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 Chapter 9 Database Design

Chapter 9
Database Design
Discussion Focus

What is the relationship between a database and an information system, and how does this
relationship have a bearing on database design?

An information system performs three sets of services:

 It provides for data collection, storage, and retrieval.
 It facilitates the transformation of data into information.
 It provides the tools and conditions to manage both data and information.

Basically, a database is a fact (data) repository that serves an information system. If the database is designed
poorly, one can hardly expect that the data/information transformation will be successful, nor is it reasonable
to expect efficient and capable management of data and information.

The transformation of data into information is accomplished through application programs. It is impossible
to produce good information from poor data; and, no matter how sophisticated the application programs are,
it is impossible to use good application programs to overcome the effects of bad database design. In short:
Good database design is the foundation of a successful information system.

Database design must yield a database that:

 Does not fall prey to uncontrolled data duplication, thus preventing data anomalies and the attendant
lack of data integrity.
 Is efficient in its provision of data access.
 Serves the needs of the information system.

The last point deserves emphasis: even the best-designed database lacks value if it fails to meet information
system objectives. In short, good database designers must pay close attention to the information system
requirements.

Systems design and database design are usually tightly intertwined and are often performed in parallel.
Therefore, database and systems designers must cooperate and coordinate to yield the best possible
information system.

What is the relationship between the SDLC and the DBLC?

The SDLC traces the history (life cycle) of an information system. The DBLC traces the history (life cycle)
of a database system. Since we know that the database serves the information system, it is not surprising that
the two life cycles conform to the same basic phases.

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

Suggestion: Use Figure 9.8 as the basis for a discussion of the parallel activities.

What basic database design strategies exist, and how are such strategies executed?

Suggestion: Use Figure 9.14 as the basis for this discussion.

There are two basic approaches to database design: top-down and bottom-up.

Top-down design begins by identifying the different entity types and the definition of each entity's attributes.
In other words, top-down design:
 starts by defining the required data sets and then
 defines the data elements for each of those data sets.

Bottom-up design:
 first defines the required attributes and then
 groups the attributes to form entities.

Although the two methodologies tend to be complementary, database designers who deal with small
databases with relatively few entities, attributes, and transactions tend to emphasize the bottom-up
approach. Database designers who deal with large, complex databases usually find that a primarily top-down
design approach is more appropriate.

In spite of the frequent arguments concerning the best design approach, perhaps the top-down vs. bottom-up
distinction is quite artificial. The text's note is worth repeating:

NOTE
Even if a generally top-down approach is selected, the normalization process that revises existing
table structures is (inevitably) a bottom-up technique. E-R models constitute a top-down process
even if the selection of attributes and entities may be described as bottom-up. Since both the E-R
model and normalization techniques form the basis for most designs, the top-down vs. bottom-up
debate may be based on a distinction without a difference.

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Answers to Review Questions

1. What is an information system? What is its purpose?

An information system is a system that

 provides the conditions for data collection, storage, and retrieval
 facilitates the transformation of data into information
 provides management of both data and information.

An information system is composed of hardware, software (DBMS and applications), the database(s),
procedures, and people.

Good decisions are generally based on good information. Ultimately, the purpose of an information
system is to facilitate good decision making by making relevant and timely information available to the
decision makers.

2. How do systems analysis and systems development fit into a discussion about information systems?

Both systems analysis and systems development constitute part of the Systems Development Life Cycle,
or SDLC. Systems analysis, phase II of the SDLC, establishes the need for and the extent of an
information system by
 Establishing end-user requirements.
 Evaluating the existing system.
 Developing a logical systems design.

Systems development, based on the detailed systems design found in phase III of the SDLC, yields the
information system. The detailed system specifications are established during the systems design phase,
in which the designer completes the design of all required system processes.

3. What does the acronym SDLC mean, and what does an SDLC portray?

SDLC is the acronym that is used to label the System Development Life Cycle. The SDLC traces the
history of a information system from its inception to its obsolescence. The SDLC is composed of six
phases: planning, analysis, detailed system, design, implementation and maintenance.

4. What does the acronym DBLC mean, and what does a DBLC portray?

DBLC is the acronym that is used to label the Database Life Cycle. The DBLC traces the history of a
database system from its inception to its obsolescence. Since the database constitutes the core of an
information system, the DBLC is concurrent to the SDLC. The DBLC is composed of six phases: initial
study, design, implementation and loading, testing and evaluation, operation, and maintenance and
evolution.

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5. Discuss the distinction between centralized and decentralized conceptual database design.

Centralized and decentralized design constitute variations on the bottom-up and top-down approaches
we discussed in the third question presented in the discussion focus. Basically, the centralized approach
is best suited to relatively small and simple databases that lend themselves well to a bird's-eye view of
the entire database. Such databases may be designed by a single person or by a small and informally
constituted design team. The company operations and the scope of its problems are sufficiently limited to
enable the designer(s) to perform all of the necessary database design tasks:

1. Define the problem(s).

2. Create the conceptual design.
3. Verify the conceptual design with all user views.
4. Define all system processes and data constraints.
5. Assure that the database design will comply with all achievable end user requirements.

The centralized design procedure thus yields the design summary shown in Figure Q9.5A.

Figure Q9.5A The Centralized Design Procedure

D
A
Conceptual Model T
A

D
I
Conceptual Model Verification C
T
I
User System Data O
Views Processes Constraints N
A
R
Y

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Note that the centralized design approach requires the completion and validation of a single conceptual
design.

NOTE
Use the text’s Figures 9.15 and 9.16 to contrast the two design approaches, then use Figure 9.6
to show the procedure flows; demonstrate that such procedure flows are independent of the
degree of centralization.

In contrast, when company operations are spread across multiple operational sites or when the database
has multiple entities that are subject to complex relations, the best approach is often based on the
decentralized design.

Typically, a decentralized design requires that the design task be divided into multiple modules, each one
of which is assigned to a design team. The design team activities are coordinated by the lead designer,
who must aggregate the design teams' efforts.

Since each team focuses on modeling a subset of the system, the definition of boundaries and the
interrelation between data subsets must be very precise. Each team creates a conceptual data model
corresponding to the subset being modeled. Each conceptual model is then verified individually against
the user views, processes, and constraints for each of the modules. After the verification process has
been completed, all modules are integrated in one conceptual model.

