Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer

Chapter No 3: Mobile Networking

Medium Access Protocol

Internet Protocol
Transport Protocol
MACA
Mobile IP: IP packet delivery, agent advertisement and
discovery, registration, tunnelling, encapsulation, reverse

tunnelling
Mobile TCP: Traditional TCP, Classical TCP improvements like
indirect TCP, Snooping TCP and mobile TCP, Fast retransmit
and recovery, transmission/Time out freezing, selective

retransmission

Medium accesscontrol
Layer 2 is subdivided into the logical link control (LLC) and MAC

layer
The task of layer 2 is to establish a reliable point to point or point to

multipoint connection between different devices over a wired or

wireless medium.
The medium access control (MAC) is a sub layer of the data link layer of the

open system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It

controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends

data over the network interface card.

The PHY layer defines the physical and electrical characteristics of the
network. .. It is responsible for managing the hardware that modulates and

demodulates the RF bits. The MAC layer is responsible for sending and

Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 1

 Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC)
receiving RF frames multiplexing (FDM)scheme. Allocation can either be fixed (as for radio
control (MAC) protocols attempt to efficiently and equitably stations or the general planning and regulation of frequencies) or dynamic
Medium access
i.e., demand driven).
use of a shared communications channel to independent, competing Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all times, i.e. pure FDMA, or change
allocate
Efficient sharing of a communications resource is particularly frequencies according to a certain pattern, i.e., FDMA combined with TDMA.
users.
in systems with scarce communications bandwidth, such as
important
wireless networks. TDMA
FDMA, time division multiple accesses (TDMA) offers a much
devices hardware address. Each Compared to
.The MAC (Media Access Control) address is a
more flexible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate certain time
device on a local area network must have a unique MAC address assigned.
slots for communication, i.e., controlling TDM. Now tuning in to a certain
The MAC address is often referred to as the Ethernet Address on
frequency is not necessary, ie, the receiver can stay at the same frequency the
an Ethernet network. They are in fact the same thing. whole time. Using only one frequency, and thus very simple receivers and
.MAC layer Comprises of all mechanisms that regulate user access to a transmitters, many different algorithms exist to control medium access. As already
medium using SDM, TDM, FDM, or CDM. mentioned, listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult but
listening to many channels separated in time at the same frequency is simple.
Almost all MAC schemes for wired networks work according to this principle, eg.
There are various MAC techniques are used in mobile communication Ethernet, Token Ring, ATM etc.
SDMA
Motivation for Specialized MAC
FDMA
TDMA Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
CDMA
Example CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection send as soon as the
SpaceDivision Multiple Access (SDMALis used for allocating a separated space medium is free listens in to the medium if a collision occurs (original
to users in wireless networks. A typical application involves assigning an optimal
method in IEEE 802.3).
base station to a mobile phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base
stations with different quality. A MAC algorith m could now decide which base Problems in wireless networks
station is best, taking in to account which
frequencies(FDM),timeslots(TDMJor Signal strength decreases proportional to square of distance
code (CDM) are still available (depending on the technology). Typically, SDMA is
The sender would apply the CS and CD, but collisions happen at the receiver
never used in isolation but always in combination with one or more other
I t might be the case that a sender cannot "hear" the collision, ie, CD does
schemes. not work.
CS does not work if terminal is hidden or exposed.
EDMA Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) schemes generally sensing the carrier and
Frequency divisíon multiple access (FDMA) comprises all algorithms allocating
accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases the probability of a
frequencies to transmission channels according to the frequency division
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 Sem: VI
Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
hidden terminals cannot be
mentioned in the introduction, The situation is different in wireless networks. The
collision. But, as already strength of a
time as another sender, a
hidden terminal transmits at the
same
detected, so, if a signal decreases proportionally to the square of the distance to the
most wireless
at the receiver. This basic scheme is still used in sender. Obstacles attenuate the even further. The sender
collision might occur signal may
LANs now apply carrier sense and detect an idle medium. The sender
starts sending - but a collision happens at the receiver due to a second
(for CSMA/CD and
Note: You Tube link: https://www.voutube.com/watch?v=iKn0GzES-IU
sender. The sender detects no collision and assumes that the data has
CSMA/CA) been transmitted without errors, but a collision might actually have
(CSMA/CD) is the LAN destroyed the data at the receiver. Collision detection is very difficult
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
in wireless scenarios as the transmission power in the area of the
access method used in Ethernet. When a device wants to gain access to the
free, the transmitting antenna is several magnitudes higher than the receiving
network, it checks to see if the network is free. If the network is not
power. So, this very common MAC scheme from wired network fails in a
device waits a random amount of time before retrying wireless scenario. The following sections show some more scenarios
with collision where schemes known from fixed networks fail.
S o let us consider carrier sense multiple accesses
detection, (CSMA/CD) which works as follows. A sender senses the
medium (a wire or coaxial cable) to see if it is free. If the medium is Hiddenand exposedterminals
Consider the scenario with three mobile phones shown in Figure
busy, the sender waits until it is free. If the medium is free, the sender as
starts transmitting data and continues to listen into the medium. If the below. The transmission range of A reaches B, but not C (the detection
sender detects a collision while sending it stops at once and sends a range does not reach C either). The transmission range of C reaches B,
but not A. Finally, the transmission range of B reaches A and C, ie., A
jamming signal.
cannot detect C and vice versa.
.Why does this scheme fail in wireless networks? CSMA/CD is not really A starts sending to B, C does not receive this transmission. C also
wants to send something to B and senses the medium. The medium
interested in collisions at the sender, but rather in those at the
receiver appears to be free, the carrier sense fails. C also starts sending causing
