SDG

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By James Welty, E Wicks, E Wilson, Gregory L Rorrer,
David G Foster
Instructor Part I: 許梅娟 Syu, Mei-Jywan
Office: 93717 Email: [email protected]
TA: 吳聲甫、黃泓盛、曾煥棋 (Office: 93722; 7th FL)
Office hour: Mon: 19:00~21:00; Thurs: 19:00~21:00
114A: Mon 08:00~08:50; Thurs: 15:10~17:00 (Rm 93406)
114B: Tues: 09:00~09:50; Fri: 10:10~12:00 (Rm 93406)
114C: Tues: 08:00~08:50; Thurs: 10:10~12:00 (Rm 93406)
Part I: Chapters 1~5
✓ one mid-term exams (25%);
✓ Quizzes (5%) (Part I: 2 or 3 times)
✓ General performance (10/3%) 2
James R. Welty: MeE, Oregon State University
Charles E. Wicks: ChE, Oregon State University
Robert E. Wilson: MeE, Oregon State University
Gregory L. Rorrer: ChE, Oregon State University
David G. Foster: ChE, University of Rochester
(contributions from AN Bhaskarwar: ChE, IIT)

Chapter 1 Introduction to Momentum Transfer

1.1 Fluids and the Continuum
1.2 Properties at a Point
1.3 Point-to-Point Variation of Properties in a Fluid
1.4 Units
1.5 Compressibility
1.6 Surface Tension
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1.1 Fluids and the Continuum
Fluid − A substance which deforms continuously under the action of a shear
stress, e.g.: liquids, gases.

[Consequence] When a fluid is at rest, there can be no shear stress (net is zero).

Concept of a Continuum
Fluids are composed of molecules. In a cubic inch of air at room conditions
there are a huge number of molecules. Any theory that would predict the
individual motions of the many molecules would be extremely complex.

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Macroscopic or bulk behavior of a fluid, rather than the microscopic or
molecular behavior.

Fluid is treated as a continuous distribution of matter or a continuum.

The macroscopic properties of a continuum are considered to vary smoothly

(continuously) from point to point in a fluid.

The validity of the concept of a continuum is dependent on the type of

information required rather than the nature of the fluid.

Valid − the macroscopic volume has a constant number of molecules in it

Not valid − the number of molecules in a small volume of a gas at rest.

When a fluid is in motion, the quantities associated with the state and the
motion of the fluid will vary from point to point.

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Most engineering work is concerned with the macroscopic or bulk
behavior of a fluid rather than with the microscopic or molecular behavior.

If the volume were taken small enough, the number of molecules per unit
volume would be time-dependent for the microscopic volume even
though the macroscopic volume has a constant number of molecules in it.

To treat fluids as continua is valid whenever the smallest fluid volume of

interest contains a sufficient number of molecules to make statistical
averages meaningful.

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1.2 Properties at a Point

When a fluid is in motion, the quantities associated with the state and the motion
of the fluid will vary from point to point.

For a fluid, defined as the mass per unit volume. Under flow conditions, especially
in gases, the density may vary greatly throughout the fluid.

Defined as the density of a fluid (or a substance) which is incompressible

M Mass
ρ ( ) defined as the density at a particular point in the fluid
V Volume

In general, the density of a fluid may vary significantly from point to point and may
also vary with respect to time.

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 m m
ρ  lim ρ  lim
V → δV V V→0 V
Δm is the mass contained in a volume ΔV.
δV is the smallest volume surround a point (statistical averages should be
meaningful, i.e., δV → 0)
To describe fluid flow in terms of
continuous functions
Fluid ρ (g/cm3)
Acetone 0.792
Ethanol 0.791
Benzene 0.899
Gasoline 0.670
Glycerin 1.260
Mercury 13.60
Sea water 1.025
Water 1.000
Soap solution 0.900
Blood 1.060 (37oC)
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Fluid Properties and Flow Properties
Incompressible: some fluids, particularly liquids, have densities that remain
almost constant over wide ranges of pressure and temperature.
The effects of compressibility are a property of the situation rather than of
the fluid.
For example, the flow of air at low velocities is described by the same
equations that describe the flow of water.
Air is a compressible fluid and water incompressible. Compressibility
effects are considered as a flow property.
fluid properties  flow properties

[Q] Viscosity
Fluid property or flow property

Fluid property
a low viscous fluid a high viscous fluid 9
 the internal force that exerts on the other

 ⊥ , F⊥ , normal direction stress for a given surface is a vector

F  pressure is a scalar value
 //, F/ / , parallel direction
Both have the unit of [F/A]

Stress is defined from the force acting on a surface. The force can be
decomposed into normal and parallel directions in which the stresses
w.r.t. these directions are defined accordingly.

Strain is the measure of the deformation of the material.