Since the data dictionary describes the characteristics of all the objects within the conceptual data model,
it plays a vital role in the integration process. Naturally, after the subsets have been aggregated into a
larger conceptual model, the lead designer must verify that the combined conceptual model is still able to
support all the required transactions. Thus the decentralized design activities may be summarized as
shown in Figure Q8.6B.

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Figure Q9.6B The Decentralized Design Procedure

DATA COMPONENT

Conceptual D
Models Subset A Subset B Subset C
A
T
A
Views, Views, Views,
Verification Processes, Processes, Processes, D
Constraints Constraints Constraints I
C
T
I
Aggregation O
N
A
R
FINAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL Y

Keep in mind that the aggregation process requires the lead designer to assemble a single model in which
various aggregation problems must be addressed:
 synonyms and homonyms. Different departments may know the same object by different names
(synonyms), or they may use the same name to address different objects (homonyms.) The object
may be an entity, an attribute, or a relationship.
 entity and entity subclasses. An entity subset may be viewed as a separate entity by one or more
departments. The designer must integrate such subclasses into a higher-level entity.
 Conflicting object definitions. Attributes may be recorded as different types (character, numeric),
or different domains may be defined for the same attribute. Constraint definitions, too, may vary.
The designer must remove such conflicts from the model.

6. What is the minimal data rule in conceptual design? Why is it important?

The minimal data rule specifies that all the data defined in the data model are actually required to fit
present and expected future data requirements. This rule may be phrased as All that is needed is
there, and all that is there is needed.

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7. Discuss the distinction between top-down and bottom-up approaches to database design.

There are two basic approaches to database design: top-down and bottom-up.

Top-down design begins by identifying the different entity types and the definition of each entity's
attributes. In other words, top-down design:
 starts by defining the required data sets and then
 defines the data elements for each of those data sets.

Bottom-up design:
 first defines the required attributes and then
 groups the attributes to form entities.

Although the two methodologies tend to be complementary, database designers who deal with small
databases with relatively few entities, attributes, and transactions tend to emphasize the bottom-up
approach. Database designers who deal with large, complex databases usually find that a primarily
top-down design approach is more appropriate.

8. What are business rules? Why are they important to a database designer?

Business rules are narrative descriptions of the business policies, procedures, or principles that are
derived from a detailed description of operations. Business rules are particularly valuable to database
designers, because they help define:
 Entities
 Attributes
 Relationships (1:1, 1:M, M:N, expressed through connectivities and cardinalities)
 Constraints

To develop an accurate data model, the database designer must have a thorough and complete
understanding of the organization's data requirements. The business rules are very important to the
designer because they enable the designer to fully understand how the business works and what role is
played by data within company operations.

NOTE
Do keep in mind that an ERD cannot always include all the applicable business rules. For
example, although constraints are often crucial, it is often not possible to model them. For
instance, there is no way to model a constraint such as “no pilot may be assigned to flight duties
more than ten hours during any 24-hour period.”

It is also worth emphasizing that the description of (company) operations must be done in
almost excruciating detail and it must be verified and re-verified. An inaccurate description of
operations yields inaccurate business rules that lead to database designs that are destined to
fail.

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9. What is the data dictionary's function in database design?

A good data dictionary provides a precise description of the characteristics of all the entities and
attributes found within the database. The data dictionary thus makes it easier to check for the existence
of synonyms and homonyms, to check whether all attributes exist to support required reports, to verify
appropriate relationship representations, and so on. The data dictionary's contents are both developed and
used during the six DBLC phases:

DATABASE INITIAL STUDY

The basic data dictionary components are developed as the entities and attributes are defined during this
phase.

DATABASE DESIGN
The data dictionary contents are used to verify the database design components: entities, attributes, and
their relationships. The designer also uses the data dictionary to check the database design for
homonyms and synonyms and verifies that the entities and attributes will support all required query and
report requirements.

IMPLEMENTATION AND LOADING

The DBMS's data dictionary helps to resolve any remaining attribute definition inconsistencies.

TESTING AND EVALUATION

If problems develop during this phase, the data dictionary contents may be used to help restructure the
basic design components to make sure that they support all required operations.

OPERATION
If the database design still yields (the almost inevitable) operational glitches, the data dictionary may be
used as a quality control device to ensure that operational modifications to the database do not conflict
with existing components.

MAINTENANCE AND EVOLUTION

As users face inevitable changes in information needs, the database may be modified to support those
needs. Perhaps entities, attributes, and relationships must be added, or relationships must be changed. If
new database components are fit into the design, their introduction may produce conflict with existing
components. The data dictionary turns out to be a very useful tool to check whether a suggested change
invites conflicts within the database design and, if so, how such conflicts may be resolved.

10. What steps are required in the development of an ER diagram? (Hint: See Table 9.3.)

Table 9.3 is reproduced for your convenience.

TABLE 9.3 Developing the Conceptual Model, Using ER Diagrams

STEP ACTIVITY
1 Identify, analyze, and refine the business rules.
2 Identify the main entities, using the results of Step 1.

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3 Define the relationships among the entities, using the results of Steps 1 and 2.
4 Define the attributes, primary keys, and foreign keys for each of the entities.
5 Normalize the entities. (Remember that entities are implemented as tables in an RDBMS.)
6 Complete the initial ER diagram.
7 Validate the ER model against the user’s information and processing requirements.
8 Modify the ER diagram, using the results of Step 7.

Point out that some of the steps listed in Table 9.3 take place concurrently. And some, such as the
normalization process, can generate a demand for additional entities and/or attributes, thereby causing
the designer to revise the ER model. For example, while identifying two main entities, the designer
might also identify the composite bridge entity that represents the many-to-many relationship between
those two main entities.

11. List and briefly explain the activities involved in the verification of an ER model.

Section 9-4c, “Data Model Verification,” includes a discussion on verification. In addition, Appendix C,
“The University Lab: Conceptual Design Verification, Logical Design, and Implementation,” covers the
verification process in detail. The verification process is detailed in the text’s Table 9.5, reproduced here
for your convenience.

