CET 307

HYDROLOGY &WATER
RESOURCES ENGINEERING
MODULE No. III
IRRIGATION
WRE/KJG/MOD1 1
 SYLLABUS – MODULE III
Irrigation - Necessity, Benefits and ill effects.
Types: flow and lift irrigation – perennial and
inundation irrigation. Soil – water – plant
relationships. Irrigation efficiencies.
Computation of crop water requirement: depth
and frequency of Irrigation. Duty and delta. Duty
factors affecting and method of improving duty.
Computation of crop water requirement by
using the concept of duty and delta.

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 IRRIGATION
• Irrigation is defined as the process of
artificially supplying water to soil for raising
crops.
• More clearly, Irrigation is the Engineering of
controlling and harnessing the various natural
sources of water by the construction of dams
and reservoirs, canals and headworks and
finally distributing the water to the
agricultural fields.

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 NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION
• India is an agricultural country. Water is a vital
element in the plant life. The rainfall is
insufficient or ill-timed in many areas. Hence
Irrigation water is to be supplied whenever
required for the crops. The reasons are:
• 1) Less rainfall
• 2) Non-uniform rainfall
• 3) Growing many crops in an year
• 4) Commercial crops with additional water needs
• 5) Controlled water supply to crops
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BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION
1) Increase in food production
2) Protection from famine
3) Cultivation of Cash crops
4) Elimination of mixed cropping
5) Addition to the wealth of the country
6) Increase in prosperity of the people
7) Generation of Hydro-electric power
8) Domestic and Industrial water supply
9) Inland Navigation
10)Improvements in Ground Water storage
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ILL – EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION
Excess irrigation and unscientific use of
Irrigation water may give rise to the following ill-
effects.
1) Water Logging
2) Damp Climate
3) Act as breeding places for mosquitoes

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TYPES OF IRRIGATION

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FLOW IRRIGATION
Flow Irrigation is that type of irrigation in
which the supply of irrigation water available at
such a level that it is conveyed on to the land by
gravity flow.
Flow irrigation is divided into:
(1) Perennial Irrigation
(2) Inundation or Flood irrigation
In Perennial Irrigation, the water required for
irrigation is supplied in accordance with the crop
requirements throughout the crop period.
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INUNDATION IRRIGATION
Inundation Irrigation is carried out by deep
flooding and thorough saturation of the land to
be cultivated, which is then drained off prior to
planting of the crops.
Flow Irrigation is divided into the following
depending upon the source from which water is
drawn:
(1) Direct Irrigation(River canal irrigation) : Diversion scheme
(2) Storage Irrigation(Reservoir or Tank Irrigation) : Storage
scheme
(3) Combined storage and diversion scheme

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(1) Direct Irrigation or River Canal Irrigation
Water is directly diverted to the canal without any storing of water.

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Storage Irrigation
In storage Irrigation system, a solid barrier such
as a dam is constructed across the river and
water is stored. Depending upon the
requirement for Hydro-electric or Irrigation,
water is released. A network of canals will be
constructed for water supply to Irrigation fields.

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STORAGE IRRIGATION

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COMBINED IRRIGATION SYSTEM (Storage cum
Diversion Scheme)
A combined scheme is adopted in which water is
stored in the reservoir formed at the upstream
side of the dam and this water can be used for
power generation. At the downstream side a
diversion weir constructed will divert the water
to the canals for the purpose of irrigation.

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COMBINED IRRIGATION SYSTEM
(Storage cum diversion scheme)

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 CHOICE BETWEEN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Direct irrigation scheme is adopted in the
circumstances, where the river is perennial and
has a normal flow throughout the irrigation
season.
Storage Irrigation is adopted when the
river flow is either not perennial or where flow
is insufficient during certain parts of the crop
season for irrigation requirements.
A combined storage cum diversion scheme is
more useful in a multi-stage river-valley
development. 15
 LIFT IRRIGATION
Lift irrigation is resorted to when the water
source is available at a lower level and the
necessity for water for irrigation is at a higher
level. In such circumstances, water is lifted up by
mechanical means.
Irrigation from wells are an example for lift
Irrigation. Big size lift irrigation schemes are also
adopted in cases of Irrigating large areas of
fields and when, plenty of water is available at
lower levels.
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SOIL – WATER RELATIONSHIP
Water present in the soil is classified as:
1) Hygroscopic water
2) Capillary water
3) Gravitational water
When an oven-dried sample is kept open in
the atmosphere, it absorbs some amount of water
from the atmosphere. This is known as hygroscopic
water and is not possible to be moved by gravity or
capillary forces.