The signal should reach the receiver without collisions. But the sender
is the one detecting collisions. This is not a problem using a wire, as more or a collision at B. But A cannot detect this collision at B and continues
less the same signal strength can be assumed all over the wire if the length with its transmission. Because C is hidden for A and vice versa.
of the wire stays within certain often standardized limits. If a collision While hidden terminals may cause collisions, he next effect only
occurs somewhere in the wire, everybody will notice it. It does not matter causes unnecessary delay. Now consider the situation that B sends
if a sender listens into the medium to detect a collision at its own location something to A and C wants to transmit data to some other mobile
while in reality is waiting to detect a possible collision at the receiver. phone outside the interference ranges of A and B. C senses the carrier
and detects that the carrier is busy (B's signal). C postpones its
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Notes
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 Sem: VI
Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI Branch: Computer
But as A is
medium a s being idle again.
detects the
transmission until it
is not necessary. Causing
i n t e r f e r e n c e range
of C, waiting
outside the
the collision is too weak to
matter because
a 'collision' at B does not
C is exposed to B.
this situation,
propagate to A. In
rigure: Near and rar terminai probiem
Multiple access with collision avoidance (MACA)
CSMA/CD work does not work well in wireless network the problems are:
Signal strength decreases proportional to the square ofthe distance
Figure: Hidden terminal problem Thesenderwould apply CS and CD, but the colisions happen at the receiver
Near and Farterminal problem I t might be a case that a sender cannot "hear" the collision, ie., CD does not
shown in Figure below. A and B are both work
Consider the situation as
sending with the same transmission power. As the signal strength Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., a terminal is "hidden"
decreases proportionally to the square of the distance, B's signal
drowns out A's As result, C cannot receive A's transmission. Multiple accesses with collision avoidance (MACA) present a simple
signal. a
arbiter for sending rights (e.g., C acts as a scheme that solves the hidden terminal problem. Consider, A and C both
N o w think
of C as being a n
media access). In this case, terminal B want to send to B. A has already started the transmission, but is hidden for
base station coordinating
would already drown out terminal A on the physical layer. C in C;Calso starts with its transmission, thereby causing a collision at B.
return would have no chance of applying a fair scheme as it would
only hear B.
T h e near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM.
RTS
All signals should arrive at the receiver with more or less the same
CTS CTS
strength. A person standing closer to somebody could always speak
louder than a person further away. Even if the senders were separated by
code, the closest one would simply drown out the others. Precise power Figure: MACA can avoid hidden terminal problem
control is needed to receive all senders with the same strength at a
With MACA, A does not start its transmission at once, but sends
receiver.
a request
to send (RTS) first. B receives the RTS that contains the name of sender
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 Sem :V1 Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC)
future t r a n s m i s s i o n . This RTS i
length of the
well as the
transmission. C does not receive these CTS and concludes that A is
as
and receiver, from B, called clear to
acknowledgement
an
but triggers
not heard by C, s e n d e r (A) and receiver outside the detection range. C can start its transmission assuming it will
n a m e s of
contains the
send (CTS). The CTS again transmission. This CTS is not cause a problem with exposed terminals is solved
collision at A. The
of the future
and the length
(B) of the user data, A is now reserved for the
without fixed access patterns or a base station.
for future use by
n o w heard by C
and the medium
receiving CTS, C
is not allowed to send One problem of MACA is clearly the overheads associated with the RTS and
transmission. After
duration of the
CTS toward B. A collision cannot
-for short and time-critical data packets, this is not
indicated in the
anything for the duration negligible. MACA also assumes symmetrical transmission and reception
and the hidden terminal
at B data transmission,
during could
occur conditions. Otherwise, a strong sender, directed antennas etc.
problem issolved-provided that thetransmissionconditions remain counteract the above scheme.
into the transmission range of B
station could move
the same. (Another
after the transmission ofCTS.)
Both A and C could
the sending of an RTS.
Still, collisions can occur during RIS RTS
small compared to the data
send an RTS that collides at B. RTS is very
lower. B resolves CIS
a collision is much
transmission, so the probability of
acknowledges only one station in the CTS (if it was able to
this contention and
A B C
without appropriate
recover the RTS at all). No transmission is allowed
of the medium access schemes that is optionally used in
CTS. This is one
Figure: MACA can avoid exposed terminals
the standard IEEE 802.11. Figure below shows simplified state machines for a sender and receiver.
The sender is idle until a user requests the transmission of a data packet.
Can MACA also help to solve the 'exposed terminal' problem? The sender then issues an RTS and waits for the right to send. If the
wants to send data to A, C to someone else. But C is polite receiver gets an RTS and is in an idle state, it sends back a CTS and waits for
Remember, B
enough to sense the medium before transmitting, sensing a busy medium data. The sender receives the CTS and sends the data. Otherwise, the sender
caused by the transmission from B. C defers, although C could never cause a would send an RTS again after a time-out (eg, the RTS could be lost or
collision at A. collided). After transmission of the data, the sender waits for a positive
acknowledgement to return into an idle state. The receiver sends back a
With MACA, B has to transmit an RTS first (as shown in Figure below positive acknowledgement if the received data was correct. If not, or if the
containing the name of the receiver (A) and the sender (B). C does not react waiting time for data is too long, the receiver returns into idle state. If the
to this message as it is not the receiver, but A acknowledges using a CTS sender does not receive any acknowledgement or a negative
which identifies B as the sender and A as the receiver of the following data it sends RTS and again waits for the right to send.
acknowledgement, an
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Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 8 Notes prepared by. Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Neru
 Branch: Computer
Branch: Computer Sem:V
Sem:VI Mobile Computing (MC)
Mobile Computing (MC)
busy via a sena *ate
that it i s c u r r e n t l y
standard
could
indicate
and transitions.. Engineering
Task Force (1ETF)
receiver
5, e-g, Internet
Alternatively,
a
have to
add
more