TABLE 9.5 The ER Model Verification Process

STEP ACTIVITY
1 Identify the ER model’s central entity.
2 Identify each module and its components.
3 Identify each module’s transaction requirements:
Internal: Updates/Inserts/Deletes/Queries/Reports
External: Module interfaces
4 Verify all processes against the ER model.
5 Make all necessary changes suggested in Step 4.
6 Repeat Steps 2−5 for all modules.

Keep in mind that the verification process requires the continuous verification of business transactions as
well as system and user requirements. The verification sequence must be repeated for each of the
system’s modules.

12. What factors are important in a DBMS software selection?

The selection of DBMS software is critical to the information system’s smooth operation. Consequently,
the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed DBMS software should be carefully studied. To avoid
false expectations, the end user must be made aware of the limitations of both the DBMS and the
database.

Although the factors affecting the purchasing decision vary from company to company, some of the most
common are:

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

 Cost. Purchase, maintenance, operational, license, installation, training, and conversion costs.
 DBMS features and tools. Some database software includes a variety of tools that facilitate the
application development task. For example, the availability of query by example (QBE), screen
painters, report generators, application generators, data dictionaries, and so on, helps to create a
more pleasant work environment for both the end user and the application programmer. Database
administrator facilities, query facilities, ease of use, performance, security, concurrency control,
transaction processing, and third-party support also influence DBMS software selection.
 Underlying model. Hierarchical, network, relational, object/relational, or object.
 Portability. Across platforms, systems, and languages.
 DBMS hardware requirements. Processor(s), RAM, disk space, and so on.

13. List and briefly explain the four steps performed during the logical design stage.
1) Map conceptual model to logical model components.
In this step, the conceptual model is converted into a set of table definitions including table names,
column names, primary keys, and foreign keys to implement the entities and relationships specified in
the conceptual design.
2) Validate the logical model using normalization.
It is possible for normalization issues to be discovered during the process of mapping the conceptual
model to logical model components. Therefore, it is appropriate at this stage to validate that all of the
table definitions from the previous step conform to the appropriate normalization rules.
3) Validate logical model integrity constraints.
This step involves the conversion of attribute domains and constraints into constraint definitions that
can be implemented within the DBMS to enforce those domains. Also, entity and referential integrity
constraints are validated. Views may be defined to enforce security constraints.
4) Validate the logical model against the user requirements.
The final step of this stage is to ensure that all definitions created throughout the logical model are
validated against the users' data, transaction, and security requirements. Every component (table,
view, constraint, etc.) of the logical model must be associated with satisfying the user requirements,
and every user requirement should be addressed by the model components.

14. List and briefly explain the three steps performed during the physical design stage.

1) Define data storage organization.

Based on estimates of the data volume and growth, this step involves the determination of the
physical location and physical organization for each table. Also, which columns will be indexed and
the type of indexes to be used are determined. Finally, the type of implementation to be used for each
view is decided.
2) Define integrity and security measures.
This step involves creating users and security groups, and then assigning privileges and controls to
those users and group.
3) Determine performance measurements.
The actual performance of the physical database implementation must be measured and assessed for
compliance with user performance requirements.

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

15. What three levels of backup may be used in database recovery management? Briefly describe
what each of those three backup levels does.

A full backup of the database creates a backup copy of all database objects in their entirety.
A differential backup of the database creates a backup of only those database objects that have changed
since the last full backup.
A transaction log backup does not create a backup of database objects, but makes a backup of the log
of changes that have been applied to the database objects since the last backup.

Problem Solutions

1. The ABC Car Service & Repair Centers are owned by the SILENT car dealer; ABC services and
repairs only SILENT cars. Three ABC Car Service & Repair Centers provide service and repair
for the entire state.

Each of the three centers is independently managed and operated by a shop manager, a
receptionist, and at least eight mechanics. Each center maintains a fully stocked parts inventory.
Each center also maintains a manual file system in which each car’s maintenance history is kept:
repairs made, parts used, costs, service dates, owner, and so on. Files are also kept to track
inventory, purchasing, billing, employees’ hours, and payroll.

You have been contacted by the manager of one of the centers to design and implement a
computerized system. Given the preceding information, do the following:

a. Indicate the most appropriate sequence of activities by labeling each of the following steps in
the correct order. (For example, if you think that “Load the database.” is the appropriate first
step, label it “1.”)

____ Normalize the conceptual model.

____ Obtain a general description of company operations.
____ Load the database.
____ Create a description of each system process.
____ Test the system.
____ Draw a data flow diagram and system flowcharts.
____ Create a conceptual model, using ER diagrams.
____ Create the application programs.
____ Interview the mechanics.
____ Create the file (table) structures.
____ Interview the shop manager.

The answer to this question may vary slightly from one designer to the next, depending on the selected
design methodology and even on personal designer preferences. Yet, in spite of such differences, it is
possible to develop a common design methodology to permit the development of a basic
decision-making process and the analysis required in designing an information system.

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Whatever the design philosophy, a good designer uses a specific and ordered set of steps through which
the database design problem is approached. The steps are generally based on three phases: analysis,
design, and implementation. These phases yield the following activities:

ANALYSIS
1. Interview the shop manager
2. Interview the mechanics
3. Obtain a general description of company operations
4. Create a description of each system process

DESIGN
5. Create a conceptual model, using E-R diagrams
6. 8. Draw a data flow diagram and system flow charts
7. Normalize the conceptual model

IMPLEMENTATION
8. Create the table structures
9. Load the database
10. Create the application programs
11. Test the system.

This listing implies that, within each of the three phases, the steps are completed in a specific order. For
example, it would seem reasonable to argue that we must first complete the interviews if we are to obtain
a proper description of the company operations. Similarly, we may argue that a data flow diagram
precedes the creation of the E-R diagram. Nevertheless, the specific tasks and the order in which they are
addressed may vary. Such variations do not matter, as long as the designer bases the selected procedures
on an appropriate design philosophy, such as top-down vs. bottom-up.

Given this discussion, we may present problem 1's solution this way:

__7__ Normalize the conceptual model.

__3__ Obtain a general description of company operations.

__9__ Load the database.

__4__ Create a description of each system process.

_11__ Test the system.

