

The theorem means that an inflection point can occur only at

critical value of f ´´. However, not every critical value
produces an inflection point.
A critical value c for f ´´ produces an inflection point for the
graph of f only if f ´´ changes sign at c, and c is in the
domain of f.

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 Summary

Assume that f satisfies one of the conditions in the table

below, for all x in some interval (a,b). Then the other
condition(s) to the right of it also hold.

f ´(x) > 0 f is increasing

f ´(x) < 0 f is decreasing
f ´(x) = 0 f is constant
f ´´(x) > 0 f ´(x) increasing f is concave up
f ´´(x) < 0 f ´(x) decreasing f concave down
f ´´(x) = 0 f ´(x) is constant f is linear
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 Example

Find the inflection points of f (x) = x3 + 24x2 + 15x – 12.

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 Example

Find the inflection points of f (x) = x3 + 24x2 + 15x – 12.

Solution:
In example 1, we saw that f ´´(x) was negative to the left of
–8 and positive to the right of –8. At x = – 8, f ´´(x) = 0.
This is an inflection point because f changes from concave
down to concave up at this point.

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 Example
(continued)

Find the inflection point using a graphing calculator.

Inflection points can be difficult to recognize on a graphing

calculator, but they are easily located using root approximation
routines. For instance, the above example when f is graphed
shows an inflection point somewhere between –6 and –10.

–25 < x < 20,

– 400 < y <14,000
f (x)

continued
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 Example
(continued)

Graphing the second derivative and using the zeros

command on the calc menu shows the inflection point at –8
quite easily, because inflection points occur where the second
derivative is zero.

–10 < x < 1

–2<y<6
f ´´(x) = 6x + 48

-8

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Second Derivative Test - Concavity

Let c be a critical value for f (x), then

f ´(c) f ´´(c) graph of f is f (c) is

0 + concave up local minimum

0 – concave down local maximum

0 0 ? test fails

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 Curve Sketching

Graphing calculators and computers produce the graph

of a function by plotting many points. Although quite
accurate, important points on a plot may be difficult to
identify. Using information gained from the function
and its dervative, we can sketch by hand a very good
representation of the graph of f (x). This process is
called curve sketching and is summarized on the
following slides.

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 Graphing Strategy

 Step 1. Analyze f (x).

Find the domain and the intercepts. The x intercepts are the
solutions to f (x) = 0, and the y intercept is f (0).
 Step 2. Analyze f ´(x).
Find the partition points and critical values of f ´(x).
Construct a sign chart for f ´(x), determine the intervals
where f is increasing and decreasing, and find local
maxima and minima.

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 Graphing Strategy
(continued)
 Step 3. Analyze f ´´(x).
Find the partition numbers of f ´´(x). Construct a sign
chart for f ´´(x), determine the intervals where the graph
of f is concave upward and concave downward, and find
inflection points.
 Step 4. Sketch the graph of f.
Locate intercepts, local maxima and minima, and inflection
points. Sketch in what you know from steps 1-3. Plot
additional points as needed and complete the sketch.

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 Graphing Strategy
Example

Sketch the graph of y = x3/3 – x2 – 3x

■ Step 1. Analyze f (x).
This is a polynomial function, so the domain is all reals. The
y intercept is 0, and the x intercepts are 0 and 3 ± 45
.
■ Step 2. Analyze f ´(x). 2
f ´(x) = x2 – 2x – 3 = (x+1)(x–3), so f has critical values
at –1 and 3.
■ Step 3. Analyze f ´´(x).
f ´´(x) = 2x – 2, so f ´´ has a critical value at x = 1.
A combined (steps 2 and 3) sign chart for this function is shown
on the next slide.
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 Sign chart for f ´ and f ´´

(– ∞, –1) (–1, 3) (3, ∞)

f ´´(x) - - - - - - - 0 + + + + + + + +
f ´(x) + + + 0 - - - - - - 0 + + + + +

-1 1 3
f (x) increasing decreasing increasing

f (x) maximum minimum

f (x) concave down - inflection - concave up

point
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Barnett/Ziegler/Byleen Business Calculus
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2011, and 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. 2121
 Chapter 4

Graphing and
Optimization

Section 3
L’Hopital’s Rule

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 Limits involving Powers of x
In this section we
will develop a
powerful technique
for evaluating limits
of quotients called
L’Hôpital’s Rule.
y=x y = x2
To use this rule, it is
necessary to be lim x = 0 lim x 2 = 0
x →0
x →0
familiar with the lim x 2 = ∞
limit properties of lim x = ∞ x →∞
x →∞
some basic functions lim x = −∞ lim x 2 = ∞
x →−∞ x →−∞
which follow.