states
Mobile
IP (or MIP) is an to move
allow mobile device
users
is designed to
protocol that
implementations
Real communications
Rx Busy.
IP address.
of r e t r i e s . maintaining a permanent
network to another while
number
the
to limit Receiver from one
Sender node's
mobile nodes. The mobile
of IP datagram's to
dle Mobile IP enables routing of
node, regardless of its current point
identifies the mobile
Idle RTS home address always
Packet reacy to send;
data the Internet o r a n organization's
network
ACK attachment to
Time-out
RxBusy Wait for the
RTS Time-out v
for mobile device, one is home address (fixed
IP Uses two addresses
ACK Time-out vright to send data CIS Mobile
address (care
second address is temporary
NAK NAK address) which is known to all and
node when it m o v e s from
RTS which is used by mobile
fixed),
CTS; data of address and it is not
Wait for
network.
data home network to another
Waitfor ACK
RxBusy: receiver busy RTS: RxBusy 1315248
ACK: positive acknowledgement o
NAK: negative acknowledgement Inlema
with collision avoidance (MACA)
Figure: Multiple Accesses
Mobile IP Fangn
131 521 H
Farg
it is identifying number
IP addressstands for internet protocol address; an
that is associated with a specific computer or computer network. When
connected to the internet, the IP address allows the computers to send and Mobile IP Entities And Terminology o r router that
1. Mobile node (MN): A mobile node is an end-system
receive information.
to the internet using mobile IP.
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 byte) addressing, which gives 232 addresses. IPv4 addresses
can change its point of attachment
The MN keeps its IP address and can continuously communicate with
are written in the dot-decimal notation, which comprises of four octets of the
is
any other system in the internet as long as link-layer connectivity
address expressed individualy in decimal and separated by periods, for
given. Mobile nodes are not necessarily small devices such as laptops
instance, 192.168.25.8
router board an aircraft can be a
A n IP address is a 32-bit number that
with antennas or mobile phones; a on
uniquely identifies a host (computer or
other device, such as a printer or powerful mobile node.
router) on a TCP/IP network.
.IP v4 address is static addresses for
static machine.
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Notes Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul
prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer
Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 10
 Branch: Computer
Sem:VI Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC)
from an IP point of view. All IP packets sent to the MN are delivered to
COA
the COA, not directly to the IP address of the MN. Packet delivery
Router MN
Home Router FA toward the MN is done using a tunnel, as explained later. To be more
netwos
Foreign precise, the cOA marks the tunnel endpoint, ie., the address where
ork
Intemet packets exit the tunnel. There are two different possibilities for the
location of the COA:
a. Foreign agent COA: The COA could be located at the FA, ie., the
Router
cOA is an IP address of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and
entities forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share
Figure: Mobile IP
needed for this COA as common COA.
2. Correspondent node (CN): At least one partner is
b. Co-located cOA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily
fopr
communication. In the following the CN represents this partner
acquired an additional IP address which acts a s COA. This address
the MN. The CN can be a fixed or mobile node.
is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint is at thhe
MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as
3. Home network: The home network is the subnet the MN belongs
DHCP. One problem associated with this approach is the need for
to its IP address. No mobile IP support is needed
to with respect additional addresses if MNs request a COA. This is not always a
within the home network.
good idea considering the scarcity of IPv4addresses.
4. Foreign network: The foreign network is the current subnet the MN
7. Home agent (HA): The HA provides several services for the MN an
visits and which is not the home network.
dislocated in the home network. The tunnel for packets toward the
MN starts at the HA. The HA maintains a location registry, ie, it is
5. Foreign agent (FA): The FA can provide several services to the MN
informed of the MN's location by the current COA. Three alternatives
during its visit to the foreign network. The FA can have the COA
for the implementation of an HA exist.
(defined below), acting as tunnel endpoint and forwarding packets
a. The HA can be implemented on a router that is responsible for
to the MN. The FA can be the default router for the MN. FAs can also
the home network. This is obviously the best position, because
provide security services because they belong to the foreign network
without optimizations to mobile IP, all packets for the MN have to
as opposed to the MN which is only visiting. For mobile IP
go through the router anyway.
functioning, FAs are not necessarily needed. Typically, an FA is
b. If changing the router's software is not possible, the HA could also
implemented on a router for the subnet the MN attaches to.
be implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet. One
disadvantage of this solution is the double crossing of the router
6. Care-of address (COA): The COA defines the current location of the MN
by the packet if the MN is in a foreign network. A packet for the
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 Branch: Computer
Sem: V I
Mobile Computing (M) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
sends it through the tunnel
router; the HA
MN c o m e s in via the
router.
the Home
which again crosses
HA could be again on
necessary
at all. The newo
inaly, a home network is not
manager for
MNs belonging to a oreign
as a
router' but this time only acting
eort
the
are always in a foreign network with this Intemet.-
Virtual home network. All MNs
solution.
the following situation: A CN
above shows
he example network in Figure
a s are the home network and the Machine A is in his home network managed by home agent or router, now
1S connected via a router to the internet,
router connecting the home initially when I start my mobile device A in its home network, machine A goes
foreign network. The HA is implemented on the
implemented on the router to the through 3 stages of mobile IP:
network with the internet, an FA is
foreign network. The MN is currently in the foreign network. The tunnel for Agent Discovery
packets toward the MN starts at the HA and ends at the FA,
for the FA has Registration
the COA in this example.
Data transfer
Agent Discovery: Device A as shown in figure request its home agent to assign
How Mobile IP Works?
A s in mobile communication device change its location and hence there is a permanent IP address that is home IP address .but in future it may happen
need to manage change in IP address of mobile device. that node A change its location and enter in foreign network (other
network)(e.g from Mumbai to goa), then new IP address is assigned to node A,
Phases of Mobile IP
as permanent IP address is valid only within home network of that device.
1. Agent Discovery
