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Variation and dna (1)

DNA is the molecule that contains genetic instructions for all organisms, consisting of two strands forming a double helix with nucleotide bases that pair in specific ways. Variation among individuals can be phenotypic, caused by genetic or environmental factors, and can be classified into continuous and discontinuous types. Mutations can lead to genetic changes, some beneficial and others harmful, exemplified by conditions like sickle cell anemia.

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9 views

Variation and dna (1)

DNA is the molecule that contains genetic instructions for all organisms, consisting of two strands forming a double helix with nucleotide bases that pair in specific ways. Variation among individuals can be phenotypic, caused by genetic or environmental factors, and can be classified into continuous and discontinuous types. Mutations can lead to genetic changes, some beneficial and others harmful, exemplified by conditions like sickle cell anemia.

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shawezbutt001
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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VARIATION AND DNA

DNA
▪ DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid,
is the molecule that contains
the instructions for the growth
and development of all
organisms
▪ It consists of two strands of
DNA wound around each other
in what is called a double helix
▪ The individual units of DNA
are called nucleotides
▪ All nucleotides contain the same
phosphate and deoxyribose sugar,
but differ from each other in
the base attached
▪ There are four different
bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T) and Guanine (G)
▪ The bases on each strand pair up
with each other, holding the two
strands of DNA in the double helix
▪ The bases always pair up in the same
way:
▪ Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)
▪ Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)
▪ The phosphate and sugar
section of the nucleotides
form the ‘backbone’ of the
DNA strand (like the sides
of a ladder) and the base
pairs of each strand
connect to form the rungs
of the ladder

The DNA helix is made


from two strands of DNA
held together by hydrogen
bonds
▪ It is this sequence of bases
that holds the code for the
formation of proteins
VARIATION
▪ • Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species

• Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same


species

• Some of these differences are caused by differences in genes, which is genetic


variation
TYPES OF VARIATION
▪ • Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are
able to group the measurements:

• Continuous Variation is when there are very many small degrees of difference
for a particular characteristic between individuals and they are arranged in order
and can usually be measured on a scale
• Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many ‘in-
between’ groups
• Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a
characteristic
• For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or
female; can either roll their tongue or not – there are no ‘in-betweens’
▪ When graphs of these data are
plotted, continuous variation
gives smooth bell curves (a
result of all the small degrees
of difference), whereas
discontinuous variation gives a
step like shape
PHENOTYPIC VARIATION
▪ Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:

• It can be genetic – controlled entirely by genes

• Or it can be environmental – caused entirely by the environment in which the


organism lives
ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION
▪ • Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as
climate, diet, accidents, culture, lifestyle and accidents during lifetime

• In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’

• Examples include:

• An accident may lead to scarring on the body


• Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
• Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language with a
certain accent
• A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
GENETIC VARIATION
▪ • Examples of genetic variation in humans
include:

• blood group

• eye color

• gender

• ability to roll tongue

• whether ear lobes are free or fixed:


GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION
▪ • Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic variation alone

• Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and


environmental causes, for example:
• tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
• their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
• however if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
• therefore their environment also has an impact on their height
• Another way of looking at this is that although genes decide what characteristics
we inherit, the surrounding environment will affect how these inherited
characteristics develop
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF MUTATION
▪ • Mutations are random genetic changes

• Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype as the protein that a mutated
gene produces may work just as well as the protein from the non-mutated gene

• Rarely, mutations lead to the development of new alleles and so new phenotypes
and if they do, most have a small effect on the organism

• Occasionally, the new allele gives the individual a survival advantage over other
members of the species
▪ • For example:

• A bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather colors

• This makes it more attractive to birds of the opposite sex

• Which causes the bird to breed more frequently and have more chances of
passing on the mutated phenotype to the next generation
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF MUTATION
▪ • Mutations can also lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the
body – for example, sickle cell anemia in humans

• Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously but their frequency can be


increased by exposure to the following:

• Gamma rays, x – rays and ultraviolet rays – all types of ionizing radiation
which can damage bonds and cause changes in base sequences

• Certain types of chemicals – for example chemicals such as tar in tobacco

• Increased rates of mutation can cause cells to become cancerous, which is why
the above are linked to increased incidence of different types of cancer
SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
▪ Symptoms

• Sickle cell anemia was the first genetic disease to be described in terms of a
gene mutation

• A gene mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA

• The mutation changes the molecule hemoglobin, causing the red blood cells
(RBC’s) to become stiff and sometimes sickle-shaped when they release oxygen to
the body tissues

• The sickled cells tend to get stuck in narrow blood vessels, blocking the flow of
blood
▪ • As a result, those with sickle cell disease suffer painful “crises” in their joints and
bones

• They may suffer strokes, blindness, or damage to the lungs, kidneys, or heart.
They must often be hospitalized for blood transfusions and are at risk for a life-
threatening complication called acute chest syndrome

• Although many sufferers of sickle cell disease die before the age of 20, modern
medical treatments can sometimes prolong these individuals’ lives into their 40s
and 50s
INHERITANCE

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