Spain

Spain,[f] officially the Kingdom of Spain,[a][g] is a country

in Southwestern Europe with territories in North Africa.[h] Kingdom of Spain
Featuring the southernmost point of continental Europe, it is Reino de España (Spanish)
the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most 7 other names[a]
Aragonese: Reino d'Espanya
populous European Union member state. Spanning across the
Asturian: Reinu d'España
majority of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes
Catalan: Regne d'Espanya
the Canary Islands, in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic
Islands, in the Western Mediterranean Sea, and the Basque: Espainiako Erresuma

autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, in Africa. Peninsular Galician: Reino de España
Spain is bordered to the north by France, Andorra, and the Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha
Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea Valencian: Regne d'Espanya
and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic
Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid, and other
major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville,
Zaragoza, Málaga, Murcia and Palma de Mallorca.

In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Flag Coat of arms
Celts, Iberians, and other pre-Roman peoples. With the Motto: Plus ultra (Latin)
Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula, the province of (English: "Further Beyond")
Hispania was established. Following the Romanisation and
Anthem: Marcha Real (Spanish)[1]
Christianisation of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman (English: "Royal March")
Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central
0:54
Europe, including the Visigoths, who formed the Visigothic
Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early eighth century, most
of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate,
and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant
peninsular power centred on Córdoba. The several Christian
kingdoms that emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them
Asturias, León, Castile, Aragon and Navarre, made an
intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation,
known as the Reconquista, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia,
which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid
Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown
of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic
Monarchs is often considered the de facto unification of Spain
as a nation state. Show globe
Show map of Europe
During the Age of Discovery, Spain pioneered the exploration Show all
and conquest of the New World, made the first Location of Spain (dark green)
circumnavigation of the globe and formed one of the largest – in Europe (green & dark grey)
empires in history.[11] The Spanish Empire reached a global – in the European Union (green)
scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise Capital Madrid
of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals. and largest city 40°26′N 3°42′W

In the 18th century, the Bourbon Reforms, particularly the Official language Spanish[b][c]
Nueva Planta decrees, centralized mainland Spain,
Nationality (2025)[3] 86.1% Spanish
strengthening royal authority and modernizing administrative
structures.[12] In the 19th century, after the victorious 13.9% foreigners
Peninsular War against Napoleonic occupation forces, the
Religion (2025)[4] 54.8% Roman
following political divisions between liberals and absolutists Catholicism
led to the breakaway of most of the American colonies. These 35.7% non-
political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with practicing Catholic
the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship 19.1% practicing
Catholic
that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and
15.5% atheist
its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an 13.0% indifferent or
economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and no religion
politically. Since the Spanish Golden Age, Spanish art, 10.7% agnostic
architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine 3.7% other religion
have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western 2.2% unanswered
Europe and the Americas. As a reflection of its large cultural
Demonym(s) Spaniard · Spanish
wealth, Spain is the world's second-most visited country, has
one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites, Government Unitary parliamentary
and it is the most popular destination for European constitutional
monarchy
students.[13] Its cultural influence extends to over 600
million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second- • Monarch Felipe VI
• Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez
most spoken native language and the world's most widely
• President of the Francina Armengol
spoken Romance language.[14] Congress of
Deputies
Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a • President of the Pedro Rollán
constitutional monarchy,[15] with King Felipe VI as head of Senate
state. A developed country, it is a major advanced capitalist Legislature Cortes Generales
economy,[16] with the world's fifteenth-largest by both • Upper house Senate
nominal GDP and PPP-adjusted GDP. It is also currently the • Lower house Congress of Deputies
fourth largest economy in the European Union. Spain is a
member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Formation

eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), a • Dynastic union 20 January 1479
• Sole sovereign 14 March 1516
permanent guest of the G20, and is part of many other
• Centralized state 9 June 1715
international organisations such as the Council of Europe
• First constitution 19 March 1812
(CoE), the Organisation of Ibero-American States (OEI), the
• Current constitution 29 December 1978
Union for the Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic
Area
Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organisation for
• Total 505,990[5] km2
Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World
(195,360 sq mi) (51st)
Trade Organisation (WTO). • Water (%) 0.89[6]

Population
Etymology • 2025 estimate 49,077,984[7] (31st)
• Density 97/km2 (251.2/sq mi)
The name of Spain (España) comes from Hispania, the name (121th)
used by the Romans for the Iberian Peninsula and its GDP (PPP) 2025 estimate
provinces during the Roman Empire. The etymological origin • Total $2.772 trillion[8]
of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians (15th)
referred to the region as i-shphan-im, possibly meaning "Land • Per capita $56,660[8] (33rd)
of Rabbits" or "Land of Metals".[17] Jesús Luis Cunchillos and GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate
José Ángel Zamora, experts in Semitic philology at the • Total $1.828 trillion[8]
Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de (14th)
Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC), conducted a comparative • Per capita $37,362[8] (31st)
philological study between several Semitic languages and Gini (2024) 31.2[9]
hypothesise that the Phoenician name translates as "land medium inequality
where metals are forged", having determined that the name
HDI (2022) 0.911[10]
very high (27th)
originated in reference to the gold mines of the Iberian Currency Euro[d] (€) (EUR)
Peninsula.[18] There have been a number of accounts and
Time zone UTC⁠±0 to +1 (WET
hypotheses about its origin:
and CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+1 to +2 (WEST
Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is and CEST)
the Phoenician word spy, meaning "to forge metals". Note: most of Spain
Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean "the land where metals are observes CET/CEST,
forged".[19] It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I- except the Canary
Islands which
Shpania, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or
observe WET/WEST.
"edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the
Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the Drives on Right
reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her Calling code +34
feet,[20] and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits".[21] The
ISO 3166 code ES
word in question actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to the
Phoenicians confusing the two animals.[22] Internet TLD .es[e]

There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna, meaning "edge" or "border",
another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European
continent.[23]

History

Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples

Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was
populated by hominids 1.3 million years ago.[24]

Modern humans first arrived in Iberia from the north on foot about
35,000 years ago.[25] The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric
human settlements are the paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in
northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-
Magnon.[26][27] Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the
Celtic castro in Galicia
Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which
northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.

The two largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and
the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the
interior and Atlantic sides of the peninsula. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain
range and adjacent areas; Phoenician-influenced Tartessians flourished in the southwest; and Lusitanians
and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians,
and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-
Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the
Carthaginians settled on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula.

Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom

During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE, the expanding Roman Republic captured
Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two
centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six centuries.
Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.[28]
The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised
(Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula
they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman
aristocratic class.[i][29]

Hispania (the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula) served as a

granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool,
olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the
introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use.
The Roman Theatre in Mérida
Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca
were born in Hispania.[j] Christianity was introduced into Hispania in
the 1st century CE, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century.[29] Most of Spain's present
languages and religions, as well as the basis of its laws, originate from this period.[28] Starting in 170 CE,
incursions of North-African Mauri in the province of Baetica took place.[30]

The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans,
entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman
Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in
north-western Iberia, whereas the Vandals established themselves in the
south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in
429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base
became greatly simplified; the successor regimes maintained many of
the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and
Votive crown of Recceswinth from
assimilation into the evolving Roman culture. the Treasure of Guarrazar

The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south,

with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited
under Visigothic rule.

Muslim era and Reconquista

From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate which had conquered North Africa from
the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait
of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north
of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León
consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous
north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian Marca Hispanica.[31] For
several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian-controlled areas of the
peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.

Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes

(Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the
majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th
century.[32][33]

A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in

the 9th and 10th centuries.[34] The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia
took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the
Galicians' ballistas; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the The Court of the Lions and its
central fountain in the Alhambra
beach and burned by the troops of King Ramiro I of Asturias.
complex

In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a

series of petty kingdoms (Taifas),[35] often subject to the payment of a form of protection money (Parias) to
the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The
capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of
the Christian kingdoms.[36] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and
the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant
application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.

The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries.
In 1188, the first form (restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the
elected citizens of each city') of modern parliamentary session in Europe
was held in León (Cortes of León).[37] The Kingdom of Castile, formed
from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The
kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The
example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain
Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.

Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in
the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and
gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229, Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around the Strait of
Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining
Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the
Catholic Monarchs, and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.[38]

Spanish Empire
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I
and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose
between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;[39] as many as
200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year
1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New
World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage
Late 16th-century Seville, the harbor
crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning enjoying the exclusive right to trade with
the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. the New World

The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards

Muslims,[40] for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the
remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian Moriscos. About four decades after the War of
the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000 moriscos were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa.[41]

The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the

marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and
the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a
separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and
language.[42][43]

Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout

the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced Diachronic map of the Spanish Empire
by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the
world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the
reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period
saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession,
clashes with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War.[44]

Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire
expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent
(including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté). The so-called Age
of Discovery featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-
up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings
of European colonialism. Precious metals, spices, luxuries, and
previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a
leading part in transforming the European understanding of the
globe.[45] The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is
now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the
Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire
empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse
of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated
American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical
discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the
School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law
and human rights.

Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the

victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and
over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the
setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against
England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. However, during the
middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a
long decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch Republic (Battle of
the Downs) and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660;
by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from "The Comuneros Padilla, Bravo and
pirates and privateers. Maldonado in the Patíbulo", by
Antonio Gisbert, 1860
The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously
charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and
in the Mediterranean.[46] By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the
Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts
drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the
scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of
the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal and
the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in
the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.[47] In the latter half of the
17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to
France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact
until the beginning of the 19th century.