__6__ Draw a data flow diagram and system flow charts.

__5__ Create a conceptual model, using E-R diagrams.

_10__ Create the application programs.

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

__2__ Interview the mechanics.

__8__ Create the file (table) structures.

__1__ Interview the shop manager.

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b. Describe the various modules that you believe the system should include.

This question may be addressed in several ways. We suggest the following approach to develop a
system composed of four main modules: Inventory, Payroll, Work order, and Customer.

We have illustrated the Information System's main modules in Figure P9.1B.

Figure P9.1B The ABC Company’s IS System Modules

The Inventory module will include the Parts and Purchasing sub-modules. The Payroll Module will
handle all employee and payroll information. The Work order module keeps track of the car
maintenance history and all work orders for maintenance done on a car. The Customer module keeps
track of the billing of the work orders to the customers and of the payments received from those
customers.

c. How will a data dictionary help you develop the system? Give examples.

We have addressed the role of the data dictionary within the DBLC in detail in the answer to review
question 10. Remember that the data dictionary makes it easier to check for the existence of
synonyms and homonyms, to check whether all attributes exist to support required reports, to verify
appropriate relationship representations, and so on. Therefore, the data dictionary's contents will help
us to provide consistency across modules and to evaluate the system's ability to generate the required
reports. In addition, the use of the data dictionary facilitates the creation of system documentation.

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

d. What general (system) recommendations might you make to the shop manager? (For example.
if the system will be integrated, what modules will be integrated? What benefits would be
derived from such an integrated system? Include several general recommendations.)

The designer's job is to provide solutions to the main problems found during the initial study.
Clearly, any system is subject to both internal and external constraints. For example, we can safely
assume that the owner of the ABC Car Service and Repair Center has a time frame in mind, not to
mention a spending limitation. As is true in all design work, the designer and the business owner
must prioritize the modules and develop those that yield the greatest benefit within the stated time
and development budget constraints.

Keep in mind that it is always useful to develop a modular system that provides for future
enhancement and expansion. Suppose, for example, that the ABC Car Service & Repair company
management decides to integrate all of its service stations in the state in order to provide better
statewide service. Such integration is likely to yield many benefits: The car history of each car will
be available to any station for cars that have been serviced in more than one location; the inventory
of parts will be on-line, thus allowing parts orders to be placed between service stations; mechanics
can better share tips concerning the solution to car maintenance problems, and so on.

e. What is the best approach to conceptual database design? Why?

Given the nature of this business, the best way to produce this conceptual database design would be
to use a centralized and top-down approach. Keep in mind that the designer must keep the design
sufficiently flexible to make sure that it can accommodate any future integration of this system with
the other service stations in the state.

f. Name and describe at least four reports the system should have. Explain their use. Who will
use those reports?
REPORT 1
Monthly Activity contains a summary of service categories by branch and by month. Such reports
may become the basis for forecasting personnel and stock requirements for each branch and for each
period.
REPORT 2
Mechanic Summary Sheet contains a summary of work hours clocked by each mechanic. This
report would be generated weekly and would be useful for payroll and maintenance personnel
scheduling purposes.
REPORT 3
Monthly Inventory contains a summary of parts in inventory, inventory draw-down, parts reorder
points, and information about the vendors who will provide the parts to be reordered. This report will
be especially useful for inventory management purposes.
REPORT 4
Customer Activity contains a breakdown of customers by location, maintenance activity, current
balances, available credit, and so on. This report would be useful to forecast various service demand

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factors, to mail promotional materials, to send maintenance reminders, to keep track of special
customer requirements, and so on.

2. Suppose you have been asked to create an information system for a manufacturing plant that
produces nuts and bolts of many shapes, sizes, and functions. What questions would you ask, and
how would the answers to those questions affect the database design?

Basically, all answers to all (relevant) questions help shape the database design. In fact, all information
collected during the initial study and all subsequent phases will have an impact on the database design.
Keep in mind that the information is collected to establish the entities, attributes, and the relationships
among the entities. Specifically, the relationships, connectivities, and cardinalities are shaped by the
business rules that are derived from the information collected by the designer.

Sample questions and their likely impact on the design might be:
 Do you want to develop the database for all departments at once, or do you want to design and
implement the database for one department at a time?
 How will the design approach affect the design process? (In other words, assess top-down vs.
bottom-up, centralized or decentralized, system scope and boundaries.)
 Do you want to develop one module at a time, or do you want an integrated system? (Inventory,
production, shipping, billing, etc.)
 Do you want to keep track of the nuts and bolts by lot number, production shift, type, and
department? Impact: conceptual and logical database design.
 Do you want to keep track of the suppliers of each batch of raw material used in the production
of the nuts and bolts? Impact: conceptual and logical database design. E-R model.
 Do you want to keep track of the customers who received the batches of nuts and bolts? Impact:
conceptual and logical database design. ER model.
 What reports will you require, what will be the specific reporting requirements, and to whom will
these reports be distributed?

The answers to such questions affect the conceptual and logical database design, the database’s
implementation, its testing, and its subsequent operation.

a. What do you envision the SDLC to be?

The SDLC is not a function of the information collected. Regardless of the extent of the design or its
specific implementation, the SDLC phases remain:

PLANNING
Initial assessment
Feasibility study

ANALYSIS
User requirements
Study of existing systems
Logical system design

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DETAILED SYSTEMS DESIGN

Detailed system specifications

IMPLEMENTATION
Coding, testing, debugging
Installation, fine-tuning

MAINTENANCE
Evaluation
Maintenance
Enhancements

b. What do you envision the DBLC to be?

As is true for the SDLC, the DBLC is not a function of the kind and extent of the collected
information. Thus, the DBLC phases and their activities remain as shown:

DATABASE INITIAL STUDY

Analyze the company situation
Define problems and constraints
Define objectives
Define scope and boundaries

DATABASE DESIGN
Create the conceptual design
Create the logical design
create the physical design

IMPLEMENTATION AND LOADING

Install the DBMS
Create the database(s)
Load or convert the data

TESTING AND EVALUATION

Test the database
Fine-tune the database
Evaluate the database and its application programs

OPERATION
Produce the required information flow

MAINTENANCE AND EVOLUTION

Introduce changes
Make enhancements

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 Chapter 9 Database Design

3. Suppose you perform the same functions noted in Problem 2 for a larger warehousing operation.
How are the two sets of procedures similar? How and why are they different?