2. Registration
Registration: When device is in Foreign Network it request foreign agent
3. Data transfer(Tunnelling and encapsulation)
(FA)(to assign something known as care of IP address, i.e. temporary IP
Example: Working of Mobile IP
address which is valid only till device A is in foreign network But FA is not
aware whether mobile device is valid device or not. Hence FA send request to
HA and ask whether device A is valid device or not and if it is valid device then
HA will send positive acknowledgement to FA. Then FA assigned a temporary IP
address known as COA to device A. Now mobile device can communicate with
any device in a network
So when MN is in foreign network, then current location of MN should be
known to HA and FA. MN create and send registration request to FA, FA
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 15
Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 14
 Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC)
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI Branch: Computer
to HA. HA
validate the u s e r send
user . .
validate that user, and send request
home network to
creating_tunnel(from When any packet to mobile node is arrives; it is received by its home agent but
acknowledgement to FA by
foreign network) and also perform mobility_binding (association of if mobile node is not in home network then home agent forwards it to current
receiving reply from HA, foreign agent location of mobile node.
mobile node with its cOA). And after
adds MN to visitor list
There are three phases of mobileIP
D a t a transfer: Consider machine
B which is remote
host is communicating Agent Discovery
Registration
But right now machine B is not aware that
with device A in his home network.
Machine B want to send data to A, machine
tunneling
device A is in its home network.
not
B send a packet
(home IP address) and this
to machine A with its IP
address
identifies that machine A is not in
packet is received by home agent, home agent Discovery- mobile node uses discovery procedure to identify
agent create one more packet and encapsulate prospective home and foreign agents
its home network and home
packet received from machine B within this packet (known as
encapsulation)
Registration mobile node uses an authenticated registration
send this packet to foreign agent where currently machine a is residing this is
proceduretoinform home agent of its care-of address
known as tunnelling. Foreign agent now de-capsulate the packet and
understands that packet is meant for machine A and in this way data transfer Tunneling used to forward IP datagrams from a home address to
takes place. a careofaddress
Figure: 3 phases of mobile IP
Detail working of Mobile IP Agent Discovery:Agent can be HA and FA, and these agent advertise
themselves and all nodes within that network understand which is there
Mobile IP Uses two addresses for mobile device, one is home address (fixed agent which helps them in communication over network. And if new nodes
address) which is known to all and second address is temporary address (care are added in network then through this advertisement they understand
of address and it is not fixed), which is used by mobile node when it moves from which is there agent.
home network to another network.
So when MN moves from its home network to other network ie. foreign
P o hoe
network, through this advertisement made by foreign agent, MN
understand which is his agent and understand(learn or gain information)
that now MN is in foreign network and send request to foreign agent to
assign care of address.
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma
Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 17
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 Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI Branch: Computer
gent
address is d
om
part
my
where Am IT OMG
m
in anoeher network
need COA
What are the
Who bthe a addreses dvenis<mmi
Agrn
valable?
ere?
Mobile
Mode
cme AddreSS
Figure: Agent advertisement
The network pan of
Agent discovery consist of2 phases: gent's address is same as
Agent advertisement mhome oreig
Agent
oAgentsolicitation
172.16.116
(Agent addreis)
o Agentadvertisement:.Internet node uses ICMP router discovery protocol to
search for routers around it. Same procedure is used in mobile IP. Home AOenl A e r u
172.16.u6.23
agent and foreign agents periodically broadcast agent advertisement in the
Home
AEent
(HomeAdress)
form of ICMP messages, and mobile node receives that
message, it observed S o when mobile node is in foreign network it asks for care of address from FA
the address part of the sender
(agent) (address=network address +host This care of address also broadcast in agent advertisement of ICMP messages,
address) and mobile node compare network part of that agent address
FA must broadcast at least one cOA, but if agent advertisement is made by
with its own address, and if network address matched then mobile
node home agent then no care of address in present in ICMP message, but home
understand that it is in his home network and if not matched then
agent broadcast to inform mobile node which are returning to home network
understand that it is in foreign network.
Care of addresses which are advertise by FA are addresses of FA itself, that
Agents adwertise by 1CMP Router Discovery messages is FA address can be used as CA by many nodes in foreign network, this will
reduce bandwidth as well as demands for address space.
ICMP advertisement message having following extension:
Mobile
Node
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Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 18 Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 19
 Sem: VI
Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
something extn and at most 3 solicitations be send.
l am ICMP header for Mobile IPI have
can
Sequence number And through this agent advertisement and agent solicitation MN searches
Dpe =16 length Reserved
Registration
Lifetime R B H for FA
COAI
Let mee
COA2
Search the
gent
equal to 6+4'(na of
with the message. t is
number of COA provided AgentSollcitation
length addresses) R F C1 2 5 6
which the node can
eistratie maximum lifetime specified by the agent in seconds
fedime request during regisiration;
Mobile
Sequence total no. of advertisements sent during initializatlon. Node
No,
172.16.116.23
(Home Address)
registration with this agent is required even when the mobile node
uses a co-
Figure: Agent Solicitation
located COA
But it is also possible that there is no FA or FA are busy and not able to
B-bit The Foreign agent is busy to take anyregistrations take any further request and the solution to this problem is DHCP, ie mobile
node acquires temporary care of address for itself using DHCP and mobile
|Agent is home agent
node itself act as a FA and any packet which will be send by HA will now be
received by MN itself. But the problem is that as MN moves from one network
Agent is foreign agent. to another network and if acquires independent care of address for itself then,
it will be threat to already deficient address space.
M-bit Minimal encapsulation is used for encapsulation.
Gbit Generic routing encapsulation is used.
There is no
r-bit: was initialy s t to Vin fist versionof mobile 1P (RFC 2002) suggesied use torcign agent DHCP for rescue
of header compressionand should beignored.