18th century
The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne
which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the
Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined
with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions
and its position as a leading European power.[48]

During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was
installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only
by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy
Office.[49] A number of reform policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms) The family of Philip V. During the
Enlightenment in Spain a new royal
were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralised
family reigned, the House of
authority and administrative uniformity.[50] They included the
Bourbon.
abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,[51] as well as the customs barrier between the
Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese
kingdoms.[52]

The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The
predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming
towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export
tariffs.[53] Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland
Spain.[54] Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.

Liberalism and nation state

In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French
Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the
Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites
and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at
the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the
island of Hispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the
unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain
and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but
Ferdinand VII swears on the 1812
instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated
Constitution before the Cortes in
and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with 1820.
Joseph Bonaparte as king.

The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.[55]
These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime.[56]
Further military action by Spanish armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined
with Napoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian
Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.[57]

During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to coordinate the effort
against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[58] It met as one body, and its members
represented the entire Spanish empire.[59] In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a
constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king
dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch.

The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for

overseas criollo elites who resented the privilege towards Peninsular
elites and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people.
Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and
declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of
independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over the Spanish
Main. Attempts to re-assert control proved futile with opposition not
only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts
followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were
Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically
ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s,
Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative
Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of
Queen Isabella II's dynastic rights in the Carlist Wars. Government
forces prevailed, but the conflict between progressives and moderates General and statesman Baldomero
ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 Glorious Espartero, a key political figure in
the 19th century
Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive Sexenio Democrático (including the short-lived First
Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the Restoration (1875–1931).[60]

In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines

and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the
Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States
became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring
of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial
empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war
became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98.
Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing
Spanish Revolution of 1854 in
prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a
Puerta del Sol, Madrid. Maria
minor part in the scramble for Africa. It remained neutral during World Christina of the Two Sicilies fled to
War I. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in exile and Baldomero Espartero
northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the became regent.
government and undermined the monarchy.

Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the
country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as labour movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1870
Barcelona Workers' Congress and the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition are good examples of this. In
1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to this party, Unión General de
Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain,
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927.

Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the
Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist League of Catalonia in 1901.

Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a
two-parties system.[61] The July 1909 Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of
the time.

The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[62]

After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the

first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on
Monarchy, took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave
a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large
cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in
rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the
Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional
government.
Women voting in Éibar in 1933, after
A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the women's suffrage was approved.
June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided Deputy Clara Campoamor was a
by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE key figure for the right to be granted.
followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936,
the left. During the Second Republic there was a great political and social
upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalisation of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during
this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution
of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second
Republic when important reforms to modernise the country were initiated: a democratic constitution,
agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralisation and women's right to vote.
Civil War and Francoist dictatorship
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that
triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into
two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the
Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the
Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was
not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco
Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between
the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also
ensued.

The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities
committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people
and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the
country.[63][64] On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of
World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing
a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after
the civil war in Francoist concentration camps.
Republican volunteers at Teruel,
The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World 1936
War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi
Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal
party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las
JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist
traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of
"Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper,
largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s.

After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was
kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold
War period, when it became strategically important for the US to
establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any
possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US
Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American
educational ideas to foster modernization and expansion.[65] In the
1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth
which was propelled by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from Spanish leader Francisco Franco
and Adolf Hitler at the Meeting at
rural areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the
Hendaye, 1940
creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised
by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National
Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.

Restoration of democracy
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile
met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of
democracy.[66][67][68]

With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of
state in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and
the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal
organisation based on autonomous communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's
regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during
transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha.
 In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a
radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until
the latter's dissolution in May 2018.[69] The group was formed in 1959
during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign
even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure
of regional autonomy.

Juan Carlos I before the Cortes On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized
Españolas, during his proclamation the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King
as King on 22 November 1975
Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully
ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[70]

During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing

open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like
La Movida Madrileña. In May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a
referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish
Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing
government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic
Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was
replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) in 1996 after
scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in
the Dirty war against ETA. Felipe González signing the treaty
of accession to the European
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the Economic Community on 12 June
euro, and Spain experienced strong 1985
economic growth, well above the EU average
during the early 2000s. However, well-
publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of
the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade
deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[71]

In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along
Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president
George W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in
Spanish society. In March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-
Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when
The 1992 Summer they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing
Olympics in Barcelona
commuter trains in Madrid.[72] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque
terrorist group ETA, evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of
the proximity of the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political
controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the
incident.[73] The PSOE won the election, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.[74]

In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic
boom but then declined due to the financial crisis.[75] In 2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex
marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[76] Decentralisation was supported with much
resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law
against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent
cease of violence in 2010.[77]

The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16 Spanish financial crisis. High levels
of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in Royal family and People's Party served as
a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests.[78] Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's
conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[79] As
prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the
EU Stability and Growth Pact.[80] On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan
Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.[81]

In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the

Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from
Spain to form a Catalan Republic[82][83] on the day the Spanish Senate
Demonstration against the crisis and
was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the
high youth unemployment in Madrid,
Spanish Prime Minister.[84][85] On the same day the Senate granted the
15 October 2011
power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament
and called a new election.[86] No country recognised Catalonia as a
separate state.[87]

In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-

confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro
Sánchez.[88] In 2019, the first ever coalicion government in Spain was
formed, between PSOE and Unidas Podemos. Between 2018 and 2024,
Spain faced an institutional crisis surrounding the mandate of the
General Council of the Judiciary (CGPJ), until finally the mandate got
renovated.[89] In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to
have spread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a
Salvador Illa, former minister of
year.[90] The European Commission economic recovery package Next Health during COVID-19 pandemic
Generation EU were created to support the EU member states to recover in the first coalition Government in
from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021– Spain, elected first non
2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to independentist Catalan regional
make active euthanasia legal. [91] Following the general election on 23 president in over a decade, with
Barcelona mayor Jaume Collboni.
July 2023, prime minister Pedro Sánchez once again formed a coalition
government, this time with Sumar (successors of Unidas Podemos). [92]

In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, Salvador Illa, was elected,
normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional
administrations. According to latest polls,[93] only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan". 46%
of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish".[94] Accordind
to a 2024 poll of University of Barcelona, over 50% of Catalans would vote against independence, while less
than 40% would vote in favour.[95]

Geography
At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fiftieth largest
country and Europe's fourth largest country. At 3,715 m (12,188 ft),
Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the
third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a
transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa.

Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5°
E.

On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered

by Gibraltar and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta Topographic map of Spain
and Melilla, and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera). On the (excluding Canary Islands)
northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France
and Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called
Llívia is surrounded by France.
Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the
European Union.[96]

Islands
Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the
Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited
islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as
plazas de soberanía ("places of sovereignty", or territories under
Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas.
The peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de
soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Aerial view of Mallorca island
Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the
municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the
River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.

There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the
Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish
Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together
form the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include Tenerife, Gran Canaria,
Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago and Mallorca,
Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago.

Mountains and rivers

Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high
plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain
ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema
Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de
Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose
highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) Mulhacén, located in
Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The Teide, still an active volcano in
highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active Tenerife, Canary Islands, is the
volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as tallest peak in Spain.
'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in
two by the Sistema Central.

There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero),
Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest
of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.

Climate
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic
conditions:[97]

The Mediterranean climate is characterised by warm/hot and dry summers and is the predominant
climate in the country. It has two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification.
The Csa zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern
Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia,
Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such
as some areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Extremadura, Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool
winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the
sea have mild winters.
 The Csb zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends
to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a
Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-
central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern
Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier
areas (notably Galicia).
The semi-arid climate (BSk, BSh) is predominant in the southeastern
quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain.
It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern and central-eastern
Valencia, eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha,
Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is
predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which
crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia. It
is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small
area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with dry season
extending beyond the summer and average temperature depends on
Köppen climate classification map of
altitude and latitude.
Spain
The oceanic climate (Cfb) is located in the northern quarter of the
country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria,
Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in
northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System
and in the Pyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (Cfa)
also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the
ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the
alpine climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical
climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (Dfc,
Dfb / Dsc, Dsb) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, Urriellu peak (Naranjo de Bulnes)
the Central System, Sierra Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical from Pozo de La Oracion, Picos de
Europa
desert climate (BWk, BWh) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern
Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above
18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having influences of tropical climate, although they
cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus
belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.[98]

Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by the climate change in Europe. In Spain, which already
has a hot and dry climate, extreme events such as heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent.[99][100]
The country is also experiencing more episodes of drought and increased severity of these episodes.[101]
Water resources will be severely affected in various climate change scenarios.[102] To mitigate the effects of
climate change, Spain is promoting an energy transition to renewable energies, such as solar and wind
energy.[103]

Fauna and flora

The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the
geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and
the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great
diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of
climates and well differentiated regions.

The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the

diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different
The Iberian wolf in Castile and
phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics Leon. The region has 25% of the
resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type land covered by Natura 2000
and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape protected natural spaces.
Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of
172 countries.[104]
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all
European countries.[105]

In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.[106]

Politics
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the
constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King Juan
Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the
reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister.[107][108] The
resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent
Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a
constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and
approving the constitution of 1978.[109] After a national
referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of
the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully
Felipe VI, Pedro Sánchez,
transitioned from a one-party personalist dictatorship to a
King of Spain Prime Minister of
multiparty parliamentary democracy composed of 17 Spain
autonomous communities and two autonomous cities. These
regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the
Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.