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 Limits Involving Powers of x
(continued)
1 1
y= y= 2
x x
1 1
lim+ = ∞ lim+ 2 = ∞
x →0 x x →0 x

1 1
lim− = −∞ lim− 2 = ∞
x →0 x x →0 x

1 1
lim Does not exist lim 2 = ∞
x →0 x x →0 x

1 1
lim = 0 lim 2 = 0
x →∞ x x →∞ x

1 1
lim = 0 lim =0
x →−∞ x x →−∞ x 2

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 Limits Involving Exponential
and Logarithmic Functions

y = ex y = e− x y = ln x
lim e = 1
x
lim e − x = 1 lim+ ln x = −∞
x →0 x →0
x →0
lim e x = ∞ lim e − x = 0 lim ln x = ∞
x →∞ x →∞
x →∞
lim e x = 0 lim e − x = ∞
x →−∞ x →−∞

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 L’Hôpital’s Rule and the
Indeterminate Form 0/0
f ( x)
lim is a 0/0 indeterminate form if
x →c g ( x )

=
lim f ( x) 0= and lim g ( x) 0.
x →c x →c

The quotient property for limits does not apply since

lim g ( x) = 0.
x →c

x2 − 4
lim is a 0/0 indeterminate form but it can be
x→2 x − 2

evaluated using algebraic simplification.

ex − e
The limit lim cannot be evaluated this way.
x →1 x − 1

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 L’Hôpital’s Rule and 0/0
(continued)

Limits such as the one on the previous slide can be

evaluated using L’Hôpital’s Rule :

For c a real number,

If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 then
x→c x→c

f (x) f ′(x)
lim = lim
x→c g(x) x→c g ′ (x)

provided the second limit exists or

is ∞ or − ∞.

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 Example

ex − e
Let's return to our former example: lim
x→1 x − 1

Step 1. Check to see if L'Hopital's rule applies:

lim (e x − e) = 0 and lim(x − 1) = 0
x→1 x→1

L'Hopital's rule does apply.

d x
ex − e (e − e) e x
lim = lim dx = lim = e
x→1 x − 1 x→1 d x→1 1
(x − 1)
dx

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 Cautionary Example

ln x
Example: Evaluate lim
x →1 x

Step 1. Check to see if L'Hopital/s rule applies:

lim ln x= ln1= 0 but lim x= 1 ≠ 0
x →1 x →1

L'Hopital's Rule does not apply.

Use the quotient property for limits instead:
ln x lim ln x 0
lim = x →1
= = 0
x →1 x lim x 1
x →1

Using L'Hopital's Rule would have given us

an incorrect result.

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One-Sided Limits and Limits at ∞

Theorem 2. (L’Hôpital’s Rule, Version 2 )

The first version of L’Hôpital’s Rule remains valid if
the symbol x → c is replaced everywhere it occurs
with one of the following symbols:
x → c+ x → c– x →∞ x → –∞

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 Example

ln x
Evaluate: lim+
x→1 (x − 1)
2

Step 1. Check to see if L'Hopital's rule applies:

lim+ ln x = 0 and lim+ (x − 1)2 = 0
x→1 x→1

L'Hopital's rule does apply.

Step 2. Apply L'Hopital's rule:

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 Example
d
ln x ln x
lim+ = lim+ dx
x→1 (x − 1)
2
x→1 d
(x − 1) 2

dx
1
x 1
= lim+ = lim+ =∞
x→1 2(x − 1) x→1 2x(x − 1)

+ 1
The limit as x → 1 is ∞ because has
2x(x − 1)
a vertical asymptote at x = 1.
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 L’Hôpital’s Rule and the
Indeterminate Form ∞/∞
Theorem 3. (L’Hôpital’s Rule, version 3)
Versions 1 and 2 of L’Hôpital’s Rule are also valid if

lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = ±∞
x →c x →c

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 Example

ln x
Evaluate lim 2
x →∞ x

Step 1. Check to see if L'Hopital's rule applies:

ln x
lim 2 = ∞ and lim x 2 = ∞
x →∞ x x →∞

L'Hopital's rule does apply.

Step 2. Apply L'Hopital's Rule
d 1
ln x
ln x dx x lim l = 0
lim= lim = =
lim
x →∞ x 2 x →∞ d 2 x →∞ 2 x x →∞ 2 x 2
x
dx
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