Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Research Methodology
Civil Eng & Information Technology (IT) -Semester 7
2024-2025

Lecture 2
Prepared by
Dr Abeer Abdalla Zakaria
Research Methods
• The research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research operations.
• Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the
research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use
in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a
particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher
himself or by others.
Need and Purpose
• It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.
• It saves the money, manpower and materials.
• It helps the researchers for advance planning and avoids duplication.
• It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
• It gives reality to research.
Research Design
• The term “research design” means ‘drawing for research’.
• It is a systematic planning of conducting research.
• It aims to achieve the goals of the research.
• ‘as the arrangement of conditions for data collection and analysis in a
manner that aims to combine the relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure’.
• ‘a master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for collecting
and analyzing the needed information.
The difference between methods and techniques
of data collection
Research Design Process

• Selection of research topic/problem,

• Framing research design,
• Framing sampling design,
• Collection of data,
• Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation
• Writing research reports
Research Design Process
Characteristics of Good Research Design
• Theory-Grounded,
• Environment,
• Feasibility of Implementation,
• Redundancy,
• Efficient,
• It should be flexible,
• It should be economical.
• It should be unbiased,
• It should fulfill the objectives of the research,
• It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research.
Components of Research Design

Title of the investigation

Purpose of the study
Review of related literature
Statement of the problem
Scope of the investigation
Objectives of the study
Variables
Hypothesis
Selection of sample
Data Collection
Analysis of data
Remember, research is only valuable:

 Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.

 Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
 Reliable – other people who investigate similarly can produce similar results.
 Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
 Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.
Research Approaches
• Two basic approaches to research, viz., the quantitative and
qualitative approaches.

• Quantitative approach sub-classified into inferential, experimental,

and simulation approaches to research.
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with the subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions, and behavior.
I. Qualitative methods:
• Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended
questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical.
• This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.
• Also you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meaning in the data.
• Qualitative research is usually executed through documentary research design. Historical and
philosophical studies also fall under this category.
Types of qualitative methods include:
A. One-to-one Interviews (are interviews that are in person and occur between one interviewer and the
interviewee. )
B. Focus Groups
C. Ethnographic studies (the study of people in their own environment through the use of methods such as
participant observation and face-to-face interviewing)
D. Text Analysis: is closely associated with words, sounds, feelings, emotions, colors, and other elements
that are non-quantifiable.
E. Qualitative studies aim to ensure a greater level of depth of understanding and qualitative data collection
methods include interviews, questionnaires with open-ended questions, focus groups, observation, game or
role-playing, and case studies.
II. Quantitative methods:

- Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

- It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data.
- It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to
explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
- Involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to understand patterns,
relationships, or trends.
- It typically employs statistical methods to quantify behaviors, opinions, or
other defined variables based in mathematical calculations in various
formats.
- Types of quantitative methods include:
II. Quantitative methods:
The main types of quantitative methods in research are:
1. Descriptive Research:
• Purpose: To describe characteristics or behaviors of a particular group or phenomenon.
• Techniques: Surveys, questionnaires, and observational studies.
• Example: A survey on the frequency of social media usage among college students.
2. Correlational Research:
• Purpose: To identify relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them.
• Techniques: Statistical analysis (e.g., correlation coefficient).
• Example: Studying the relationship between study hours and exam scores among students.
3. Experimental Research:
• Purpose: To determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one variable
(independent variable) and observing its effect on another (dependent variable).
• Techniques: Random assignment, control groups, and laboratory experiments.
• Example: Investigating the effect of different teaching methods on students' learning outcomes.
4. Survey Research:
Purpose: To collect data from a large population to generalize findings.
Techniques: Structured questionnaires or online surveys.
Example: Conducting a survey on job satisfaction among engineering graduates.

5. Longitudinal Research:
Purpose: To study the same variables over a long period to observe changes and developments.
Techniques: Repeated measurements at different time points.
Example: Tracking changes in student performance over their university years.