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SOIL – WATER RELATIONSHIP(Contd.)
Capillary water is that part in excess of hygroscopic
water which exists in the pore spaces of the soil by
molecular attraction.

Gravitational Water is that part in excess of

hygroscopic and capillary water which will move out
of the soil if favourable drainage is provided.
Based on availability of soil water to plants, it can
be classified as: unavailable, available and
superfluous.

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CLASSES OF SOIL WATER

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Soil – Water Relationship(Contd.)
Soil-moisture Tension: The force per
unit area that must be exerted in order to extract
water from the soil is known as soil moisture
tension. It is also known as Capillary potential,
Capillary tension or force of suction.
Soil-moisture stress: Soil moisture
stress is defined as the sum of the soil moisture
tension and osmotic pressure of soil solution. The
growth of plants is a function of both soil moisture
tension as well as the osmotic pressure and hence
is a function of soil moisture stress.
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Soil – Water Relationship(Contd.)

The osmotic pressure of the soil solution should be

maintained as low as possible, thus maintaining the
soil moisture stress at the root zone in a range that
will provide adequate moisture to the root zone of
the plants.

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SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS
1. Saturation Capacity: (Maximum moisture
holding capacity or total capacity). This is the
amount of water required to fill all the pore
spaces, between soil particles by replacing all air
held in pore spaces.

2. Field Capacity : The field capacity is the moisture

content of the soil after free drainage has
removed most of the gravity water. This
mainly depends on soil type.

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 Soil Moisture Constants(Contd.)
3. Permanent Wilting Point: Permanent wilting
point or wilting coefficient is that water content
at which plants can no longer extract sufficient
water from the soil for it’s growth. The
permanent wilting point is at the lower end of
the available moisture range.

4. Available Moisture: The difference in water

content of the soil between field capacity and
permanent wilting point is known as available
water or available moisture.
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 Soil Moisture Constants(Contd.)
5. Readily Available Moisture: It is that portion
of the available moisture that is mostly
extracted by plants, and is approximately 75% of
the available moisture.
6. Moisture Equivalent : This is an artificial
moisture property of the soil and is used as an
index of the natural properties. It is the
percentage of moisture retained in a small
sample of wet soil 1cm deep when subjected to
a centrifugal force 1000 times as great as gravity,
usually for a period of 30 minutes. 24
 Soil Moisture Constants(Contd.)
7. Soil-Moisture Deficiency: Soil – moisture
deficiency or field moisture deficiency is the water
required to bring the soil moisture content of the
soil to it’s field capacity.
Depth of water stored in root zone and available
to plants:
Available moisture depth
dw =( Yd . d/Yw) (Fc – Wc)
d = Root zone depth
Yd = Dry unit weight of soil
Yw = Unit weight of water
Fc = Field Capacity expressed as ratio
Wc = Wilting Coefficient, expressed as ratio 25
 Question on depth of water available
Qn. The root zone of an Irrigation soil has dry
weight of 15KN/m3 and a field capacity of 30%.
The root zone depth of a certain crop having
permanent wilting percentage 8% is 0.80m.
Determine the following. (Take unit weight of
water as 9.81KN/m3).
(a) Depth of moisture in the root zone at Field
Capacity.
(b) Depth of moisture in the root zone at
permanent wilting point.
(c) Depth of water available.
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ANSWER:

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 LIMITING SOIL-MOISTURE CONDITIONS
The plant growth may be retarded if the soil-
moisture is either deficient or excessive. If the soil
moisture is only slightly more than the wilting
coefficient, the plant must expend extra energy to
fetch that and the plant will not grow healthy. On
the contrary, if the water supplied/ available is
much more than required for the plants, excessive
flooding fills the soil pores with water, thus driving
out air. Since air is essential for satisfactory plant
growth, excessive water supply retards plant
growth. The optimum moisture percentage is that
moisture corresponding to which optimum growth
of plant takes place.
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FIG. ON SOIL-MOISTURE CODITIONS

mo represents the maximum level upto which the soil moisture 29

may be allowed to deplete.
GRAPH ON LIMITING SOIL – MOISTURE CONDITIONS
Available moisture is the moisture between
wilting point and the field capacity. The readily
available moisture is that moisture which is
easily extractable by plants and is approximately
75% of the available moisture. At any time, the
moisture content in the soil should be between
the field capacity and the lower limit(mo) of the
readily available moisture. Thus mo is the
maximum level upto which the soil moisture
may be allowed to be depleted in the root zone
without fall in the yield.