Governance

The Crown
The Spanish Constitution provides for a separation of powers between
The independence of the
five branches of government, which it refers to as "basic State
Crown, its political neutrality
institutions".[k][111][112] Foremost amongst these institutions is the
and its wish to embrace and
Crown (La Corona), the symbol of the Spanish state and its
reconcile the different
permanence.[113] Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a constitutional
ideological standpoints enable it
one whereby the reigning king or queen is the living embodiment of
to contribute to the stability of
the Crown and thus head of state.[l][114][113][115] Unlike in some other
our political system, facilitating
constitutional monarchies however, namely the likes of Belgium,
a balance with the other
Denmark, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, or indeed the
constitutional and territorial
United Kingdom, the monarch is not the fount of national sovereignty
bodies, promoting the orderly
or even the nominal chief executive.[116][117][118][119][120][121] Rather,
functioning of the State and
the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular
providing a channel for
[110] functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state.[113] As such, the
cohesion among Spaniards.
monarch resolves disputes between the disparate branches, mediates
constitutional crises, and prevents abuses of power.[122][123][124][125]
King Felipe VI, 2014
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth moderating branch
that does not make public policy or administer public services, functions which rightfully rest with Spain's
duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown
personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and
guarantees the execution of the public will.[126][127] Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at
home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard to nations of their historical community),
facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of the Spanish government, defends representative
democracy, and upholds the rule of law.[112] In other words, the Crown is the guardian of the Spanish
constitution and of the rights and freedoms of all Spaniards.[128][m] This stabilising role is in keeping with
the monarch's solemn oath upon accession "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution
and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing
Communities."[130]

A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the
monarch in his or her capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys inviolability in the performance
of these prerogatives and cannot be prosecuted in the very courts which administer justice in its name.[131]
For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the countersignature of the prime minister
or, when appropriate, the president of the Congress of Deputies to have the force of law. The countersigning
procedure or refrendo in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting
parties.[132] This provision does not apply to the Royal Household, over which the monarch enjoys absolute
control and supervision, or to membership in the Order of the Golden Fleece, which is a dynastic order in
the personal gift of the House of Bourbon-Anjou.[133]

The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial functions or reserve powers.
Ministerial functions are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the convention established by Juan
Carlos I, performed by the monarch after soliciting the advice of the Government, the Congress of Deputies,
the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the
other hand, the reserve powers of the Crown are those royal prerogatives which are exercised in the
monarch's personal discretion.[128] Most of the Crown's royal prerogatives are ministerial in practice,
meaning the monarch has no discretion in their execution and primarily performs them as a matter of state
ceremonial. Nevertheless, when performing said ministerial functions, the monarch has the right to be
consulted before acting on advice, the right to encourage a particular course of policy or action, and the right
to warn the responsible constitutional authorities against the same. Those ministerial functions are as
follows:

1. Sanction and promulgate bills duly passed by the Cortes Generales, making them laws. The Spanish
Constitution mandates the monarch grant royal assent to each bill within fifteen days of its passage; he
or she does not have a right to veto legislation.[134][135]
2. Summon the Cortes Generales into session following a general election, dissolve the same upon the
expiration of its four-year term, and proclaim the election of the next Cortes. These functions are
performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.[136][137][138][139][140]
3. Appoint and dismiss ministers of state on the advice of the prime minister.[141]
4. Appoint the president of the Supreme Court on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.[142]
5. Appoint the president of the Constitutional Tribunal from among its members, on the advice of the full
bench, for a term of three years.[143]
6. Appoint the Fiscal General, who leads the Prosecution Ministry, on the advice of the Government.
Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.[144]
7. Appoint the presidents of the autonomous communities as elected by their respective parliaments.[145]
8. Issue decrees approved in the Council of Ministers, confer civil service and military appointments, and
award honours and distinctions in the gift of the state. These functions are performed on the advice of
the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.[n][146]
9. Exercise supreme command and control over the Armed Forces, on the advice of the prime minister.[147]
10. Declare war and make peace on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the
Cortes Generales.[148]
11. Ratify treaties, on the advice of the prime minister.[149]
12. Accredit Spanish ambassadors and ministers to foreign states and receive the credentials of foreign
diplomats to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.[150]
13. Exercise the right of clemency, but without the authority to grant general pardons, on the advice of the
prime minister.[151]
14. Patronise the Royal Academies.[o][152]
The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the exercise of the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked
by the monarch when necessary to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions.[153] For
example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regular audiences with
the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of
Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister.[154] Moreover, the monarch may prematurely
dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the
expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call for snap elections. The
monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed
by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[155] The monarch may
also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorisation
of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's
request.[156]

The Crown's reserve powers further extend into constitutional interpretation and the administration of
justice. The monarch appoints the 20 members of the General Council of the Judiciary. Of these counselors,
twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of
Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same
majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[157] In a similar vein, the monarch
appoints the twelve magistrates of the Constitutional Tribunal. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are
nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are
nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and
two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept
or refuse any nomination.[158]

However, it is the monarch's reserve powers concerning Government formation that are perhaps the most
frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate for prime minister and, as the case may be,
appoints or removes him or her from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the confidence
of the Congress of Deputies.[159] If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government
within two months, and is thus incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch
may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve
powers in his own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.[160]

Cortes Generales
Legislative authority vests in the Cortes Generales (English: Spanish
Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'), a democratically elected bicameral
parliament that serves as the supreme representative body of the
Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State
institution that enjoys inviolability.[161] It comprises the Congress of
Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados), a lower house with 350 deputies,
and the Senate (Senado), an upper house with 259 senators.[162][163]
Deputies are elected by popular vote on closed lists via proportional The hemicycle of the Congress of
representation to serve four-year terms.[164] On the other hand, 208 Deputies
senators are directly elected by popular vote using a limited voting
method, with the remaining 51 senators appointed by the regional
legislatures to also serve four-year terms.[165]

Government
Executive authority rests with the Government (Gobierno de España), which is collectively responsible to
the Congress of Deputies.[166][167] It consists of the prime minister, one or more deputy prime ministers, and
the various ministers of state.[168] These characters together constitute the Council of Ministers which, as
Spain's central executive authority, conducts the business of the Government and administers the civil
service.[169] The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain the confidence of the Congress of
Deputies.

The prime minister, as head of government, enjoys primacy over the other ministers by virtue of his or her
ability to advise the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.[170] Moreover, the prime minister has
plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies
and administrative actions.[171] The Spanish monarch nominates the prime minister after consulting
representatives from the different parliamentary groups and in turn formally appoints him or her to office
upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.[172]

Administrative divisions

Autonomous communities
Spain's autonomous communities are the first Asturias CantabriaBasque France
level administrative divisions of the country. Country
Galicia Navarre Andorra
They were created after the current constitution La Rioja
came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the Castile Catalonia
and León Aragon
right to self-government of the "nationalities and
regions of Spain".[173] The autonomous Community of
Madrid Balearic
communities were to comprise adjacent Islands
provinces with common historical, cultural, and Castilla– Valencian
economic traits. This territorial organisation, PortugalExtremadura La Mancha Community
based on devolution, is known in Spain as the
"State of Autonomies" (Estado de las Region of
Mediterranean Sea
Murcia
Autonomías). The basic institutional law of each Andalusia
autonomous community is the Statute of
Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish Atlantic Canary
Ocean Gibraltar (UK) Islands
the name of the community according to its
Ceuta
historical and contemporary identity, the limits Melilla
Morocco
of its territories, the name and organisation of Atlantic
Ocean
the institutions of government and the rights
they enjoy according to the constitution.[174] This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially
a unitary state, Spain is nevertheless one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with
federations like Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland.[175]

Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as nationalities, were granted self-
government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of
Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the
country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that
denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian
Community,[176] the Canary Islands,[177] the Balearic Islands,[178] and Aragon.[179]

The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected
parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated public administrations. The distribution of
powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution
was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—
have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient foral provisions. Nevertheless, each autonomous community is
responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.[180] Beyond these competencies, the
nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were also devolved more powers than
the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and
call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Catalonia, and Navarre
each have autonomous police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Policía Canaria, Mossos d'Esquadra, and
Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía
Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or BESCAM in Madrid.[181]

Provinces and municipalities

Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In
turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is
guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves.
Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial
divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[182]

The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by
Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias,
Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that
comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the
administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.

Foreign relations
After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975,
Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic
isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the
European Community, and define security relations with the West.

As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a

participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU
membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on
3rd European Political Community
many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to
Summit, Court of the Lions,
coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political Alhambra, Granada.
co-operation mechanisms.

Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the
Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American
community, essentially the renewal of the concept of "Hispanidad" or
"Hispanismo", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to
link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language,
commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared
values and the recovery of democracy."[183]
Royal Palace of Pedralbes in
Barcelona, headquarters of the
The country is involved in a number of territorial disputes. Spain claims
Union for the Mediterranean
Gibraltar, an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, in the
southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula.[184][185][186] Another
dispute surrounds the Savage Islands; Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore
does not accept the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the
islands.[187][188] Spain claims sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in
the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar; it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and
Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets
off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of
Olivenza.[189]

Military
The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army (Ejército de Tierra); Navy (Armada); and
Air and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio).[190]
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces
(Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their commander-in-chief is the King of
Spain, Felipe VI.[191] The next military authorities in line are the Prime
Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of
the State is the Chief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD).[192] The Defence
Staff (Estado Mayor de la Defensa) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.