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 Force F Stress is a surface force per unit area
Stress at a point ≡ 
Area A
body forces - act without physical contact
[Note] 
e.g., gravity force, electrostatic force

surface forces - a surface is required for the such forces to act on
Force 
e.g., pressure, frictional force,
stress (normal, shear,  force/area)
 i j

or more precisely,
Fn
Normal Stress at a point, σii σ ii  lim
A →δA A
Fs
Shear Stress at a point, τij τ ij  lim
A →δA A
i: direction of action of the normal stress
j: direction of action of the shear stress

Stress: requires magnitude, direction and orientation w.r.t. a plane.

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 Most common fluids such as water, air, and gasoline
are Newtonian under normal conditions.

d x
τ yx  μ defined as the shear stress of a Newtonian fluid
dy
d x
The shear stresses of most fluids are directly proportional to
dy

no velocity gradient ⇒no shear stress

law only valid if the fluid flow is laminar in which viscous action is strong

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Pressure at a Point in a Static Fluid (for Normal Stress)

Recall that there can be no shear stress for a fluid at rest (i.e., static fluid),
so the only surface forces are caused by the normal stress.

Consider the element as below at rest, only body force and surface force
are important for discussion.

This element, while at rest, is

acted upon by gravity and
normal stresses.
The weight of the fluid
element is g(x y z/2).

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By Newton's law For a body at rest F = 0

In the x direction, xx = ss

In the y direction, yy = ss  xx = yy = ss

the pressure is equal to the average normal stress.

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P = − (σxx + σyy + σzz )
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[Conclusion]
The normal stress at a point in a static fluid is independent of direction, is
therefore a scalar quantity.

For a resting element, the shear stress is zero and the only surface forces in
this case are those due to the normal stress.
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 1.3 Point-to-point Variation of Properties in a Fluid
Gravity is a vector and thus a gravitational field is a vector field.
Pressure field, temperature field, density field, velocity field, and stress
fields. (could be a group of scalars, could be a group of vectors)

Example of a field

Pressure variation over this country. As pressure is a scalar quantity,

such maps are an illustration of a scalar field. The loci of points of
equal pressure
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1st week
For the point-to-point variation in the pressure.

The change in P, dP = P dx + P dy
x y
For an arbitrary path s in the xy plane,

Path s in the xy plane.

dP
The rate of change of P in the s direction,
ds
dP P dx P dy
= +
ds x ds y ds

dP sin  P / x
For constant P, i.e., dP = 0  =0  tan  = =−
ds dP / dS = 0 cos  dP / dS =0 P / y
dy P / x
=−
dx dP / ds =0 P / y
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[Note] Isoline − path along which a scalar is constant.

dP dP
For is a maximum, the direction for the maximum must be searched, i.e.,
ds ds
d dP P P P / y
= − sin  + cos  =0 tan  dP / dS is max =
dα ds x y P / x
dP P P 1
= cos  + sin  cos  =
ds max x y 1 + tan 2 

P / x
Where cos α dP / ds is max =
2 2
(P / x) + (P / y )
2 2
dP (P / x) + (P / y ) P 2 P 2
= = ( ) +( )
ds max 2
(P / x) + (P / y )
2 x y

Gradient - directional derivative

Gradient of P − grad P P  P 
grad P = ex + ey
x y
For xy plane
where ex and ey are the unit vectors in the x and y directions, respectively.
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 P  P  P 
For xyz space, grad P = ex + ey + ez
x y z

or grad P ≡ ▽P, giving  P = P e + P e + P e

x
x y
y z
z

where for the Cartesian coordinates, ▽ is defined as  =  ex +  ey +  ez


x y z
a vector with the direction and magnitude
of the maximum rate of change of the
1.4 Units dependent variable w.r.t distance.

For engineering convenience

1. SI (International Standard) System

[Note] Newton's second law of motion − Force is equal to the time rate of
change of momentum. Mass, length, time, and force these four basic
quantities are used in defining each term of this law.
ma
F=
gc
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1. SI Unit
Mass − kg Length − m One newton is the force required to
accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a
Time − s Force − N (newton)
rate (acceleration) of one meter per
Conversion factor, gc − 1 kg．m/N．s2 second per second (1 m/s2). ma
F=
2. English I System gc
Force − lbf Length − ft
Time − s Mass − slug
Slug − the unit of mass, defined as lbf．s2/ft
Conversion factor, gc − 1 (slug)(ft)/(lbf)(s)2

3. English II System
Force − lbf Mass − lbm
Length − ft Time − s

[Note] 1 lbf force − the force exerted by gravity on 1lbm mass at sea level If 1 lbm mass
at sea level is under the influence of gravity, then, a = 32.174 ft/s2
Conversion factor, gc − 32.174 (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(s)2

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International system of units (SI, system international)
Second – s. Meter – m.
Kilogram – kg. Kelvin – K
Mole – mol, amount of substance, as many elementary entities (e.g.
molecules) as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. This is equivalent to the
“gram mole” (gmol). [Note] lbmole

Dimensions and Units

deci, e.g., deci-liter = dL = 100 mL 1 lbf = 4.4482216 N; 1 N = 0.224809 lbf

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 System Length Time Force Mass gc