reverse tunneling All foreign agents
are busy
COAl and cOA 2 are advertised care-of-address. Moblle node can have them.
But it is also possible that MN do not wait for agent advertisement when it Mobile
OHC Server
enters foreign network and mobile node broadcast Node
agent solicitation based on
Co-located care-of-
RFC 1256 and these solicitations are answered
by FA, but MN cannot send these a d d r e s s
solicitation for infinite number of times as it results in
flading
in network
Figure: Agent Solicitation and acquiring co-located CO0A
Notes prepared by, Proí. Reshma
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 Sem:VI Branch: mputer
Mobile Computing (MC) Branch:Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI
using
HCP is known
DHCP as
co-locate care of
acquires
address
that MN
HA.
Mobile Binding maintained at
The
addresses.
ofaddresc as MN need to Mobile Binding: Home address+ care-of-
co-located care
After acquiring
COA o r
address + Registration lifetime in secs
different for these two add.
Registration lifetime: Valid period for which
Registration:
process
is
registration
do registration,
the registration will last
1:C0AisthatofEA
before the
Foreign Agen
N FA Mobile should register again
is that of
MRegistration reque
AA
Case 1: COA
binding period expires
association with MN
Figure: Mobility binding in
MN: Mobile Node Registration requet M N should re-register itself before registration lifeline expires
when reaches to
FA: Forelgn Agent another network, lifeline cannot greater than what was provided
N E E u o n r e p l y
registration
both MN and agent can negotiate registration
during agent advertisement,
HA:Home Agent Registalion r c
lifeline time.
UDP packets are used for registration request and reply.
YP SB D MG fctime
HomeaddreS
2:COAisco-located.careofaddress Homeagent /foreign agent
COA
MN HA
Case 2: COA is Co-located care-of-address ldentiñcation
Registration request Extensions
Figure: UDP header
MN: Mobile Node
(Type=1=registration request and if type=3=registration reply)
(S,B,D,M,G,RT,X are flags)
HA:Home Agent
Registration repby Sbit:
|MN wants previous moblity bindings to be retained
is set if MN wishes to receive broadcast messages as HA.
Registration can be successful or unsuccessful, depending on different
Db i t indicates that MN usesco-locatod address
situations. And if registration successful then HA minimal encapsulation.
perform mobility binding
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 23
Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 22
 Branch: Computer
Sem: VI
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Sem: VI Branch: Computer
generic routing encapsulation.
Registrationa Code Explanation
Successa 0 Registration accepted
from the FA. Registration accepted, but simutaneous mobility bindings unsupported.
indicates reverse tunneling
Denled by FA 66 Insufhcient resources.
67 Mobile node failed authentication.
are set to zero
68 Home agent failed authentication.
69 Requested lietime > advertised limit
seconds. A zero indicates the
validity of registration in infínite time
88 Home agent unreachable.
to one indicates
registration and all the bits
set Denled by HA 130 Insufhicient resources.
131 Mobile node failed authentication.
132 Foreign agent falled authentication.
address=FA or HA address
Home address=source address, destination 133 Registration identifcation mismatc
identification is important which 136 Unknown Home agentaddress.
depending on what type of COA is used,
is generated by MN to uniquely identify a request, which is matched at
Figure: Sample codes of registration reply
time of registration reply to protect replay attack of registration.
Registration between MN and HA should be authenticated, to prevent Tunneling and encapsulation: Establishment of pipe, pipe is data
stream between two end points; data is inserted from one end and
any bogus request. Using MD 5 algorithm and 128-bit secret key a digital retrieve from other end using FIFO method.
When MN uses COA ofFA
signature is generated. butifMN usesco
then entry point of tunnel is HA and other end FA,
Each MN and HA share common secret which makes digital signature located careof address then end points are, entry point of tunnel is
HA and end point is MN. Sending a packet through a tunnel is achieved
unique, and allow agent to authenticate the MN.
by using encapsulation.
Registration replyis also done using UDP packet
Tunned: Data stream between two endpoints
type=3 code lifetime
Home adress
HA Encipuulsted Phcet FA
Home agent
COA Tunnel header when FA COAs used
ldentihcation HA Encpld P a MN
Extensions
Tunnel header when co-locatedcare-of-addres is used
Figure: registration packet reply (UDP
header) Figure: Tunneling
Code indicates
weather request is successful or not.
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer
Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 24 Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 25
 Branch:Computer
Sem: VI
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC) Branch: Computer
packet consisting of
Sem:VI
a
or
Encapsulation is the mechanism tak part of a new header.
the d a t a
it into
Packet header and data and
putting
out ot the data part of
a packet
packet. The reverse operation, taking
Encapsulation and DE Correspondent node
DE capsulation.
another packet, is called when a packet is
capsulation a r e
typically performed
the operations SRC DEST PROTO ENCAPSULATED PACKET
to a lower layer or from a
ransferred from a higher protocol layer CNMN DATA
lower to a higher layer respectively.
SRC DEST PROTO S DEST PROTO
Origina
HA COA 4or55 CN MN ?DATA|
HOME AGENT
Endp
Oigina P
Tunnel PoMod FOREIGN AGENT
Endpolr
Original ?
Header PaMoad Mobile node
Other
Optional
Header
Verslom 4 IHL DS (TOS) Total length
The HA takes the original packet with the MN as destination, puts it
into the data part of a new packet and sets the new IP header so that IPidentiication lag tragment offset Outer
the packet is routed to the COA. The new header is called outer header. time to live Protocol4 Header checsum Header
IP address of HA (source)
.Mobile IP uses 3 different encapsulation method
Care-of addreu of MN (Destination)
IP-within-IP (mandatory) Version 4 IHL DS (TOS) Total length
Minimal IP (optional) IP identihcation dags fragment offet
time to In Prolocol 4 Header checksum Inner Header
Generic IP
IP-within-IP (mandatory): Putting one IP IP addres of CN (ource)
packets inside other IP
packet as payload or data, HA add new IP header as tunnel Home addres of MN (Destinatioen)
header,
tunnel header uses HA address as source address and COA of
MN as tunnel
destination address. The tunnel header uses 4 as a
Figure: IP-within-IP encapsulation
protocol number indicating that, the next protocol header is again IP
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma
Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 26 Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul1 27
Page 27
 Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI
within uter header, but what i
encapsulated
header
nner
lds have be repeated, so it repr
all the fields Generic IP
m e t h o d is that,
in this
fields are repeated),
all fields of outer header
are
a. In IP-within-IP and Minimal IP encapsulation method, it is
redundancy(all
lot of packet the of
and vice versa,
and to deal with this