Qualitative research has variables that are not easily or objectively amenable to empirical
measurement and verification. It may at times incorporate issues that are value-laden (i.e.
subjective) in nature. It therefore applies mostly non-statistically-based data which nevertheless can
be empirically studied. Although it does not test the hypothesis in the statistical sense of the term,
it nevertheless proves its hypotheses, using the deductive or inductive logical method or the
method of content analysis (Obasi, 1999).
Research process guideline
Formulating the research problem;
Extensive literature survey;
Developing the hypothesis;
Preparing the research design;
 Determining sample design;
Collecting the data;
Execution of the project;
 Analysis of data;
Hypothesis testing;
 Generalizations and interpretation,
Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,i. e.,
formal write-up of conclusions reached.
1. Formulating the research problem:
• There are two types of research problems, those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between variables.
• The research topic or problem should be practical, relatively important, feasible,
ethically and politically acceptable.
• Statement of Problem is the most crucial introductory issue in any research.
• Simply defined, a research problem is the fundamental question that requires an answer.
• It is the most worrying issue or task needs to be properly examined and understood. It is
a fundamental question because many other specific research questions derive from it.
• A research problem is ‘an unsettling intellectual challenge, a matter of doubt, difficulty or
dissatisfaction that one experiences when an unsatisfactory situation is encountered…
• A statement of the research problem; is usually a declarative statement of what is wrong,
doubted, and unsettling.
• The research problem is the hub around which the research objectives and hypotheses
revolve. The objectives and hypotheses derive their meaning from the research problem
and when divorced from it, the research becomes unfocused and meaningless. There has
to be harmony among the statement of problem, objectives, and hypotheses
• Under the statement of problem, the researcher is expected to examine the ‘why’- related issues.
The researcher does not only describe as such but rather raises questions that attract curiosity
and expectations in terms of answers.
• The ‘why’ of an issue differs from its ‘how’, for example, what is the complexion of the Vice-
Chancellor of NOUN? This is a ‘how-question’ which requires a clear, straight and objective
answer. For those who know the VC, different answers can hardly arise. If the answer to the
question is black color, then we can go further to ask, why is the VC black? The answer to this why
question requires analytical insight. Answers may vary according to the different understandings
or rationalizations of people. But the correct answer requires examination of hereditary issues,
use or misuse of cosmetics, the effect of weather etc. All those who do not know the complexion
of the VC’s parents would, first of all, establish that before explaining.
• The point being made is not that the use of ‘how’ and ‘what’ cannot be found in the formulation
of research questions, but it is that in articulating the statement of the problem, efforts should be
made to differentiate description from analysis i.e. differentiating what exists from why it exists.
We can describe and state what exists under the background, while we raise questions as to why
it exists under the statement of problem.
• This is an important guiding principle that can lessen the usual ‘agony’ students pass through in
trying to articulate the statement of the problem. There is usually a general lack of understanding
among students of what a statement of problem requires.
What a statement of problem is not:

First. A statement of problem is not the listing of problems that a researcher encounters in a study.
Some research students for example, state that there is dearth of literature in the study or that they
did not have enough funds to do an extensive survey, or still that there was a lack of cooperation
from the respondents.
Secondly, a statement of problem is not the listing of problems one expects to identify in a study or
one already identified in a study. Some students for example state that the problem of the study is
that there is poor leadership in the organization, or that there is widespread corruption during the
political party primary elections. These are findings already, and if answers the research is supposed
to discover are already known and stated before embarking on the study, then why carry out the
study.
Thirdly a statement of problem is not the section for stating the purpose of the study or its
significance as some people do, unless one wishes to integrate all these under one section which is
usually not the case for an academic research project.
Styles used in writing a statement of the problem:

• In writing a statement of problem, one can use different styles. First, one can be argumentative in approach
by raising doubt to what apparently exists, or disagreeing right away from what apparently exists, or
disagreeing right away from what apparently (seemingly) looks accepted. Secondly, one can be declarative in
style by making assertive statement(s) from a particular school of thought which is of course subject to
further investigation. Thirdly, one can be historically analytical by critically looking at antecedence to an
issue. This is different from being historically descriptive as done under the background of study.
Furthermore, one can proceed by looking at the findings of other scholars or theoretical postulations which
require further investigation.
• Whichever style one adopts at the end of the day, the statement of the problem is reduced to specific
researchable questions of say three to five in number. Although there is no optimum number of questions, it
is advisable that the number should be a manageable one that would make the research report less
voluminous.
• Research questions are narrow and specific in scope and are usually derived from the research problem
which is wider and general in scope.
• The role of the research questions is to reduce the problem to a researchable (i.e. clearly observable and/or
measurable) level.
• It is advisable to use the research questions to end the statement of problem, but it can be separated from
the statement of problem and put as a sub-heading. Whatever is the case, these research questions are
called principal research questions to differentiate them from questions contained in the questionnaire and
interview instruments. Such questions in these instruments are called minor questions as they are in turn
derived from the principal questions. Clusters of minor questions in a questionnaire are usually derived from
the various principal research questions.
2- Extensive literature survey:
• A literature review or survey is an organized write-up showing previous work done
concerning a research topic or question in your field.
• The aim of a literature review is to show your reader (e.g. your supervisor) that you have
read and that you have a good grasp of the main published work concerning a particular
topic or question in your field.
• This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation, or thesis. In the
latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by your research objective or by the
issue or thesis you are arguing and will provide the framework for your further work.
• It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of what
others have published in the form of a set of summaries but should take the form of a
critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories,
and approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work,
linked at all times to your purpose and rationale.
• A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written, identifies areas of
controversy, raises questions, and identifies areas that need further research.
• Once the problem is formulated, a summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or
the Research Board for approval.
• The availability of the literature may bring ease to the research. For this purpose, academic journals,
conference reports, and libraries must be studied.
• Go online and search for articles, books, and papers related to your subject.
• Be creative and persistent in your keyword search until you hunt down good references or examples.
• It is important, therefore, to try and decide on the parameters of your research.
• What exactly are your objectives and what do you need to find out.