The development of an information system will differ in the approach and philosophy used. More
precisely, the designer team will probably be formed by a group of system analysts and may decide to
use a decentralized approach to database design.

Also, as is true for any organization, the system scope and constraints may be very different for different
systems. Therefore, designers may opt to use different techniques at different stages. For example, the
database initial study phase may include separate studies carried out by separate design teams at several
geographically distant locations. Each of the findings of the design teams will later be integrated to
identify the main problems, solutions, and opportunities that will guide the design and development of
the system.

4. Using the same procedures and concepts employed in Problem 1, how would you create an
information system for the Tiny College example in Chapter 4?

Tiny College is a medium-sized educational institution that uses many database-intensive operations,
such as student registration, academic administration, inventory management, and payroll. To create an
information system, first perform an initial database study to determine the information system's
objectives.

Next, study Tiny College's operations and processes (flow of data) to identify the main problems,
constraints, and opportunities. A precise definition of the main problems and constraints will enable the
designer to make sure that the design improves Tiny College's operational efficiency. An improvement
in operational efficiency is likely to create opportunities to provide new services that will enhance Tiny
College's competitive position.

After the initial database study is done and the alternative solutions are presented, the end users
ultimately decide which one of the probable solutions is most appropriate for Tiny College. Keep in
mind that the development of a system this size will probably involve people who have quite different
backgrounds. For example, it is likely that the designer must work with people who play a managerial
role in communications and local area networks, as well as with the "troops in the trenches" such as
programmers and system operators. The designer should, therefore, expect that there will be a wide range
of opinions concerning the proposed system's features. It is the designer's job to reconcile the many (and
often conflicting) views of the "ideal" system.

Once a proposed solution has been agreed upon, the designer(s) may determine the proposed system's
scope and boundaries. We are then able to begin the design phase. As the design phase begins, keep in
mind that Tiny College's information system is likely to be used by many users (20 to 40 minimum) who
are located on distant sites across campus. Therefore, the designer must consider a range of
communication issues involving the use of such technologies as local area networks. These technologies
must be considered as the database designer(s) begin to develop the structure of the database to be
implemented.

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The remaining development work conforms to the SDLC and the DBLC phases. Special attention must
be given to the system design's implementation and testing to ensure that all the system modules
interface properly.

Finally, the designer(s) must provide all the appropriate system documentation and ensure that all
appropriate system maintenance procedures (periodic backups, security checks, etc.) are in place to
ensure the system's proper operation.

Keep in mind that two very important issues in a university-wide system are end-user training and
support. Therefore, the system designer(s) must make sure that all end users know the system and know
how it is to be used to enjoy its benefits. In other words, make sure that end-user support programs are in
place when the system becomes operational.

5. Write the proper sequence of activities in the design of a video rental database. (The initial ERD
was shown in Figure 9.9.) The design must support all rental activities, customer payment
tracking, and employee work schedules, as well as track which employees checked out the videos
to the customers. After you finish writing the design activity sequence, complete the ERD to ensure
that the database design can be successfully implemented. (Make sure that the design is normalized
properly and that it can support the required transactions.

Given its level of detail and (relative) complexity, this problem would make an excellent class project.
Use the chapter’s coverage of the database life cycle (DBLC) as the procedural template. The text’s
Figure 9.3 is particularly useful as a procedural map for this problem’s solution and Figure 9.6 provides a
more detailed view of the database design’s procedural flow. Make sure that the students review section
9-3b, “Database Design,” before they attempt to produce the problem solution.

Appendix B, “The University Lab: Conceptual Design,” and Appendix C “The University Lab:
Conceptual Design Verification, Logical Design, and Implementation” show a very detailed example of
the procedures required to deliver a completed database. You will find a more detailed video rental
database problem description in Appendix B, problem 4. This problem requires the completion of the
initial database design. The solution is shown in this manual’s Appendix B coverage. This design is
verified in Appendix C, Problem 2.

The Visio Professional files for the initial and verified designs are located on your instructor’s CD.
Select the FigB-P04a-The-Initial-Crows-Foot-ERD-for-the-Video-Rental-Store.vsd file to see the
initial design. Select the Fig-C-P02a-The-Revised-Video-Rental-Crows-Foot-ERD.vsd file to see the
verified design.

6. In a construction company, a new system has been in place for a few months and now there is a list
of possible changes/updates that need to be done. For each of the changes/updates, specify what
type of maintenance needs to be done: (a) corrective, (b) adaptive, and (c) perfective.
a. An error in the size of one of the fields has been identified and it needs to be updated
status field needs to be changed.

This is a change in response to a system error – corrective maintenance.

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b. The company is expanding into a new type of service and this will require to enhancing
the system with a new set of tables to support this new service and integrate it with the
existing data.

This is a change to enhance the system – perfective maintenance.

c. The company has to comply with some government regulations. To do this, it will
require adding a couple of fields to the existing system tables.

This is a change in response to changes in the business environment – adaptive maintenance.

7. You have been assigned to design the database for a new soccer club. Indicate the most
appropriate sequence of activities by labeling each of the following steps in the correct order. (For
example, if you think that “Load the database” is the appropriate first step, label it “1.”)

_10__ Create the application programs.

__4__ Create a description of each system process.
_11__ Test the system.
__9__ Load the database.
__7__ Normalize the conceptual model.
__1__ Interview the soccer club president.
__5__ Create a conceptual model using ER diagrams.
__2__ Interview the soccer club director of coaching.
__8__ Create the file (table) structures.
__3__ Obtain a general description of the soccer club operations.
__6__ Draw a data flow diagram and system flowcharts.