The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in

2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The Amphibious assault ship-aircraft
carrier Juan Carlos I
country also has the 77,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the
control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The
Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1%
increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the
country.[193] Military conscription was suppressed in 2001.[194]

According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Spain is the 23rd most
peaceful country in the world.[195]

World leaders at the NATO Summit

Human rights
in Madrid, 29 June 2022
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the
peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and
traditions, languages and institutions".[196]

According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often
lengthy and punishments were light.[197] Violence against women was a problem, which the Government
took steps to address.[198][199]

Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the
countries studied by Pew Research in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of
those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[200]

The Cortes Generales approved the Gender Equality Act in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between
genders in Spanish political and economic life.[201] According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1
September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there
were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of
women in the lower (or single) House.[202] The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United
Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.[203]

Economy
Spain has a mixed economy that combines elements of free-market
capitalism with social welfare and state intervention. It is one of 19
countries with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) exceeding $1
trillion per year, ranking 14th largest worldwide and fourth largest both
in the European Union and within the eurozone. Spain is classified as a
high-income economy by the World Bank and an advanced economy by
the International Monetary Fund. As of 2024, it is the fastest growing
major advanced economy in the world,[204] growing nearly four times Cuatro Torres Business Area in
higher than the eurozone average.[205] Madrid

Spain began industrializing in the late 18th century, albeit more

gradually and unevenly than other European countries; industry was limited mostly to Catalonia (primarily
textile manufacturing) and the Basque Country (iron and steel production).[206] Overall economic growth
was slower than in most major western European countries, and Spain
remained relatively underdeveloped by the early 20th century.[206] The
Spanish Civil War, followed by failed autarkic and interventionist
policies that were worsened by international isolation, left the economy
on the brink of collapse by the late 1950s. Technocratic reforms were
enacted to avert the crisis, laying the groundwork for the Spanish
economic miracle, a period of rapid growth from 1960 until 1974, during
Torre Glòries and the 22@ business
which Spain's economy grew an average of 6.6 percent per year, district in Barcelona
exceeding every country except Japan.[206]

Since its transition to democracy in the late 1970s, Spain has generally sought to liberalise its economy and
deepen regional and international integration. It joined the European Economic Community—now the
European Union—in 1986 and implemented policies and reforms that allowed for its participation in the
inaugural launch of the euro in 1999. Spain's largest trade and investment partners are within the EU and
eurozone, including its four largest export markets; EU membership also coincided with a tripling of foreign
direct investment from 1990 to 2000. Spain was among the countries hit hardest by the 2007–2008 global
financial crisis and subsequent euro-zone debt crisis, enduring a protracted recession that persisted through
2014.

Spain has long struggled with high unemployment, which has never fallen below 8 percent since the 1980s;
it stood at 10.61 percent in January 2025.[207] Youth unemployment is particularly severe by both global and
regional standards; at 24.90 percent (as of January 2025), it is the highest among EU members and well
above the EU average of 14.6 percent.[207] Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large
informal economy;[208][209][210] an education system that performs poorly compared to most developed
countries;[211] and low rates of private sector investment.[205]

Since the 1990s, which saw a wave of privatisations,[212] several Spanish companies have reached
multinational status; they maintain a strong and leading presence in Latin America—where Spain is the
second largest foreign investor after the United States—but have also expanded into Asia, especially China
and India.[213] As of 2023, Spain was home to eight of the 500 largest companies in the world by annual
revenue, according to the Fortune Global 500; these include Banco Santander, the 14th-largest banking
institution in the world; electric utility Iberdrola, the world's largest renewable energy operator;[214] and
Telefónica, one of the largest telephone operators and mobile network providers. Twenty Spanish companies
are listed in the 2023 Forbes Global 2000 ranking of the 2,000 largest public companies, reflecting diverse
sectors such as construction (ACS Group), aviation (ENAIRE), pharmaceuticals (Grifols), and transportation
(Ferrovial).[215] Additionally, one of Spain's largest private sector entities is Mondragon Corporation, the
world's largest worker-owned cooperative.

The automotive industry is one of the largest employers in the country and a major contributor to economic
growth, accounting for one-tenth of gross domestic product and 18 percent of total exports (including
vehicles and auto-parts). In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million automobiles—of which over 2.1 million were
exported abroad—ranking eighth in the world and second in Europe (after Germany) by total number.[216]
In total, 89 percent of vehicles and 60% of auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in
2023; the total external trade surplus of vehicles alone reached €18.8bn in 2023. Overall, the automotive
industry supports nearly 2 million jobs, or 9 percent of the labor force.[216]

Tourism
In 2024, Spain was the second most visited country in the world only behind France, recording 94 million
tourists.[217][218] The international tourist expenditure in 2024 was around 126 billion euros.[219] The
headquarters of the World Tourism Organisation are located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes,
historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made
the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the
world. Tourism in Spain is a major contributor to national economic life,
with foreign and domestic tourism contributing to 12.3% of Spain's GDP
in 2023.[220]
Benidorm, one of Europe's largest
Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its coastal tourist destinations
environmental and architectural heritage.

Energy
In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the
United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near
Alvarado, Badajoz.[221][222] Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind
energy.[223][224] In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all
electrical energy produced in Spain.[225][226][227] On 9 November 2010,
wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity
demand[228] and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to
that of 14 nuclear reactors.[229] Other renewable energies used in Spain The Solucar Complex, with the
are hydroelectric, biomass and marine.[230] PS10 Solar Power Plant in the
foreground and the PS20 in the
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative background
reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of
Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear
power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[231]

Science and technology

The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading
public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as
the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd
overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[232] Spain was
ranked 28th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[233]

Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research

in the country.[234] Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to
The Gran Telescopio Canarias at
R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD sunset
countries.[235]

Transport
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country,
Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the
Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts.
Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save
energy and boost energy efficiency.[236] The former Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the
electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[237]

As of February 2025, the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with
3,973 km (2,469 mi)[238] and the second longest in the world, after China's. It is linking Málaga, Seville,
Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 330 km/h
(210 mph).[239] On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the
Japanese bullet train and the French TGV.[240] Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-
time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[241]

There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 60 million
passengers in 2023, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's third busiest. The
airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 50 million passengers in 2023, being the world's 30th-
busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca, Málaga, Las Palmas (Gran Canaria), and
Alicante.

High-speed AVE Class 103 train The Port of Valencia, one of the
near Vinaixa, Madrid-Barcelona busiest in the Golden Banana
line. Spain has the longest high-
speed rail network in Europe.[238]

Demographics
In 2025, Spain had a population of 49,077,984 people as recorded by
Spain's Instituto Nacional de Estadística.[242] Spain's population
density, at 97/km2 (251.2/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western
European countries and its distribution across the country is very
unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital,
Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of
Spain has risen 21⁄2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million,
principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and Population density by municipality in
early 1970s.[243] Spain, 2018

In 2023, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.12
children born per woman,[244] one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains
considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865.[245] Spain subsequently has one of the
oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years.[246]

Native Spaniards make up 86.1% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s
and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return
of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently,
fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate
mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa
(4%).[247]

In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and
Morocco.[248] Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin
America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have
recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of
Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European;
represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, Germans, French and others.[249]
Urbanisation
Largest cities or towns in Spain
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (2023) (https://ine.es/dynt3/inebase/es/index.htm?padre=52
Autonomous 5) Autonomous
Rank Name Pop. Rank Name Pop.
community community
Community Basque
1 Madrid 3,332,035 11 Bilbao 346,096
of Madrid Country
2 Barcelona Catalonia 1,660,122 12 Córdoba Andalusia 323,763
Valencian Castile and
3 Valencia 807,693 13 Valladolid 297,459
Community León
4 Seville Andalusia 684,025 14 Vigo Galicia 293,652
5 Zaragoza Aragon 682,513 15 L'Hospitalet Catalonia 274,455
Principality of
Madrid 6 Málaga Andalusia 586,384 16 Gijón 258,313 Valencia
Asturias
Region of Vitoria- Basque
7 Murcia 469,177 17 255,886
Murcia Gasteiz Country
Balearic
8 Palma 423,350 18 A Coruña Galicia 247,376
Islands
Barcelona Las Canary Valencian Seville
9 378,027 19 Elche 238,293
Palmas Islands Community
Valencian
10 Alicante 349,282 20 Granada Andalusia 230,595
Community

Immigration
According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 6.8 million
foreign residents in Spain in 2025 (13.9%)[250] while all citizens born
outside of Spain were 9.3 million in 2025, 19.11% of the total
population.[251]

According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were
Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were
British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian.[252] Other sizeable foreign
Distribution of the foreign population
communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and in Spain in 2005 by percentage
Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan
Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians.[253] Since
2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate
that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those
arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[254]

Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great
margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008.[255] The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up
from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[256] In 2005
alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[257] There
are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America,
its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the
strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be
offered by the national workforce.

Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to
Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007,
with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[258] In 2008, prior to the
onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for
Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[259]
In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants
from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to
keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social
Security.[260] The programme had little effect.[261] Although the programme failed to, the sharp and
prolonged economic crisis from 2010 to 2011, resulted in tens of thousands of immigrants leaving the
country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain.[262] For the first time
in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were
foreigners.[262]

Languages
Spain is a multilingual state.[263] Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish
Constitution as castellano ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official
language of the entire country since 1931.[264] As allowed in the third
article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become
official in their respective autonomous communities. The territoriality
created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution
creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the
entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their
Languages of Spain
speakers' rights only apply in their territories.[265]

Besides Spanish, other territorialised languages include Aragonese,

Aranese, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic (Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Valencian and
Tamazight, to which the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up.[266] The number of speakers
varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any
sort of effective protection.[267] Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous
communities include Catalan/Valencian (in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands officially named as Catalan
and in the Valencian Community officially named as Valencian); Galician (in Galicia); Basque (in the Basque
Country and part of Navarre); and Aranese in Catalonia.

Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan/Valencian by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the
Spanish population.[268]

Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include Moroccan Arabic,
Romanian and English.[269]

Education
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to
sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006
educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental
Law for the Education.[270] In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by
the newer and controversial LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora
de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of
the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[271] Since
1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE,
LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[272] University of Salamanca, one of the
first European universities
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[273]
secondary education[274] and post-16 education.[275] In regards to the
professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university
degrees: the Formación Profesional Básica (basic vocational education); the Ciclo Formativo de Grado
Medio or CFGM (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary
education, and the Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior or CFGS (higher level vocational education), which
can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[276]

The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall
knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading
literacy, mathematics, and science.[277][278]

Health
The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world,
in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organisation.[279] The health care is public,
universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[280] The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly
above the average of 9.3% of the OECD.

Religion
Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the
dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all
public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics
class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the
teaching of Islam,[282] Judaism,[283] and evangelical Christianity[284] is
also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for
Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 3%
other faiths, and about 35% identify with no religion.[285] Most Spaniards
do not participate regularly in religious services.[286] Recent polls and
surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is
irreligious.[286][287][288] Religious self-definition in
Spain (CIS survey; sample
The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as
size: 3,935; February
freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a
2023)[281]
"state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious
groups. Practicing Catholic (18.5%)
Non-Practicing Catholic
Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members.[289] There are about (37.5%)
105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Believer in another religion
Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.[290] (2.7%)
Agnostic (12.6%)
A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated Indifferent/Non-believer
that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background (12.3%)
living in Spain as of 2019, accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Atheist (14.9%)
Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants Did not answer (1.5%)
originating from the Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African
countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[291]

Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews
were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the
total population.

Culture
Spain is a Western country and one of the major Latin countries of Europe, and has been noted for its
international cultural influence.[292] Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the Catholic
Church, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity.[293] Spanish art,
architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the
country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish
language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.

World Heritage Sites

Spain has 50 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is
shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with
Portugal, the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests, shared
with other countries of Europe.[294] In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or "Human
treasures".[295]

Literature
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of Mozarabic Romance
(such as refrains) sprinkled in Arabic and Hebrew texts.[296] Other examples of early Iberian Romance
include the Glosas Emilianenses written in Latin, Basque and Romance.[297]

Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in Latin, which

remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th
century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were
spoken.[298] A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in
Toledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular,
Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside
Galician-Portuguese across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th
century.[299] The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical
poetry, Occitan, became increasingly Catalanised in the 14th and 15th
centuries.[300] Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the
Cantar de Mio Cid, Tirant lo Blanch, The Book of Good Love and Coplas
por la muerte de su padre. Genres such as Mester de Juglaría and
Mester de Clerecía were cultivated.

Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in
the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as
'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of Bronze statues of Don Quixote and
the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a Golden era of Sancho Panza, at the Plaza de
Castilian literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science España in Madrid
domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan.[301] Famous Early Modern
works include La Celestina and Lazarillo de Tormes. The famous Don
Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are:
Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina. During the Enlightenment
authors included, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, and Leandro Fernández de
Moratín.

Steps of Spanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back
to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning
thereafter.[302] In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called
Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.[303][304]

The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of Spanish Realism, which offered
depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised
presentations. The major realist writer was Benito Pérez Galdós.[305] The second half of the 19th century
also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements
inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan Renaixença or the Galician Rexurdimento.[306] Rarely used
before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the
1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.[307] 20th-century
authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the Generation of '98, the Generation of '27,
Generation of '36 and the Generation of '50. Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are
the two main awards in Spanish literature.

Philosophy
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by
academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman
conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as Seneca, Trajan, Lucan, or Martial); by
pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the Generation of 98); or simply by outright
denying its existence.[308] The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of
Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the myth around it)[309] against Antonio Pérez.[310] Foreign
imports such as Krausism proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th
centuries.[311]

Art
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of
various European and American artistic movements. Due to historical,
geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great
number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman
and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still
evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France,
especially during the Renaissance, Spanish Baroque and Neoclassical
periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the Pre-
Romanesque art and architecture, Herrerian architecture or the
Isabelline Gothic.

During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco,

José de Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán.
Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez
Also in the Baroque period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most
famous Spanish portraits, such as Las Meninas and Las Hilanderas.[312]

Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights
between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states.

Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish
painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and
Joan Miró.

Sculpture
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until
the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works
of all great Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid
School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were
the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of
Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the
Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other
notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni
The Comb of the Wind of Eduardo
and Damián Forment.
Chillida in San Sebastián
There were two Schools: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez Montañés belonged, whose most
celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the
Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of
Rosary, are attributed.

Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa
Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors
were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano.

Cinema
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema
developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest
production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the
eve of the World War I.[313] The conflict offered the Spanish industry of
silent films an opportunity for further growth.[314] Local studios for
sound films were created in 1932.[315] The government imposition of
dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to
watching dubbed films.[316]
Pedro Almodóvar and Penélope
Cruz in Oviedo
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including
Oscars for films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver.[317]

Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the Fantaterror,
the cine quinqui and the so-called destape films.[318]

As of 2021, the festivals of San Sebastián and Málaga are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the
country.[319]

Architecture
Earth and gypsum are very common materials of the traditional
vernacular architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country,
where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).[320] Due to its
historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn
from a host of influences. Fine examples of Islamicate architecture,
belonging to the Western Islamic tradition, were built in the Middle Ages
in places such as Córdoba, Seville, or Granada. Similarly to the Maghreb,
stucco decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in
the high Middle Ages.[321]

Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles;

developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from
contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the
earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic
streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style
Basilica Sagrada Família in
that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire
Barcelona
territory. The so-called Mudéjar style came to designate works by
Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.[322]

The arrival of Modernism produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style
centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is
one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in
contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as
well as many others have gained worldwide renown.
Music and dance
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with
flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread
outside that region.[323] Various regional styles of folk music abound.
Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.

In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted

composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados
and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras,
Flamenco is an Andalusian artistic
Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, form that evolved from Seguidilla.
Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa
Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including
the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid.
Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de
les Arts Reina Sofía.

Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music
festivals Sónar which features pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock
and dance acts.[324] The Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre.

The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain.[325] Typical of the north
are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.

Cuisine
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and
climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects
the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a
unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:

Mediterranean Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as
pescaíto frito (fried fish); cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from
Valencia[326] and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.[327]

Inner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with
substantial stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as Spanish ham,
or immersed in olive oil, such as Manchego cheese.

Atlantic Spain – the Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine –
vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The
best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style cod,
albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.
 Paella, a traditional Valencian Cochinillo asado Jamón ibérico is one of the
dish[326] most expensive hams.
[328][329]

Empanadas, part of entire Latin Torta del Casar, a sheep milk

American cuisine due Spanish cheese from Spain
colonization

Sport
While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as
Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the
early 20th century. Real Madrid CF and FC Barcelona are two of the
most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national men's
football team won the UEFA European Championship in 1964, 2008,
2012 and 2024 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team
ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments. Spain's
women's national team were champions of the 2023 FIFA World Cup,
becoming one of only five nations to win a Women's World Cup.
Barcelona Femení has won a record 20 domestic trophies.

Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Spain or La Roja celebrating their
Formula One also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup
major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer victory
Olympics and Paralympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which
stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism
industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In
their respective regions, the traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian pilota both are popular.

Public holidays and festivals

Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local
observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of
these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[330] Spain's National Day
(Fiesta Nacional de España) is celebrated on 12 October.[331][332]

There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While
its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls. It has become one of the most
internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.