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 FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION
When watering is done, the amount of water
supplied is such that the water content is equal to
field capacity. Further, the water will be utilized
consumptively by he plants and the soil moisture
will start falling. When the water content reaches
mo, fresh doses of irrigation water is to be
supplied, so that water content is again raised to
the field capacity of the soil.
dw = (Yd / Yw) d(Fc-mo) metres,
Yd is the dry unit weight of soil and Yw is the unit
weight of water. Both Fc and mo are the moisture
content to be expressed as ratio.
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FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION(GRAPH)

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 FREQUENCY OF IRRIGATION(Contd.)
If Cu is the daily consumptive use rate,
frequency of watering fw is given by
fw = (dw / Cu) days
TIME REQUIRED TO IRRIGATE A CERTAIN AREA
Let t be the time required to apply the desired
water depth dw to bring the water level in the
soil from mo to the field capacity Fc over an
Irrigation field of Area A. If q is the discharge in
the field channel in cumecs, we have
t =( A . dw / q ) seconds.,
Where A is the area in Square metres and dw is
the depth of water to be applied in metres.
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 DUTY AND DELTA
Duty is the Irrigating capacity of a unit of water.
Delta is the total depth of water required by a
crop during the entire period, the crop is in the
field.
Crop period is the time in days which a crop
takes from the period of sawing to the instant of
harvesting.
Base period is the time taken when irrigation
water is issued to the land to the instant of
harvesting. (Sometimes, watering starts early to
prepare land). 34
 RELATION BETWEEN DUTY & DELTA
D = Duty in hectares/cumec
Delta = Total depth of water supplied (in metres)
B = Base period in days
(1) If we take a field of area D hectares, water
supplied to the field corresponding to the water
depth Delta metres will be
= Delta x D Hectare – metres
= Delta x D x 10000m2-metres
= Delta x D x 10000 Cubic metres
(2) Again for the same field of D hectares, one
cumec of water required to flow during the entire
Base period. Water supplied to this field;
= (1) x (Bx24x60x60) m3
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 Relation Between Duty & Delta (Contd.)
Equating the two equations above ,
D x Delta x 10000 = B x 24x60x60
Delta = 8.64 x B / D metres ………

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 FACTORS AFFECTING OF DUTY
(1) Methods and system of Irrigation
(2) Mode of applying water to crops
(3) Method of cultivation
(4) Time and frequency of tilling
(5) Type crop
(6) Base period of the crop
(7) Quality of water
(8) Canal conditions
(9) Character of soil and subsoil of canal
(10)Character of soil and subsoil of Irrigation fields
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 METHODS OF IMPROVING DUTY
The following are the methods:
1) Canal Lining
2) Land should be level
3) Use Good quality water
4) Avoid canal alignment through sandy soils
5) Adopt suitable method for water application
6) Adopt crop rotation practise

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 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
Efficient use of Irrigation water is an obligation of
each user and of the planners.
Efficiency is the ratio of water output (supplied) to
the water input (taken by the plant) and is
expressed as a percentage.
Irrigation Efficiencies are:
1) Water Conveyance Efficiency
2) Water Application Efficiency
3) Water Use Efficiency
4) Water Storage Efficiency
5) Water Distribution Efficiency
6) Consumptive Use Efficiency
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 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES(Contd.)
1) WATER CONVEYANCE EFFICIENCY
This takes into account the conveyance losses.
Ec = (Wf /Wr) x 100, where,
Ec = Water Conveyance Efficiency
Wf = Water delivered to Irrigation plot
Wr = Water supplied from the River or Reservoir
2) WATER APPLICATION EFFICIENCY
Ea = (Ws / Wf) x 100 , where,
Ea = Water Application Efficiency
Ws = Water stored in the root zone during the Irrigation
Wf = Water delivered to the farm.
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 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES(Contd.)
3) WATER USE EFFICIENCY
It is the ratio of water beneficially used to the
quantity of water delivered.
Eu = (Wu /Wd) x 100, where,
Eu = Water Use Efficiency
Wu = Water used beneficially or consumptively
Wd = Water delivered
4) WATER STORAGE EFFICIENCY
Es = (Ws / Wn) x 100 , where,
Es = Water storage Efficiency
Ws = Water stored in the root zone during the Irrigation
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to Irrigation
(Field Capacity – Available moisture)
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 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES(Contd.)
5) WATER DISTRIBUTION EFFICIENCY
Water Distribution Efficiency evaluates the degree to which
water is uniformly distributed throughout the root zone.
Ed = (1 – (Y /d)) x 100, where,
Eu = Water Distribution Efficiency
Y = Average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from
average depth stored during irrigation
d = Average depth of water stored during irrigation