1 meter second newton kilogram 1 kgm/Ns2

2 foot second lbf slug 1 (slug)(ft)/(lbf)(s)2

3 foot second lbf lbm 32.174 (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(s)2

(or 32.2 (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(s)2)

1.5 Compressibility
A fluid is considered compressible or incompressible depending on if its density
is variable or constant. Liquids are incompressible and gases are compressible.
The bulk modulus of elasticity is a fluid property that characterizes
compressibility. It is defined according to
dP dP
β (1 - 11a) or as β  − (1 - 11b) [N/m 2 ]
dV / V d ρ/ 
1 𝜕𝑉 1 V (definition from textbook
𝜅≡− (isothermal compressibility) β ( ) P volume expansivity of thermodynamics)
𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 V T
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Disturbances introduced at some location in a fluid continuum will be
propagated at a finite velocity, which is the acoustic velocity. That is the speed of
sound, C, in the fluid. The acoustic velocity is related to changes in pressure and
density according to 2∙ 
P 
c ＝ －V
2
  Definition from textbook of thermodynamics
  V S
dP 1/2  1/2  β−
dP
(1 - 11b)
C ( ) (1 - 12)  C = (− ) (1 - 13) d ρ/ 
d 
For a gas, undergoing an isentropic process where PV k = constant,
ideal gas
kP 1/2
C =( ) (1 - 14) or C = (kRT )1/2 (1 - 15)

A gas compressible maybe treated in a flow situation as incompressible, i.e.,
when density variations are negligibly small.
March number [−]: defined as the ratio of the fluid velocity, , to the speed of
sound, C, in the fluid. 
M M > 1 (or 1 < M < 5): the flow speed is supersonic.
C M > 5: hypersonic hyper- > super-

A general rule of thumb is that when M < 0.2 the flow may be treated as
incompressible with negligible error. 22
Example 1

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1.6 Surface Tension

A small amount of unconfined liquid forms a spherical drop.

[consequence] attraction exists between liquid molecules.

Particles near the surface experience an imbalance of net force because of

the non-uniformity in the numbers of adjacent particles.

[extreme condition] density discontinuity at the surface. Particles at the

surface experience a relatively strong inwardly directed attractive force.

As more fluid is added, the drop will expand and create additional surface.
The work associated with creating the new surface is surface tension, .

: work per unit area, [Nm/m2] or force per unit length of interface in
[N/m].

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A surface is an interface between two phases. Both phases will have
the property of surface tension, for instance, the phase interfaces could
be water and air, etc.
For a given interfacial composition, the surface tension property is a
function of both T and P, but a much stronger function of temperature.
For water in air, surface tension is expressed as a function of
temperature,
 = 0.123 (1− 0.00139 T) (N/m) where T is in Kelvin.

Surface tension

Temperature (oC) 25
 A free body diagram of a hemispherical drop of
liquid with the pressure and surface tension
forces in balance.
[Condition] A sphere represents the minimum
surface area for a prescribed volume.

[A hemispherical liquid droplet] The pressure

difference, P, between the inside and outside
of the hemisphere produces a net pressure
force that is balanced by the surface tension
force. This force balance can be expressed as

2
πr 2 P = 2 πrσ  P = (the pressure difference)
r

Young-Laplace equation, a general condition for the

 1 1  equilibrium of normal stresses across a static interface
P =    +  separating a pair of immiscible fluids. R1 and R2 are the radii of
 R1 R2 
curvature at the surface of the body. In most systems, R1 = R2.
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[A soap bubble] has a very thin wall, there are two interfaces and the
pressure difference will be
4
4 πr 2 P = 2  (2 πrσ )  P =
P = r
r
The pressure difference is inversely proportional to r.
The limit is a fully wetted surface where r ≈ ∞ 
The pressure difference due to surface tension
is zero.

A consequence of the pressure difference resulting

from surface tension is the capillary action. This effect is related to how well
a liquid wets a solid boundary. The indicator for wetting or non-wetting is
the contact angle,  (Fig. 1.8).
For a non-wetting case,  > 90o. For a wetting case  < 90o.
For mercury in contact with a clean glass tube,  ≈ 130o.
Water in contact with a clean glass surface will completely wet the surface
and, for this case,  ≈ 0.
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A small glass tube inserted into a pool of (a) water and (b) mercury (Fig. 1.9).
Water will rise in the tube and that in mercury the level in the tube is depressed.

For the water case, the liquid rises a distance h above the level in the pool.
This is the result of attraction between the liquid molecules and the tube wall
being greater than the attraction between water molecules at the liquid
surface.
For the mercury case, the intermolecular forces at the liquid surface are
greater than the attractive forces between liquid mercury and the glass
surface. The mercury is, thus, depressed a distance h below the level of the
pool. 28
[wetting liquid]
A free body diagram of the wetting liquid (Fig. 1.10).
The upward force, due to surface tension 2πrσ cos θ
will be equal to the downward force due to the
weight of liquid having volume V= πr2h.
Equating these forces we obtain
2σ cos θ
2 πrσ cos θ = ρgπr 2 h  h=
ρgr
Example 1

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