• In your review, are you looking at issues of theory, methodology, policy, quantitive research, or what? Before
you start reading it may be useful to compile a list of the main areas and questions involved, and then read
with the purpose of finding out about or answering these. Unless something comes up which is particularly
important, stick to this list, as it is very easy to get sidetracked, particularly on the internet.
Sources of Literature for Review

Materials that are available for review can be found in any of the following sources:
 Books and monographs
 Journal and periodical articles,
Academic research projects commonly called theses or dissertations,
 Government reports (official documents),
 Unpublished materials (manuscripts).

• Students can consult Journal Abstracts and Dissertation Abstracts for brief reports
of Journal articles and doctoral dissertations. These are useful sources of current
literature on issues of immediate concern.
• Special mention needs to be made of:
• (a) International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences; (b) International Political Science Abstract;
(c) International Encyclopaedia of Public Administration; (d) other Reference Books and
Encyclopaedia. These are useful sources for both historical and current ideas.
In summary
It helps to identify ready-made solutions that may be applied to the
problem at hand.
It helps a writer to make informed decisions about a problem and provide
authoritative support for a given point of view.
 It enables a writer to obtain data, recognize constraints to be used to
define a given problem context and delimit its scope.
By revealing what exists in a given research area, it enables writers not to
waste time, resources, and effort in solving a problem whose satisfactory
solutions already exist.
Finally, it helps writers to identify tested techniques, proven methods of
analysis, and other problem-solving strategies that are applicable or that
can be modified or extended to provide an elegant solution to the problem
at hand.
Hypotheses
 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough
statistical evidence in favor of a certain belief about a parameter.
 A hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the
researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will
be. It is an informed/educated guess.
 It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the
most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
 The development of a hypothesis is a technical work that depends on the
researcher’s experience. The hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative
cause-and-effect aspects of a problem.
 Hypothesis narrows down the area of research and keeps a researcher on the
right path.
 A hypothesis is simply a tentative statement that is open to confirmation or
rejection when exposed (subjected) to empirical verification or a tentative
generalization whose validity remains to be tested.
Purpose and Function of Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been
concluded.
• First, it enables researchers to understand the problem under study with greater clarity and also provides
them with a framework for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting their data (Cohen and Manion, 1980).

• It is formulated when the researcher is aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the
problem.
• A hypothesis serves as a practical tool for a theory, even though it can be derived from one. As a relational
proposition, it aids in determining the likely truth or falsehood of the proposed relationship between
variables. Thus, a hypothesis is a valuable tool for advancing knowledge.

• It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested.
• It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to
make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• Third, it suggests explanations for certain facts and guides the investigation of others. It also serves as a guide
to the way in which data can be organized most efficiently in the analysis (Selltiz et al, 1974).

• It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the
examination of the problem.
Type of Hypothesis

Descriptive Hypotheses:
• These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size, form or distribution) of a
variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization etc. ,
• e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates.
The educational system is not oriented to the human resource needs of a country.
Relational Hypotheses:
• These are propositions that describe the relationship between two variables.
• e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more on recreation upper–class people have fewer
children than lower-class people.
• The discussion of research hypotheses is differentiated in terms of quantitative
and qualitative research.
• For quantitative research, research hypotheses are declarative statements that
express relationships between two or more variables in such a way that the
relationships are testable empirically.

• Variable relationships and testability are crucial criteria that need to be met.
Testability indicates that the variables can be empirically measured and assigned
numerical values.
• For qualitative research, variable relationships, and testability criteria do not have
to be satisfied.
• Given the nature of qualitative inquiries, mostly exploratory and descriptive in
the search for substantive grounded theory, hypotheses are characterized as
‘tentative’, ‘intuitive’, ‘guiding’, and ‘emergent.
The Difference Between an Hypothesis And a Problem

• Both a hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge

that supports or refutes an existing theory.
• A hypothesis differs from a problem:
• A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin
from which a hypothesis is derived.
• A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
• A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested
and verified.