381
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 The clever erudition of the painter, who had already revealed
himself as an adherent of the so-called group of "Pompeiians," in the
Gyneceum (1850),—in which we perceive a group of nude women in
the court of a house in Herculaneum,—asserts itself once more,
coupled with an incisive touch of epigram in Two Augurs Unable to
Look at Each Other Without Laughing, and similarly in the Cave
Canem, now at Vesoul (in front of a Roman house a slave is playing
the role of watch dog), in the Sale of Slaves at Rome (1884), etc.
A similar ingenuity, with greater amplitude, constitutes the charm
and the surprise of Cleopatra and Caesar (1886). Cleopatra has had
herself brought into Caesar's cabinet in the palace at Alexandria,
concealed in a bundle of clothing. "Her appearance there," said
Maxime du Camp, who also praised the interest of the accessories,
treated with exquisite care, "is perfectly chaste, in spite of her
nudity." All the details are executed with a masterly command of
picturesqueness and accuracy.
As a religious painter Gérôme has to his credit the Virgin, Infant
Jesus, and St. John (1848), a youthful work imitated from Perugino,
a St. George, in the church of Saint-Georges at Vesoul, a St. Martin
Cutting his Mantle, in the ancient refectory of Saint-Martin-des-
Champs, a Death of St. Jerome (1878) at Saint-Séverin, a Moses on
Mt. Sinai, and The Plague at Marsailles, and, most important of all,
Golgotha Consummatum Est, intensely lugubrious and symbolic in
aspect, with Christ and the two thieves appearing, through the
desolate atmosphere, like writhing shadows on the cross. This
conception cost the author a violent diatribe from Veuillot, while
Edmund About, although making certain reservations, wrote on the
other side: "The entire sum of qualities that are distinctive of M.
Gérôme will be found in this picture."
As a painter of exotic life Gérôme remains an observer of the
highest order. If he has not wholly revealed Italy to us in his
Guardians of the Herd and his Pifferari (1855, 1857), he has at least
done so in the case of Egypt, still deeply impregnated with an
ancient and splendid civilization, naïve and at the same time
venerable, Egypt before the advent of tourists, a luminous land
where the Nile and the Desert reign supreme, a land of magnificence
and of savagery. Landscapes of this Egypt of poetic mystery, and of
Palestine as well, childish or perverse almas, rude Albanian Chiefs,
Turbaned Turks,—one never wearies of these decorative effects,
these clear visions, these scenes of animation, whether violent or
delicate, the people, the vegetation, the fabrics, all resplendent
under the marvellous sky of the Orient.
In the company of this intrepid, venturesome and observant
traveller, we witness the passage of Egyptian Recruits Crossing the
Desert, we are present at Prayers in the House of an Albanian Chief,
we pause in the Plain of Thebes, not far from Memmon and
Sesostris, and we watch the Camels at the Drinking Trough, so
admirably realized. Gérôme, who had a gift for finding the right and
pleasing phrase, gave this rather neat definition of a camel: "The
Ship of the Sea of Sand."
Similarly, the Egyptian Straw-chopper (1861, again exhibited in
1867, and purchased by M. Werlé) symbolizes, simply yet forcefully,
agricultural Egypt, and all the varied shadings of her pastoral poetry.
Then again, there is The Prisoner (1863), in which a boat is making
its way along the vast and pacific Nile. Two negro oarsmen, the
master, a bashibazouk, are in the prow; and in the stern, beside a
buffoon, who apparently derides him, while twanging the strings of a
guitar, the prisoner lies cross-wise, fast bound, and abandons
himself to his cruel destiny. There, in a setting of enchanted beauty,
we have the chief actors in this original drama, in which dream and
reality are blended.
What a horde of types, some of them bizarre, others simply comic!
There are, taking them as they come, a Turkish Butcher in Jerusalem
(1863), The Alma (Professional Singing Girl—1864), The Slaves in
the Market Place, The Clothing Merchant at Cairo, The Albanians
Playing Chess (1867), The Itinerant Merchant at Cairo (1869). Then
there is the Promenade of the Harem, and still others, the Santon
(Turkish Monk) at the Door of the Mosque and Women at the Bath
(1876), the Arab and his Courser and The Return from the Hunt
(1878).
 PIERRE LAFITTE & CIE, PARIS

PLATE VII.—THE VENDOR OF RUGS

(In a Private Collection, United States)

From his numerous journeys to the

East, Gérôme brought back many curious
memoranda of picturesque scenes, which
he subsequently converted into brilliant
canvases. He excelled in reproducing the
caressing beauty of shimmering carpets
and the rippling sheen of silken textures.