Other festivals include La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia, the carnivals in the Canary Islands,
the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.
See also
Spain portal

Europe portal

History of education in Spain

Outline of Spain
The Queen of the Carnival of
Topographical relief of Spain Santa Cruz de Tenerife
History of the territorial organisation of Spain (Fiesta of International Tourist
Interest)

Notes
a. In Spain, some other languages enjoy co-official status in certain regions (in accordance with the latter's
Statutes of Autonomy) or have some degree of recognition. In each of these, Spain's conventional long
name for international affairs in Spanish laws and the most used (Spanish: Reino de España,
pronounced: Spanish pronunciation: [ˈrejno ð(e) esˈpaɲa]) is as follows:
Aragonese: Reino d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈrejno ðesˈpaɲa]
Asturian: Reinu d'España, IPA: [ˈrejnu ðesˈpaɲa]
Catalan: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋnə ðəsˈpaɲə]
Basque: Espainiako Erresuma, IPA: [es̺ paɲiako eres̺ uma]
Galician: Reino de España, IPA: [ˈrejnʊ ð(ɪ) esˈpaɲɐ]
Occitan: Reiaume d'Espanha, IPA: [reˈjawme ðesˈpaɲɔ]
Valencian: Regne d'Espanya, IPA: [ˈreŋne ðesˈpaɲa]
b. The official language of the State is established in the Section 3 of the Constitution of Spain to be
Castilian.[2]
c. In some autonomous communities, Basque, Catalan, Galician, Valencian, and Occitan (locally known as
Aranese) are co-official languages. Aragonese, Asturian, and Leonese have some degree of government
recognition at the regional level.
d. The Peseta before 2002
e. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Also, the .cat
domain is used in Catalonia, .gal in Galicia and .eus in the Basque-Country autonomous regions.
f. Spanish: España, [esˈpaɲa] ⓘ
g. The Spanish Constitution does not contain any one official name for Spain. Instead, the terms España
(Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used throughout the
document, sometimes interchangeably. In 1984, the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs established that
the denominations España (Spain) and Reino de España (Kingdom of Spain) are equally valid to
designate Spain in international treaties. The latter term is widely used by the government in national
and international affairs of all kinds, including foreign treaties as well as national official documents, and
is therefore recognised as the conventional name by many international organisations.[333]
h. See list of transcontinental countries.
i. The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the
existing Iberian landholding system.
j. The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania.
k. Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and
the Constitutional Tribunal.
l. Most Spanish monarchs have been kings. However, a queen regnant – while uncommon – is possible
due to Spain's adherence to male-preference primogeniture. Leonor, Princess of Asturias, will be Spain's
first queen regnant since Isabella II, who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her
father Felipe VI as expected.
m. Former king Juan Carlos I's intervention and foiling of the 1981 Spanish coup attempt is but one
example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and
uphold the rule of law.[129]
 n. The Spanish state honours system comprises the Order of Charles III, the Order of Isabella the Catholic,
the Order of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, the Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort,
and the Order of Constitutional Merit, among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister
is ex officio chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of foreign affairs,
education, and justice are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of
Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of
Constitutional Merit, respectively.
o. They being the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, the Real Academia de Ciencias
Morales y Políticas, the Royal Academy of Engineering of Spain, the Real Academia de la Historia, the
Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation, the Royal Academy of Pharmacy, the Royal Spanish
Academy, and the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences

References
1. Presidency of the Government (11 October 1997). "Real Decreto 1560/1997, de 10 de octubre, por el
que se regula el Himno Nacional" (http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf)
(PDF). Boletín Oficial del Estado núm. 244 (in Spanish). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2015092
4034615/http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 24
September 2015.
2. "The Spanish Constitution" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130325101204/http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/
IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/index.htm) (in Spanish). Lamoncloa.gob.es. Archived from the
original (http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/index.htm) on 25 March
2013. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
3. "INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 1 January 2025. Provisional data" (https://www.ine.e
s/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=12547
35572981). ine.es. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
4. Barómetro de Febrero 2025: Estudio Cis Nº 3496 (https://www.cis.es/documents/d/cis/es3496creencias
MT_a) (in Spanish). Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. 2025. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20250221111129/https://www.cis.es/documents/d/cis/es3496creenciasMT_a) from the original on 21
February 2025. Retrieved 21 February 2025., 4,042 respondents. The question was ¿Cómo se define
Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión,
agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?.
5. "Anuario estadístico de España 2008. 1ª parte: entorno físico y medio ambiente" (http://www.ine.es/prod
yser/pubweb/anuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf) (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain) (in
Spanish). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144913/http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/a
nuario08/anu08_01entor.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
6. "Surface water and surface water change" (https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_
WATER). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER)
from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
7. "INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 1 January 2025. Provisional data" (https://www.ine.e
s/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=12547
35572981). ine.es. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
8. "World Economic Outlook database: October 2024" (https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-data
base/2024/October/weo-report?c=184,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIP
CH,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1).
imf.org. International Monetary Fund.
9. "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey" (https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data
browser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en). ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
10. "Human Development Report 2023/24" (https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-docu
ment/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf) (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 288.
Retrieved 13 March 2024.
11. "European exploration" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/European-exploration/The-Age-of-Discovery).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 May 2024.
12. Flynn, Dennis O.; Giráldez Source, Arturo (1995). "Born with a 'Silver Spoon': The Origin of World Trade
in 1571". Journal of World History. 6 (2): 202. JSTOR 20078638 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078638).
13. Spain is crowned the champion of foreign students. This is thanks to universities such as those in
Barcelona, Valencia, Madrid, Granada and Salamanca. Although nowhere near as popular as Spain, we
find Germany in second place. It is a country that also has a large number of prestigious universities
spread out across many cities. The fact that Germany is an economic powerhouse makes it an attractive
destination for those searching for employment after studying. France, the United Kingdom and Italy
appear in third, fourth and fifth position. The rest of countries rank behind at a considerable distance.
What are the most popular Erasmus destinations? (https://www.wimdu.co.uk/blog/discover-popular-eras
mus-destinations) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230630180757/https://www.wimdu.co.uk/blo
g/discover-popular-erasmus-destinations) 30 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
14. "572 millones de personas hablan español, cinco millones más que hace un año, y aumentarán a 754
millones a mediados de siglo" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210513000611/https://www.cervantes.es/s
obre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm).
www.cervantes.es (in Spanish). Archived from the original (https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cer
vantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm) on 13 May 2021.
15. Spanish Constitution 1978, Article 1.
16. Whitehouse, Mark (6 November 2010). "Number of the Week: $10.2 Trillion in Global Borrowing" (https://
blogs.wsj.com/economics/2010/11/06/number-of-the-week-102-trillion-in-global-borrowing/). The Wall
Street Journal. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170920064345/https://blogs.wsj.com/economic
s/2010/11/06/number-of-the-week-102-trillion-in-global-borrowing/) from the original on 20 September
2017.
17. Arechaga, Juan (2009). "Science in Hispania: Spain and Portugal on the main route again". The
International Journal of Developmental Biology. 53 (8–10): 1119–1122. doi:10.1387/ijdb.093019ja (http
s://doi.org/10.1387%2Fijdb.093019ja). PMID 19924620 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19924620).
18. ABC (28 August 2014). " "I-span-ya", el misterioso origen de la palabra España" (http://www.abc.es/espa
na/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-201408281811.html). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20161113170715/http://www.abc.es/espana/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-2014
08281811.html) from the original on 13 November 2016.
19. #Linch, John (director), Fernández Castro, María Cruz (del segundo tomo), Historia de España, El País,
volumen II, La península Ibérica en época prerromana, p. 40. Dossier. La etimología de España; ¿tierra
de conejos?, ISBN 978-84-9815-764-2
20. Burke, Ulick Ralph (1895). A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the
Catholic, Volume 1. London: Longmans, Green & Co. p. 12. hdl:2027/hvd.fl29jg (https://hdl.handle.net/2
027%2Fhvd.fl29jg?urlappend=%3Bseq=36).
21. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Spain" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/
Spain). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
22. "Rabbits, fish and mice, but no rock hyrax" (http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/staff-b
log/rabbits-fish-and-mice-but-no-rock-hyrax/). Understanding Animal Research. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20181031134610/http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/staff-blog/rabbits-fi
sh-and-mice-but-no-rock-hyrax/) from the original on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
23. Anthon, Charles (1850). A System of Ancient and Mediæval Geography for the Use of Schools and
Colleges (https://archive.org/details/asystemancienta03anthgoog/). New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 14
(https://archive.org/details/asystemancienta03anthgoog/page/n28).
24. " 'First west Europe tooth' found" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6256356.stm). BBC. 30 June
2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003923/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761575057_
__0/Spain.html) from the original on 21 October 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
25. Phillips, William D.; Phillips, Carla Rahn (2010). A Concise History of Spain (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=kWj4tnHCj04C). Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-521-60721-6.
26. Pike, A. W. G.; Hoffmann, D. L.; Garcia-Diez, M.; Pettitt, P. B.; Alcolea, J.; De Balbin, R.; Gonzalez-
Sainz, C.; de las Heras, C.; Lasheras, J. A.; Montes, R.; Zilhao, J. (2012). "U-Series Dating of Paleolithic
Art in 11 Caves in Spain". Science. 336 (6087): 1409–1413. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1409P (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Sci...336.1409P). doi:10.1126/science.1219957 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsc
ience.1219957). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 22700921 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22700921). S2CID 7807664 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:780766
4).
27. Bernaldo de Quirós Guidolti, Federico; Cabrera Valdés, Victoria (1994). "Cronología del arte paleolítico"
(http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=164330&orden=1&info=link) (PDF). Complutum. 5:
265–276. ISSN 1131-6993 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1131-6993). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20230912033428/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9494120265A) from
the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
28. Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania" (http://libro.uca.edu/
payne1/spainport1.htm). The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm) from the original on 8 October 2018.
Retrieved 9 August 2008.
29. Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain. Chapter 1 – Hispania" (htt
p://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0014)). Library of Congress Country
Series. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080922143456/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?fr
d%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+es0014%29) from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved
9 August 2008.
30. Alonso Villalobos, Carlos (1984). "Contribución al estudio de las invasiones mauritanas de la Bética en
el siglo II" (https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudi
o%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf) (PDF). Actas del II Congreso Andaluz deEstudios
Clásicos. Vol. II. Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220
705191228/https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudi
o%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved
5 July 2022.
31. Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon" (htt
p://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)). Library of Congress Country
Series. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080922142215/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/
cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)) from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
32. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations (http://libro.uca.edu/ic
s/ics5.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170403051916/http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm) 3
April 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Thomas F. Glick
33. Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus" (http://libro.uca.edu/payne
1/spainport1.htm). The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018
1008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm) from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved
9 August 2008.
34. Scheen, Rolf (1996). "Viking raids on the spanish peninsula" (https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/arti
cle/download/MILT9696110067A/3416/0). Militaria. Revista de Cultura Militar (8): 67–73. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20220413040655/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/article/download/MILT
9696110067A/3416/0) from the original on 13 April 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
35. Classen, Albrecht (31 August 2015). Handbook of Medieval Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id
=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 9783110267303. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20230912033453/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=P
A237) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2018 – via Google Books.
36. Lansing, Carol; English, Edward D. (2012). A Companion to the Medieval World (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Re-1YpI9ObsC). John Wiley & Sons. p. 323. ISBN 978-1-118-49946-7.
37. VAN ZANDEN, JAN LUITEN; BURINGH, ELTJO; BOSKER, MAARTEN (29 July 2011). "The rise and
decline of European parliaments, 1188-17891" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x).
The Economic History Review. 65 (3): 835–861. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x (https://doi.org/1
0.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2011.00612.x). hdl:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x (https://hdl.handle.net/10.
1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2011.00612.x). ISSN 0013-0117 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0117).
S2CID 154956049 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154956049). Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20230912033403/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x) from the
original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2022.
38. Salicrú i Lluch, Roser (2020). "Granada and Its International Contacts" (https://brill.com/view/book/97890
04443594/BP000014.xml). The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West. Brill. pp. 124–125.
doi:10.1163/9789004443594_006 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004443594_006).
ISBN 9789004443594. S2CID 243153050 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243153050).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220413053115/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004443594/BP0
00014.xml) from the original on 13 April 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
39. "Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia" (https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-
inquisition-left-genetic-legacy-in-iberia.html). New Scientist. 4 December 2008. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20140328024905/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-inquisition-left-gen
etic-legacy-in-iberia.html) from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
40. "The Treaty of Granada, 1492" (http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html). Islamic Civilisation.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080924075453/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.ht
ml) from the original on 24 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
41. Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – The Golden Age" (http://lc
web2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html). Library of Congress Country Series. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html) from the original on 9 August 2008.
Retrieved 9 August 2008.
42. "Imperial Spain" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080629000351/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tu
tor/eurvoya/Imperial.html). University of Calgary. Archived from the original (https://www.ucalgary.ca/appl
ied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html) on 29 June 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
43. Handbook of European History (https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472).
Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial España. 1994. ISBN 90-04-09760-0. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20230912033400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472) from
the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
44. Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 13 The Spanish Empire" (http://libro.uc
a.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm). The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm) from the original on 8 October
2018. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
45. Thomas, Hugh (2003). Rivers of gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire. London: George Weidenfeld &
Nicolson. pp. passim. ISBN 978-0-297-64563-4.
46. "The Seventeenth-Century Decline" (http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm). The Library of Iberian
resources online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130921003150/http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/pa
yne15.htm) from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
47. Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 14 Spanish Society and Economics in
the Imperial Age" (http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm). The Library of Iberian Resources Online.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm)
from the original on 8 October 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
48. Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Spain in Decline" (http://lc
web2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html). Library of Congress Country Series. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html) from the original on 9 August 2008.
Retrieved 9 August 2008.
49. Serrano Daura, Josep (2019). "Una aproximación a la Corona de Aragón de Fernando el Católico".
Revista de Dret Històric Català. 18 (18). Societat Catalana d'Estudis Jurídics: 75.
doi:10.2436/20.3004.01.119 (https://doi.org/10.2436%2F20.3004.01.119). ISSN 1578-5300 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/issn/1578-5300).
50. Phillips, William D.; Phillips, Carla Rahn (2010). A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge University
Press. p. 175. ISBN 9780521845137.
51. Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Bourbon Spain" (http://lcw
eb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html). Library of Congress Country Series. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html) from the original on 9 August 2008. Retrieved
9 August 2008.
52. Casey, James (1999). Early Modern Spain: A Social History. Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 9780415138130.
53. Martínez Shaw, Carlos (2016). "El Despotismo Ilustrado en España: entre la continuidad y el cambio" (ht
tps://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5589876.pdf) (PDF). El Siglo de las Luces: III Centenario del
Nacimiento de José de Hermosilla (1715-1776). Sociedad Extremeña de Historia. p. 14. ISBN 978-84-
608-8037-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220419023430/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/
articulo/5589876.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
54. Martínez Shaw 2016, pp. 14, 23.
55. David A. Bell. "Napoleon's Total War (https://archive.today/20120922013528/http://www.historynet.com/
wars_conflicts/napoleonic_wars/6361907.html?page=2&c=y)". TheHistoryNet.com
56. (Gates 2001, p. 20.)
57. (Gates 2001, p. 467.)
58. Alvar Ezquerra, Jaime (2001). Diccionario de historia de España (https://books.google.com/books?id=l4
JQIkW1yrsC&pg=PA209). Ediciones Akal. p. 209. ISBN 978-84-7090-366-3. Cortes of Cádiz (1812) was
the first parliament of Spain with sovereign power
59. Rodríguez. Independence of Spanish America (https://www.google.es/search?tbm=bks&hl=es&q=%22It
+met+as+one+body%2C+and+its+members+represented+the+entire+Spanish+world%22&btnG=).
Cambridge University Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200310230600/https://www.googl
e.es/search?tbm=bks&hl=es&q=%22It+met+as+one+body%2C+and+its+members+represented+the+en
tire+Spanish+world%22&btnG=) from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2013. "It met as
one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish world"
60. Cruz Artacho, Salvador (2003). "Caciquismo y mundo rural durante la Restauración" (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33). In Gutiérrez, Rosa Ana; Zurita, Rafael; Camurri, Renato
(eds.). Elecciones y cultura política en España e Italia (1890–1923). Valencia: Universitat de València.
p. 33. ISBN 84-370-5672-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033420/https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved
13 September 2020.
61. Costa, Joaquín. Oligarquía y caciquismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos: (Antología).
62. Meaker, Gerald H. (1974). The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914–1923. Stanford University Press.
p. 159 (https://books.google.com/books?id=RM6rAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA158) ff. ISBN 0-8047-0845-2.