6) CONSUMPTIVE USE EFFICIENCY

Ecu = (Wcu / Wd) x 100 , where,
Ecu = Consumptive Use Efficiency
Wcu = Normal consumptive use of water
Wd = Net amount of water depleted from root zone of soil
This efficiency evaluates, the loss of water by deep percolation
and by excessive surface evaporation following an Irrigation.
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 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
Crop Water Requirement is the water required by plants
for it’s survival, growth, development and to produce
economic parts.
Crop water requirement includes the following like:
a) Transpiration loss through leaves (T)
b) Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area
(E)
c) Amount of water used by plants for it’s
metabolism(WP)
d) Other application losses like conveyance loss,
percolation loss, run off loss etc(WL)
e) Water required for special purposes like ploughing
operation, land preparation, leaching etc (WSP)

TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 43

 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT (Contd.)
Hence water requirement is represented as:

WR = T + E + WP + WL + WSP
Or
WR = CU + WL + WSP,
Where, CU = E + T + WSP,
CU = Consumptive Use of Water

TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 44

Features influencing the crop water requirements.
1) Crop Factors – Variety, Duration, Season
2) Soil Factors – Topography, Structure,
Composition
3) Climatic Factors – Temperature, Humidity,
Rainfall
4) Agronomic Management Factors – Irrigation
Methods, Frequency of Irrigation, Weeding,
Mulching, Tillage etc.

TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 45

CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER (CONCEPT
OF EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION)
Evapo - transpiration or Consumptive use of
water by a crop is the depth of water consumed
by evaporation and transpiration during crop
growth, including water consumed by
accompanying weed growth.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the transfer of water from the
liquid to the vapour state. When irrigation water
is applied by flooding methods, large amount of
water are lost by direct evaporation.
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CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER (CONCEPT
OF EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION) (Contd…)
TRANSPIRATION & TRANSPIRATION RATIO
Transpiration is the process by which plants
dissipate water from the surface of their leaves,
trunks etc in the process of growth. As much as
99% of the water received through it’s roots are
dissipated by plants through transpiration.
Transpiration is associated with photosynthesis
of plants. Water from the soil is taken up by
plant roots through a membrane by a process
called osmosis.
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CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER (CONCEPT
OF EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION) (Contd…)
TRANSPIRATION & TRANSPIRATION RATIO (Contd.)
Green Cells, called Chloroplasts in plant leaf
prepare food in the presence of sun light and CO2 and
leave water through the tiny openings called stomata.
The transpiration ratio is the ratio of the weight of
water transpired by the plant during it’s growth to the
weight of dry matter produced by the plant exclusive of
roots. The average values of transpiration ratio for
wheat and rice are 560 and 680 respectively.

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 Evapo-transpiration (Contd..)
FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMPTIVE USE OF WATER
1) Evaporation, which depends upon humidity
2) Mean monthly temperature
3) Growing season of crop and cropping pattern
4) Monthly precipitation in the area
5) Irrigation Depth
6) Wind velocity
7) Soil & Topography
8) Irrigation practices and Methods of Irrigation

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DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF CONSUMPTIVE USE
1) Tank and Lysimeter methods
2) Field Experimental Plots
3) Soil Moisture Studies
4) Integration Method
5) Inflow and Outflow studies for large area
CONSUMPTIVE USE- DETERMINATION BY EQUATIONS
1) BLANEY –CRIDDLE METHOD
2) PENMAN METHOD
3) HARGREAVES CLASS A PAN EVAPORATION METHOD

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CLASSIFICATION OF PRINCIPAL CROPS IN INDIA
AND CROP SEASONS
Crops can be classified in the following ways:
1) Agricultural Classification
2) Classification based on Crop seasons
3) Classification based on Irrigation requirement

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 AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

1) FIELD CROPS: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Barley etc

2) COMMERCIAL CROPS: Sugar Cane, Cotton, Tobacco etc
3) OIL SEED CROPS: Ground Nut, Mustard, Linseed etc
4) HORTICULTURAL CROPS: Fruits, Vegetables etc
5) PLANTATION CROPS: Rubber, Tea, Coffee, Coconut etc
6) MISCELLANEOUS CROPS: Medicinal Crops, Spices etc