oblem possible to encapsulate packet of one protocol in to
inner header
available in same protocol, but in contrast generic IP encapsulation supports
encapsulation
is used.
minimal
encapsulation of packet of one protocol in to data part of another
additional GRE header is
Minimal Encapsulation packet of another protocol. In this
are made in inner header
encapsulation, changes prepended to the original packet.
. I tis optional used
indicating that mininmal encapsulation is
protocol field is 55,
destination address
is the exit point of
tunnel. S is known as source
Provides support to network layer protocol other than P
s=1 it indicates that information about original protocol to be data part of packet
of another
address present bit, if Allows packet of one
protocol
if s=0 it indicates that information about
sender is included and
original sender is not included. RFC 1701,RFC 2784
of forwarded
Original Header Original data
is incremented by the size packet,
Length field Original data
if s=1 length field will be incremented by Outer header GRE header Original
increments depends on s, ,
12 octets and if s=0 length field will be incremented by 8 octets. New heade Nawdata
Figure: Generic encapsulation
Optional : RFC,2004
Cannot be used with fragmented packets
I P Packet Delivery
Inner header is modified
vefson IHL DS (TOS) Total length
IP identiñcation Fragment offset
Flags
Outer header Home Router Router
Header checksum network HA 2 FA-
Time lo live Protocol-55S
IPeddressofHA Foreign
network
Care of addreu of COA
Intermet
Lay 4 proloco rserved IP checksum
Inner Header
Home eddress of MN With less felds
Original sender 1P address (hd S=1) Router
TCP/UDP.payload
- - -
to and from mobile node
Figure: Minimal encapsulation Figure: IP packet delivery
Page 29
Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Reshma Koli/Computer
Notes prepared by, Prof.
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Page 28
Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul
 Branch: Computer Branch: Computer
Sem: VI Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI
Mobile Computing (MC)
correspondent
the MN. A Triangular routing and Route Optimization
to and from
packet delivery
Figure above illustrates
M N. One ofthe
requirements of
to the
IP packet
MN. CN does not need
wants to send an
node CN German meet at a
hiding themobility of the Example: Imagine the following scenario. Japanese and a
mobile IP wastosupport packet as
sends the data,
current
and location conference on Hawaii. Both want to use their laptops for exchanging
about the MN's
to know anything that CN sends an IP packet
both run mobile IP for mobility support.
1). This
means
address of MN (step
usual to the IP address. The internet,
source
destination address
and CN as a
with MN as a
the packet to sends the data to
c u r r e n t location
of MN, routes
If the Japanese sends a packet to the German, his computer
information on the now
not having
MN. This is done using
the
the HA of the German, ie., from Hawaii
to Germany. The HA in Germany
home network of
the responsible for the
router the German laptop o n
them to the COA of
mechanisms of the internet encapsulates the packets and tunnels
standard routing be only meters away,
Hawaii. This that although the computers might
means
not in its of a
knowing that MN is currently around the world! This
inefficient behavior
The HA now intercepts the packet, the packets have to travel
usual, but
the subnet as is made
packet is not forwarded into routing. The triangle
home network. The
the non- optimized mobile IP is called triangular
header is put in front of and MN back to CN.
tunnelled to the COA. A
CN to HA.HAto COA/MN,
new
encapsulated and of the three segments,
destination and HA as source of the
COA as n e w
old IP header showing the
Tunnelling and have to go
is known as to the MN
packet (step 2). (This IP protocol all packets
encapsulated With the basic mobile network
the packet, i.e., removes
overheads for the
n o w de-capsulate
encapsulation) The foreign agent through the HA. This
can c a u s e unnecessary
the
with CN as source
between HA and COA,
depending o n
forwards the original packet
the additional header, and between CN and HA, but also
increase
for the MN mobility is not shows, latency c a n
and MN as destination to the MN (step 3). Again, of the MN. As the example
c u r r e n t location
with the same sender and receiver address as
visible. It receives the packet dramatically.
sub network as the node
home network.
it would have done in the where if the MN is in
the same
scenario occurs,
So if this the world. It is
called
the other side of
from the MN to the CN is much simpler; The is communicating
and HA is on
At first glance, sending packets to which it overheads for the
network
fixed IP address as s o u r c e and as it c a u s e s unnecessary
MN sends the packet as usual with its own
triangular routing problem
default
destination (step 4). The router with the FA acts as
between CN and the HA.
CN's address as
in the same way as it would do for any
router and forwards the packet CN of the
current
location
to inform the
network. As long as CN is a fixed node the therouteis
other node in the foreign One way to optimize
cache
it in a binding
also mobile node learn the
location by caching
remainder is in the fixed internet as usual. If CN were a CN can
of the MN. The for the CN. The
appropriate
described in local routing table
residing in a foreign network, the s a m e mechanisms as steps1 part of
the
is
The optimized mobile
which a
location is the HA.
the CN of the
through3 would apply now in the other direction. entity to inform
additional messages.
four
IPprotocolneeds
Page 31
Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Koli/Computer
Reshma
Prof.
Notes prepared by,
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 30
 Sem:VI Branch: Computer Mobile Computing (MC)
Mobile Computing (MC) Sem:VI Branch: Computer
wants to know the current
the node that ation ctill tunnels its packets for MN to
It is sent by the old FA, FA old. This
Binding Request: FA now
allowed to reveal the location and then with destination MN, but
of MN to the HA.HA
an
checks if it is notices packets also knows that it is not
the
binding update cur rrent FA of MN. FA old might now forward these packets
sends backa to the
the HA to the CN revealing the current location of new COA of MN which is FA new in this example.
.Binding update: It is sent by
MN.It contains the fixed
IP address of the MN and the COA. This message can This forwarding of packets is another
optimization of the basic Mobile
an
request an acknowledgement. IP providing smooth handovers. Without this
optimization, all
acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this packets in transit would be lost while the MN moves from one FA too
Binding
acknowledgement after receiving a binding update message
another.
Binding warning: A node sends a binding warning if it de-capsulate a packet
for an MN, but it is note the current FA of this MN. It contains MN's home . The following figure shows how the four additional messages are used together
address and a target nodes address. The recipient can be the HA, so the HA now if an MN changes its FA.
HA MN
sends a binding update to the node that obviously has a wrong COA for the MN. CN
Data Data Data
Update
ACK
Procedure: Data
chano-
T h e CN can request the current location from the HA.