In the company of this experienced and reliable guide, we wander

from Jerusalem (1868) to the Great Bath at Broussa (1885), from a
Corner of Cairo to Medinet and Fayoum. Here we have the severed
heads in the Mosque of El Hecanin, the nude woman in the Moorish
Bath, all the barbarity and all the grace of the Orient,—and
invariably the anecdote, whether agreeable or sinister, blends with
the matchless splendour of the landscape.
 To this list must be added Recreation in Camp, a Souvenir of
Moldavia (Salon of 1854), in which a soldier is dancing before his
assembled comrades, to the sound of drums, fifes, and violins. A
sentinel keeps watch. It is a picture taken in the act, and intensely
real.
It is easy to detect the historian, or, to adopt the expression of M.
Jules Claretie, the "Memoir Maker," possessed of the true gift,
agreeable and individual, lurking behind every one of the works of
this authoritative orientalist. He dedicated himself quite naturally and
with great success to the interpretation of history and of the historic
and literary anecdote.
His love of contrasts, his gift for depicting locality and somehow
conveying the very atmosphere belonging to the varied scenes that
are to be brought before the spectator's eye, give amplitude to such
attractive little compositions as Louis XIV. and Molière (1863), and A
Collaboration (1874); evoke the whole sombre tragedy of the death
of Maréchal Ney, December 7, 1815, Nine o'clock in the Morning
(1868); and appeal successively to our curiosity, our sympathy, or
our admiration, with a Frederick II., conqueror of Silesia, playing on
his flute, the King Flutist (1874, purchased by M. H. Oppenheim), His
Gray Eminence (1874), in which the austere and dominant Father
Joseph is making his way alone, down the stairway, in the presence
of the obsequious courtiers; a Bonaparte day-dreaming before the
Sphinx, Oedipus (1886), a Bonaparte at Cairo gazing at the town
from the back of his Arab horse, a Bonaparte in Egypt, mounted on
a white dromedary, dreaming of his omnipotence, of his conquest of
the universe, and surrounded by his overdriven soldiers.
As a matter of fact, Gérôme made a sort of hero-worship of
Napoleon and the Napoleonic epic, resembling in this respect his
friend, M. Frédéric Masson, the celebrated historian of the Emperor,
who was better qualified than any other writer to pay an eloquent
tribute to this Bonaparte in Egypt.
"Bonaparte is no longer on the road to Syria, he is on the road to
India; he is hesitating between the two halves of the world that he
holds in his hands; he is weighing the destiny of Alexander against
the destiny of Cæsar; he is asking himself whether Asia, to which he
holds the key, is a fair exchange for Europe which he has just
quitted; and while his dream embraces the universe, he leaves his
human rubbish heap to suffer."
Gérôme is wholly himself when he has an anecdote to give us,
whether it be subtle, humorous, kindly, or dramatic, and even,—why
not use the word?—melodramatic.
Classified thus, The Duel after the Masquerade fully deserves its
brilliant reputation. Reproduced, not only in lithographs and
engravings, but even transferred to the theatre (given at the
Gymnase, in 1881, by Mme. Fould), its subject has become a matter
of general knowledge. It is winter in the Bois de Boulogne. A number
of people in fancy costume are bending over a wounded Pierrot,
while one of the witnesses of this improvised duel is leading away
the murderer, the Harlequin.
One can see at once what a tremendous appeal a subject like this
would have for the general public.
This singular drama, taking place in the snow, all this joyousness
ending in bloodshed and perhaps death, is so fantastic that it leaves
a lasting impression. It was, by the way, as M. Guillaumin has
explained, suggested by an actual duel that took place between
Deluns-Montaud, the Harlequin, and the Prefect of Police Bortelle,
the Pierrot.
Undoubtedly there was, and still is, ground for criticism. Alexandre
Dumas thought, not unreasonably, that serious-minded men of that
age would not go out to fight each other in such a costume. Edmond
About criticized the pose of Crispin supporting on his knee an entire
group of spectators, along with the body of poor Pierrot. But Paul de
Saint-Victor praised the "truthfulness of the postures, the etching-
like precision of the heads, the wise planning of the whole
composition."
In order to appreciate better the daring fantasy and the wise and
invariably picturesque inventiveness of Gérôme, we have only to
study further such works as the Frieze destined to be reproduced
upon a vase commemorative of the Exposition of London (1853),
Rembrandt Etching (exhibited in 1867, purchased by M. E. Fould),
which has been admired for its golden half-shadows and freely
compared to Gerard Dow, the Reception of the Siamese
Ambassadors (1865), The First Kiss of the Sun (1886), the Poet,
Thirst (1888), and fantasies, such as, The Amateur of Tulips,
Whoever you are, here is your Master; anecdotal portraits throwing
side lights on history, such as: They are Conspiring, or Not
Convenient, Louis XI. visiting Cardinal Balue, Promenade of the
Court in the Gardens of Versailles (1896); animals full of life and
prowess, such as: The Lioness meeting a Jaguar and Ego nominor
Leo, a lion rendered life size; lastly, his studio interiors, in which he
has chosen to depict himself exactly as he was, that is to say, a
sincere, clear-sighted, and indefatigable workman.
In the most recent of these studio pictures, he appears, wearing a
sculptor's blouse and occupied in modelling a statuette of a woman.
He astonished his friends and admirers, during his last years, by his
earnest labours in sculpture. His two groups, The Gladiators and
Anacreon, Bacchus and Cupid, claimed the attention of the public at
the Exposition of 1878; and it was the same with his marble statue
of Omphale (1887), his Tanagra, his Dancing Girl, his bronze Lion
(1890, 1891), etc.
His efforts to revive the art of coloured or polychrome sculpture,
the so-called chryselephantine sculpture, which invokes the aid of
various precious elements, constitute one of the most curious and
important artistic experiments of modern times, even though the
result did not always come up to the expectation.
On February 2, 1892, in an unpublished letter addressed to M.
Germain Bapst, who desired information concerning the artist's
experiment, Gérôme wrote: "I have always been struck with a sense
of the coldness of statues if, when the work is once finished, it is left
in its natural state. I have already made some experiments and am
continuing my efforts, for I am anxious to bring before the eyes of
the public a few demonstrations that I hope will be conclusive. I
know that there are a great many protests. The world always
protests against anything which is, I will not merely say new, but
even renewed; for it disturbs a good many people in their tranquillity
and their routine." And after having first shown that ancient
architecture was adorned with colours and that in chryselephantine
sculpture the Greeks combined gold, tin, and ivory, that they painted
the marble and united it with various metals, Gérôme added: "Shall I
succeed? At least I shall have the honour of having made the
attempt."
In the interesting study which M. Germain Bapst devoted to this
question, after having, as we have seen, consulted the artist himself,
he recalled the fact that both in chateaux and in churches the
Mediæval statuary was coloured. In Greece, the Minerva Parthenos
contained a weight of gold equivalent to more than 2,200,000 francs
in the French currency of to-day. The statue of Jupiter at Olympus
was partly of ivory and partly of gold.

PIERRE LAFITTE & CIE, PARIS

PLATE VIII.—THE TWO MAJESTIES

(In a Private Collection, United States)

In the mournful immensity of African solitudes, the

king of planets mounts towards the zenith, darting his
fires upon the arid land that he consumes, while the
other king of the desert, the lion, contemplates the
triumphant ascension of his rival in the sky. Gérôme
has rendered the scene with an eloquence all the
greater because he has employed such simple means.
 Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the Duc de Luynes
undertook, in collaboration with the architect Dubau, to produce an
example of chryselephantine sculpture, which cost him more than
500,000 francs and was placed on view at the Exposition Universelle
held in the Palais de l'Industrie in 1855.
Gérôme in his turn made a like attempt, in his Bellona, in which,
to remedy the cold immobility of the material, he coloured both the
ivory and the marble and at the same time invoked the aid of silver,
bronze, gold, and enamel. He had associated with him several
experienced collaborators, such as M. Siot-Decauville, who was to
cast the face of Bellona in bronze, Messrs. Moreau-Vauthier and
Delacour to point the ivory, M. Gautruche to attend to the verde-
antique and the electroplating. Lastly, Gallé, and M. Lalique as well,
made a number of trial models for the little head of Medusa.
Among the other examples of Gérôme's sculpture, mention must
be made of The Entrance of Bonaparte into Cairo (1897), Bonaparte,
a bust (1897), Timour-Lang, the Lion Tamer (1898), Frederick the
Great (1899), Washington (1901), The expiring Eagle of Waterloo,
The Bowlers (1902), Cupid the Metallurgist, a statue in bronze,
Corinth, a statue in polychrome marble and bronze (1904).
 THE ART OF GÉRÔME