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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CROP SEASONS
1) RABI/WINTER CROPS: Sown in Autumn(October)
and harvesting in Spring(March).
Eg. Wheat, Barley, Tobacco etc
2) KHARIFF/MONSOON CROPS: Sown in the beginning
of Southwest Monsoon and Harvested in Autumn
Eg. Rice, Maize, Millet etc
3) PERENNIAL CROPS: Requires water throughout the year
Eg. Sugar Cane, Fruits, Vegetables etc.
4) EIGHT MONTHS CROPS: Require Irrigation water for eight
months
Eg. Cotton.
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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON IRRIGATION
REQUIREMENTS
1) DRY CROPS: Does not require water for
Irrigation. Only rain water enough.
2) WET CROPS: Require Irrigation water.

3) GARDEN CROPS: Require Irrigation

throughout the year.

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 BASE PERIOD AND DUTY OF PRINCIPAL
CROPS OF INDIA

CROP BASE PERIOD(Days) DELTA(cm)

1) WHEAT 120 40
2) RICE 120 120
3) COTTON 180 45
4) SUGARCANE 360 90

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 PROBLEM QUESTIONS
1) Find the Delta for a crop if the duty for a base
period of 110 days is 1400 hectares/cumec

2) A crop requires a total depth of 92cm of

water for a base period of 120 days. Find the
duty of water.

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 ANS. Qn. (1)

Delta = 8.64B/D = (8.64 x 110)/1400

= 0.68m = 68cm

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 ANS. Qn. (2)

D = 8.64B/Delta = (8.64 x 120)/0.92

= 1127 hectares/cumec

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 GROSS COMMAND AREA & CULTURAL COMMAND AREA
Area irrigated by a canal irrigation system and
surrounded by drainage boundaries is called
Gross Command Area.
The area on which crops can be cultivated
satisfactorily is called Cultural Command Area.

The first watering is known as kor watering and

the depth applied is known as kor depth. The
portion of the base period in which kor watering
is needed is known as kor period.
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QUESTION No.3

60
ANS. Qn. No.3

61
Qn. No.4

62
Ans. Qn. No.4

63
Qn. No.5

64
Ans. Qn. No.5

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 Ans. Qn. No. 5(Contd.)
Volume required at head of canal
= 403.52 x 10^6 /0.75
= 538.03 x 10^6
Storage Capacity = 538.03 x 10^6 / 0.85
= 633 x 10^6 m3

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UNIVERSTY Qn. Set 1, Module 3& 4

67
UTY QNS. SET 2 – MODULE 3 & 4

68
UTY- SET 2 – MODULE 3 & 4 (Balance)

69
 WRE TEST – MODULE 3
1) Mention the various methods of Irrigation by a
Chart. (4 Marks)
2) List the advantages of Drip Irrigation (3 Marks)
3) Explain with a Graph the Limiting Soil – Moisture
conditions (5 Marks)
4) Define Duty and Delta. Mention the relationship
between them (4 Marks)
5)Explain the concept of Consumptive use of water.
(4 Marks)
6) What is the reservoir capacity needed for raising
Rice crop with Base period of 120days and duty 800
hec/cumec at an area of 10000 Hectare. Take all the
losses put together as 25%. (5 Marks)
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 WRE TEST – MODULE 3
Qn No.6
What is the reservoir capacity needed for raising Rice
crop with Base period of 120days and duty 800
hec/cumec at an area of 10000 Hectare. Take all the
losses put together as 25%.
Base Period = 120 days
Area under Crop = 10000 Hectares
Duty = 800 Hec/cumec
Discharge Required = Area/Duty = 10000/800
= 12.5 cumecs
Quantity of Water required = 8.64 x 10000 x Discharge X
Base Period = 8.64 x 10000 x 12.5 x 120
= 129600000 m3
Storage Capacity = 129600000 / 0.75 = 172800000 m3
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ASSIGNMENT NO. 2,

Roll Nos. 1 to 20, Take field capacity as 24%

Roll Nos 21 to 40, Take Field Capacity as 25%
Roll Nos 41 to 60, Take Field Capacity as 26%
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ASSIGNMENT NO. 3

Roll Nos. 1 to 20, Wheat and Sugar cane

Roll Nos. 21 to 40, Sugar cane and Rice
Roll Nos. 41 to 60, Cotton and Bajra
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THANK YOU

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