Data
I f allowed by the MN, the HA returns the COA of the MN via an update Waming
Da
message.
Update
The CN acknowledges this update message and stores the mobility binding.
Data
Now the CN can send its data directly to the current foreign agent FA old.
FA old forwards the packets to the MN. This scenario shows a COA located
at an FA. Encapsulation of data for
tunneling to the COA is now done by Reverse Tunneling
the CN, not the HA.
The reverse path from MS to the CN (as shown in figure) looks quite simple as
The MN might now change its location and register with a standard IP
new foreign send its packets to the CN as in any other
the MN can directly
agent, FA new. This
registration is also forwarded to the HA to update its
location database. situation.
HA encapsulates the
Furthermore, FA new informs FA old about the CN send packets to MN, which are received by HA and now
new registration of MN. and send to MN.
MN's to FA. FA de capsulate the packets
registration message contains the address of FA old for this packets and send
purpose.
Passing this information is achieved via update message, which FA forward reply to CN.
an
is M N send reply to FA and
acknowledged by FA old.
Registration replies are not shown in this scenario.
In this case, CN does not know anything about the new
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma location, so it Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Page 33
Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Page 32 Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma
Koli/Computer
 Sem:VI Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC) Mobile Computing (MC)
Sem:V1
Branch: Computer
internet. This
network address
Home
Router
HA
Router
-- A . -
translator, RFC 3022,
Srisuresh, translation(NAT, network address
2001) is used by many
nemoK internal resources companies to hiae
Foreign (routers,
newok.
- globally available addresses computers, printers etc.) and to use only some
Internet
--***
arising when using NAT (Levkowetz, 2002, tries to solve the
together with problems
mobile IP).
ter Multi-cast:_Reverse tunnels are needed for the MN to
multicast group. While the participate in a
nodes in the home
multi-cast group, an MN in a network might participate ina
But CN send packets to MN belongs to particular network and waiting for
foreign network cannot transmit multi-cast
network, but received reply through other packets in a
way that they emanate
receiving from reply from same from its home network without a
reverse
tunnel. The foreign network might
network ,may lead problem that CN may discard the packets. not even
infrastructure for provide the technical
multi-cast communication.
The destination address in the packets is that of CN. But it has some problems
TTL:Consider an MN sending
packets with a certain TTL while still in its
Explained below: home network. The TTL
might be low enough so that no packet Is
Firewalls: Almost all companies and many other institutions secure their transmitted outside a certain region. If the MN now moves to a foreign
internal networks (intranet) connected to the internet with the help of a network, this TTL might be too low for the
packets to reach the same nodes
firewall. A data to and from the intranet must pass through the firewall. as before. Mobile IP is no
longer transparent if a user has to adjust the TTL
Besides many other functions, firewalls can be set up to filter_out while moving. A reverse tunnel is needed that
represents only one hop, no
often
malicious addresses from an administrator's point of view. Quite matter how many hops are really needed from the foreign to the home
firewalls only allow packets with topologically correct addresses to pass. network.
This provides at least a first and simple protection against mis-configured .This problem (drawback of packet forwarding) is solved using reverse
systems of unknown addresses. However, MN still sends packets with its tunneling.
fixed IP address as source which is not topologically correct in a foreign
MN send reply to FA, FA send reply to HA and HA send data to CN, this is called
network. Firewalls often filter packets coming from outside containing a
as reverse tunneling.
source address from computers of the internal network. This avoids other
computers that could use internal addresses and claim to be internal
computers. However, this also implies that an MN cannot send a packet to a
computer residing in its home network. Altogether, this means that not
only does the destination address matter for forwarding IP packets, but
also the source address due to security concerns. Further complications
arise through the use of private addresses inside the intranet and the
translation into global addresses when communicating with the Page 35
Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Reshma Koli/Computer
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul Notes prepared by, Prof.
Page 34
 Sem: VI
Branch: Computer
Mobile Computing (MC)
Mobile Computing (MC) em:VI
Branch: Computer
ending packets through a
firewall It is not clear
if companies
cetting up tunnels througha firewall would allow for
n t e r n e
without
further checking of
more likely that a company will set up a
packets. It is
special virtual network for
mobile nodes outside the
firewall with full visiting
allows guests to use their mobile connectivity to the internet. This
equipment, and at the same time, today'sS
security standards are maintained
Corespondun
node
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Co .DHCP is an automatic
configuration protocol used on IP networks. DHCP
MN allows a computer to join an IP-based network without having a
pre
configured IP address.
DHCP is a protocol that assigns unique IP addresses to devices, then
Figure: Packet forwarding releases and renews these addresses as devices leave and re-join the
network.
Fntesne If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can provide it with all
the necessary information for full system integration into the network, eg.
addresses of a DNS server and the default router, the subnet mask, the
domain name, and an IP address. Providing an IP address makes DHCP very
C o r r e s p o n d n E >
attractive for mobile IP as a source of care-ofaddresses.
node DHCP clients send a
client/servermodel as shown below.
coA DHCP is based on a
request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER
in the example) to which the server
broadcasts to reach all
devices
MN responds. A client sends requests using
MAC
in the LAN.
client and two servers are present
there is one
Consider the scenario where
Figure: Reverse tunneling
initialization ofa DHCP elient is shown below
A typical
Reverse tunnelling as an extension to mobile IP.
triangular routing problem in the
Obviously, reverse tunnelling now creates a
reverse direction. All packets from an MN to a CN go through the HA.
Reverse tunnelling also raises several security issues which have not been
really solved up to now. For example, tunnels starting in the private network of
Page 37
a company and reaching out into the internet could be hijacked and abused for Koli/Computer
Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Reshma
Page 36 Notes prepared by, Prof.
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul
Mobile Computing (MC)
Sem: VI Branch: Computer