"If you wish to be happy," Gérôme used to say to his pupils,

"remain students all your lives." For his own part he applied himself
ceaselessly to his studies, trusting nothing to chance. He had an
extraordinarily methodical and orderly mind, even in regard to the
smallest details. It is related that, when he was absent on his
travels, he would notify his models several months in advance, so
that they would be on hand to pose for him in his studio, from the
very day of his arrival.
Being partly a traditionalist and partly an independent, he did not
always possess the gift of pleasing the critics, and he loved them
none too well. And when one of them asked him one day for a
sketch, he replied, "I do not pay to be applauded." But he was
exceedingly strict in his self-criticism. In one of his notes entrusted
to his relative Timbal, he wrote: "I am my own severest critic…. I am
under no delusion regarding my works."
On the other hand, and it is well to dwell upon this in order to
grasp his personality, Gérôme was far from being an eclectic. Of the
work of Puvis de Chavannes he said with virulence: "It won't stand
analysis, it is a series of mannikins set on the ground all out of
plumb, and nothing seems to fit in." And he made a play upon words
by employing, in place of Puvis, the Latin word pulvis, which signifies
dust.
After his appointment as professor at the École des Beaux-Arts, he
did his best to have Manet banished from it. He couched his protest
in the following energetic terms: "I am certain that Manet was
capable of painting good pictures. But he chose to be the apostle of
a decadent fashion, the scrap-work school of art. I, for my part,
have been chosen by the State to teach the orthography of art to
young students…. I do not think it right to offer them as a model the
extremely arbitrary and sensational work of a man who, although
gifted with rare qualities, did not develop them." In his opinion, it
would have been more suitable to exhibit such works in a bar-room
than at the Beaux-Arts. M. Coutil relates that Gérôme said further on
this same subject: "The first merit a painting should have is to be
luminous and alluring in colour, and not dull and obscure."
He had, for that matter, no more tolerance for Millet than for
Sisley, Monet, and Pissaro. On one occasion, he assured M. Jules
Claretie that if Millet could return and again send his canvases to the
Salon, he would refuse them over again! And, when his
distinguished interlocutor protested, "Oh, come now, Gérôme, you
don't mean that!" he declared unhesitatingly, "I mean just that, and
nothing else."
Messrs. Moreau-Vauthier and Dagnan-Bouveret have given some
very accurate and useful details regarding his methods of instruction
and of work. They have shown him to us at his task, both as painter
and professor.
He emphasized the importance of construction, and of the
character of the form, rather than the form itself, which is a matter
of temperament. He insisted that a scene must be visualized in its
completeness, as a harmonious and fully significant whole. Emile
Augier, for instance, with whom he felt no annoyance at being
compared, the excellent comedian, Got, the younger Dumas,
Gounod,—all of these he loved for their absolute clarity, and he
demanded it of them. He declared that one has no right to paint off-
hand, without a model; and he also held that one has no right to
make hasty, careless sketches.
His method was distinguished by its scrupulous and admirable
precision. Impeccable order always reigned in his studio. M. Dagnan-
Bouveret writes that his palette and brushes were scrupulously cared
for. He used to overspread his canvases with a uniform foundation of
half-tones more or less warm or cold, using preparations made by
Troigras. He roughed in the whole picture very rapidly, and this first
rough draft, according to connoisseurs, was always extremely
interesting.
In his paintings, he proved that the strength of colouring is in
inverse proportion to the intensity of light. He had a marvellous
faculty for making the delicate shadings of nature correspond with
the psychological sentiments that their aspects evoke. From this
comes his amazing variety.
A man of wide reading and deep culture, Gérôme had a profound
love for the truth, for reality just as it is, holding that it is the artist's
first duty to know his place, his time, his episode, and the one
special angle of vision that will give the rarest and most fruitful
results.
On the eve of his death, he was still lauding the merits of
photography, which has the advantage of being able to snatch a
document straight out of life, without falsifying it by giving it a
personal interpretation that must always be more or less inaccurate.
Whatever allowance must be made for what we may call the
personal equation of an artist, his own individual temperament, it is
not unprofitable to recall this opinion of Gérôme's, for it helps us to
acquire a better conception of his art, based as it was upon accuracy
and unwavering truth.
Truth, which he once depicted in her well, killed by liars and
mountebanks (Mendacibus in histrionibus occisa in puteo jacet alma
Veritas, Salon of 1895), always charmed and inspired him. He
rendered it more attractive by his admirable sincerity, by his
chivalrous and imaginative spirit, as well as by his archeological and
ethnographic learning.
Thanks to this lofty conscientiousness in research, his work,
erudite and entertaining at the same time, making distant and
vanished civilizations live again, and reproducing atmospheres and
local settings with a delicacy that at times is a trifle specious, but
always incomparably picturesque, cannot fail to please and charm
to-day as it did yesterday, and to-morrow as it does to-day.
Accordingly, it is with good reason that M. Soubies has lauded his
fine attention to detail, and that M. Thiebaut-Sisson has summed
him up in the following terms: "The artist created his formula for
himself. He extracted from it the maximum effect that it contained."
And even while we glorify and venerate those painters gifted with a
graver or more lyric vision, a bolder or more laboured craftsmanship,
we must freely subscribe to the opinion of Edmond About when he
said of Gérôme: "He is the subtlest, the most ingenious, the most
brilliant … of his generation."
Transcriber's note:
The following correction have been made:
p. 17 honoured placed among -> placed changed to place
Illustrations were moved to paragraph breaks and a missing comma was added.
Everything else has been retained as printed (including ambiguous hyphens at
the ends of lines). Click on the plates to see larger images.
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