Client Server
Server
(not selected) Initialization (selected)

Determine the
DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVERDeterm the
configuration
configuration
DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFÉR
COHlection of reptfes
Selection of configuration
DHCPREQUEST DHCPREQUEST Confimation of
(reject) (options)
configuration
DHCPACK
Initializatiorn completed

Release
CPRELEASSE Delete context

DHCP
Figure: Client initiation via

a DHCPDIsCoVER into the subnet. There might be a

The client broadcasts
shown, two servers receive this
relay to forward this broadcast. In the case

offer to the client.

broadcast and determine the configuration they can

DHCPOFFER and offer a list of

Servers reply to the cliene's request with
client now choose one of the
configuration parameters. The
can

replies to the servers, accepting

configurations offered. The client in
turn

one of the configurations and rejecting the others using DHCPREQUEST. If a

receives a DHCPREQUEST with a rejection, it can free the reserved
server

with the configuration

configuration for other possible clients. The
server

This
accepted by the client now confirms the configuration with DHCPACK.
the initialization phase. If a client leaves a subnet, it should
completes
Now
release the configuration received by the server using DHCPRELEASE.
the
the server can free the context stored for the client and offer

client gets from server is only

configuration again. The configuration a a

to
leased for a certain amount of time, it has to be reconfirmed from time
time. Otherwise the server will free the configuration. This timeout

Page 38
Notes prepared by, Prof. Reshma Koli/Computer Engineering/TEC/Nerul