63. Spanish Civil War fighters look back (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_corrisedres
pondent/2809025.stm), BBC News, 23 February 2003
64. "Relatives of Spaniards who fled Franco granted citizenship" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldne
ws/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-granted-citizenship.html). The Daily
Telegraph. London. 28 December 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130723074619/http://w
ww.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-gra
nted-citizenship.html) from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
65. Óscar, Martín García (May 2023). "Soft Power, Modernization, and Security: US Educational Foreign
Policy Toward Authoritarian Spain in the Cold War". History of Education Quarterly. 63 (2): 198–220.
doi:10.1017/heq.2023.5 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fheq.2023.5). hdl:10251/201668 (https://hdl.handle.n
et/10251%2F201668). ISSN 0018-2680 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2680). S2CID 258190145
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258190145).
66. Villena, Miguel Ángel (9 June 2012). "El contubernio que preparó la democracia" (http://politica.elpais.co
m/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.html). EL PAÍS. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20130405102702/http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.htm
l) from the original on 5 April 2013.
67. "Contubernio de Múnich: 50 años" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141021124653/http://www.movimiento
europeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversario.php). Archived from the
original (http://www.movimientoeuropeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversari
o.php) on 21 October 2014.
68. "El contubernio de Munich" (http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/20120605/54303390132/contuber
nio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html). La Vanguardia. 4 June 2012.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141026212625/http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/2012
0605/54303390132/contubernio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html) from
the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
69. "Speech by Mrs Nicole FONTAINE, President of the European Parliament on the occasion of the
presentation of the Sakharov Prize 2000 to Basta ya!" (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presid
ents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201610021649
01/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm)
from the original on 2 October 2016.
70. "King Orders army to crush coup" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchiv
e). The Guardian. 23 February 1981. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171005013653/https://ww
w.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchive) from the original on 5 October 2017.
Retrieved 19 March 2020.
71. Pfanner, Eric (11 July 2002). "Economy reaps benefits of entry to the 'club': Spain's euro bonanza" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20re
aps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bona
nza&st=cse). International Herald Tribune. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110501090321/htt
p://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20re
aps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bona
nza&st=cse) from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 August 2008. See also: "Spain's economy /
Plain sailing no longer" (http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701). The Economist.
3 May 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080613212911/http://www.economist.com/display
Story.cfm?story_id=9118701) from the original on 13 June 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
72. "Al-Qaeda 'claims Madrid bombings' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm). BBC. 14
March 2004. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060624220502/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/eu
rope/3509426.stm) from the original on 24 June 2006. Retrieved 13 August 2008. See also: "Madrid
bombers get long sentences" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm). BBC. 31 October
2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210114145049/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7
070827.stm) from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
73. Bailey, Dominic (14 March 2004). "Spain votes under a shadow" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europ
e/3509744.stm). BBC. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20040825175335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/h
i/world/europe/3509744.stm) from the original on 25 August 2004. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
74. "An election bombshell" (https://www.economist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell). The
Economist. 18 March 2004. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233628/https://www.econo
mist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell) from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved
19 March 2020.
75. Ortiz, Fiona (22 April 2013). "Spain's population falls as immigrants flee crisis" (https://www.reuters.com/
article/us-spain-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422).
Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170902102026/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain
-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422) from the
original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
76. "Spain legalises gay marriage" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain). The
Guardian. 30 June 2005. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200221223432/https://www.theguardi
an.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain) from the original on 21 February 2020. Retrieved 19 March
2020.
77. Tremlett, Giles (5 September 2010). "Basque separatists Eta announce ceasefire" (https://www.theguard
ian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20200319233632/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire) from
the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
78. "Spain's Indignados protest here to stay" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18070246). BBC
News. 15 May 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235526/https://www.bbc.co.uk/new
s/world-europe-18070246) from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
79. "Rajoy ahoy" (https://www.economist.com/newsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy). The Economist. 21
November 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233630/https://www.economist.com/ne
wsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy) from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
80. Tremlett, Giles (11 July 2012). "Mariano Rajoy announces €65bn in austerity measures for Spain" (http
s://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/mariano-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts). The Guardian. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233631/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/maria
no-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts) from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
81. "Spain king: Juan Carlos signs his abdication" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27910104).
BBC News. 18 June 2014. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235805/https://www.bbc.co.u
k/news/world-europe-27910104) from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
82. Alandete, David (27 October 2017). "Análisis. Is Catalonia independent?" (https://elpais.com/elpais/201
7/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html). El País. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201710280
42504/https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html) from the original on 28
October 2017.
83. Ríos, Pere; Piñol, Àngels (27 October 2017). "El Parlament de Cataluña aprueba la resolución para
declarar la independencia" (https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html). El
País (in Spanish). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171029185252/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/
10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html) from the original on 29 October 2017.
84. "Catalan crisis: Regional MPs debate Spain takeover bid" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-417
60832). BBC. 26 October 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171026144624/http://www.bbc.
com/news/world-europe-41760832) from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
85. "Catalan crisis: Spain PM Rajoy demands direct rule" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-4177129
4). BBC. 27 October 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171029003630/http://www.bbc.com/
news/world-europe-41771294) from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
86. "Catalonia independence: Rajoy dissolves Catalan parliament" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe
-41783289). BBC News. Barcelona, Madrid. 27 October 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
171028072348/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41783289) from the original on 28 October
2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
87. Sandford, Alasdair (27 October 2017). "Catalonia: what direct rule from Madrid could mean" (http://www.
euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-rule-from-madrid-could-mean). euronews. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20171027201407/http://www.euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-r
ule-from-madrid-could-mean) from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
88. Minder, Raphael (June 2018). "Spain's Prime Minister, Mariano Rajoy, Is Ousted in No-Confidence Vote"
(https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html). The New
York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180619012814/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/0
1/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html) from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved
18 June 2018.
 89. "Spanish institutional crisis triggered by legal block of judicial reform" (https://www.irishtimes.com/world/e
urope/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/). The Irish
Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230804144518/https://www.irishtimes.com/world/europ
e/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/) from the original on
4 August 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
90. Woolf, Steven H.; Masters, Ryan K.; Aron, Laudan Y. (24 June 2021). "Effect of the covid-19 pandemic in
2020 on life expectancy across populations in the USA and other high income countries: simulations of
provisional mortality data" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8220857). BMJ. 373: n1343.
doi:10.1136/bmj.n1343 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.n1343). ISSN 1756-1833 (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/1756-1833). PMC 8220857 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8220857).
PMID 34162598 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34162598).
91. Borraz, Marta (18 March 2021). "Luz verde definitiva: la ley de eutanasia ya es una realidad en España
tras superar su último trámite en el Congreso" (https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-verde-definitiva-ley-
eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html). ElDiario.es (in
Spanish). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210318233215/https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-v
erde-definitiva-ley-eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html)
from the original on 18 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
92. Bayer, Lili (16 November 2023). "Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez wins new term as Spanish PM
following election gamble – as it happened" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-
acting-prime-minister-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates). the
Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20231207213108/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-acting-prime-minist
er-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates) from the original on 7
December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
93. "La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de
2012" (https://www.newtral.es/sentimiento-catalan-espanol/20240501/). May 2024.
94. "La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de
2012" (https://www.newtral.es/sentimiento-catalan-espanol/20240501/). May 2024.
95. "El apoyo a la independencia de Catalunya baja del 40%, según una encuesta del ICPS" (https://www.el
periodico.com/es/politica/20230113/encuesta-independencia-catalunya-icps-uab-81112066). 13 January
2023.
96. Medina García, Eusebio (2006). «Orígenes históricos y ambigüedad de la frontera hispano-lusa (La
Raya)» (http://www.dip-badajoz.es/cultura/ceex/reex_digital/reex_LXII/2006/T.%20LXII%20n.%202%202
006%20mayo-ag/RV000827.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185331/http://www.dip
-badajoz.es/cultura/ceex/reex_digital/reex_LXII/2006/T.%20LXII%20n.%202%202006%20mayo-ag/RV0
00827.pdf) 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Revista de Estudios Extremeños. Tomo LXII (II
Mayo-Agosto). ISSN 0210-2854 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0210-2854), pp.
713–723.
97. "World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated – (see p.3)" (http://www.schweizerbart.d
e/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201904120
21016/http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf) (PDF) from the original
on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
98. "Evolucion de los climas de Koppen en España: 1951-2020" (https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/cono
cermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf)
(PDF). Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20240213184548/https://
www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/
NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 13 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February
2024.
99. "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal" (https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/). World
Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
100. Medina, Miguel Ángel; Tasca, Elisa (12 August 2021). "Weather experts on Spain's heatwave: 'A
summer like this will be considered cold in 30 years' time' " (https://english.elpais.com/society/2021-08-1
2/weather-experts-on-spains-heatwave-a-summer-like-this-will-be-considered-cold-in-30-years-time.htm
l). EL PAÍS. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
101. Pleitgen, Fred; Otto, Claudia; Paddison, Laura (2 May 2023). "Disappearing lakes, dead crops and
trucked-in water: Drought-stricken Spain is running dry" (https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/02/europe/spain-
drought-catalonia-heat-wave-climate-intl/index.html). CNN. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
102. T. Estrela; M.A. Pérez-Martin; E. Vargas (2012). "Impacts of climate change on water resources in
Spain". Hydrological Sciences Journal. 57 (6): 1154–1167. Bibcode:2012HydSJ..57.1154E (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2012HydSJ..57.1154E). doi:10.1080/02626667.2012.702213 (https://doi.org/10.10
80%2F02626667.2012.702213).
103. "Renewable energies in Spain" (https://www.idae.es/articulos/renewable-energies-spain). Institute for the
Diversification and Saving of Energy.
104. Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining
forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC7723057). Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G (https://ui.adsa
bs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11.5978G). doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 (https://doi.org/10.1038%
2Fs41467-020-19493-3). ISSN 2041-1723 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723). PMC 7723057
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7723057). PMID 33293507 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/33293507).
105. "Biodiversity in Spain" (https://www.climatechangepost.com/spain/biodiversity/).
Climatechangepost.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220924231535/https://www.climatech
angepost.com/spain/biodiversity/) from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September
2022.
106. Biodiversidad, Fundación (18 February 2014). "The Foundation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20220924
231544/https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us). Fundación Biodiversidad. Archived from
the original (https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us) on 24 September 2022. Retrieved
24 September 2022.
107. John Hooper, The New Spaniards, 2001, From Dictatorship to Democracy
108. Spain's fast-living king turns 70 (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7171971.stm) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20100106025042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7171971.stm) 6 January 2010 at the
Wayback Machine BBC News Friday, 4 January 2008 Extracted 18 June 2009
109. Spanish Constitution 1978.
110. "HM The King's address to the Cortes Generales on the occasion of his accession" (https://www.casarea
l.es/EN/Paginas/home.aspx). Casa de Su Majestad El Rey. 19 June 2014.
111. "Section 86, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s548).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
112. "Institutions of Spain" (https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/espana/spanishinstitutions/Paginas/index.a
spx). La Moncloa, the Office of the President of the Government. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
113. "Section 56 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
114. "Section 1 (3), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s11).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
115. Shelley, Fred M. (2015). Governments around the World: From Democracies to Theocracies (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197). ABC-CLIO. p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4408-3813-2.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAA
QBAJ&pg=PA197) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
116. "Article 37, Constitution of the Kingdom of Belgium" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Belgium_20
14#s141). Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
117. "Article 3, Constitution Act of the Kingdom of Denmark" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Denmar
k_1953#s1). Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
118. "Article 33, Constitution of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Lu
xembourg_2009#s110). Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
119. "Article 42, Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Net
herlands_2008#s210). Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
120. "Article 3, Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Norway_201
6#s7). Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
121. Robert Blackburn (2022). O. Lepsius; A. Nußberger; C. Schönberger; C. Waldhoff & C. Walter (eds.).
"The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom" (https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/
portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united). Jahrbuch des
Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart. Neue Folge. 70. Mohr Siebeck (published 2 June 2022): 181–201.
doi:10.1628/joer-2022-0009 (https://doi.org/10.1628%2Fjoer-2022-0009). S2CID 257830288 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257830288). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230619174428/http
s://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-uni
ted) from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
122. Sodré, Nelson Werneck (2004). Panorama do Segundo Império (in Portuguese) (2 ed.). Rio de Janeiro:
Graphia. p. 91.
123. Torres, João Camilo de Oliveira (2017). A democracia coroada (https://bd.camara.leg.br/bd/bitstream/ha
ndle/bdcamara/36281/democracia_coroada_camilo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (PDF) (in
Portuguese). Brasília: Câmara dos Deputados. pp. 105–106. ISBN 978-85-402-0667-0.
124. Sousa, Galvão (1962). História do Direito Político Brasileiro (in Portuguese) (2 ed.). São Paulo: Saraiva.
pp. 125–126.
125. Faoro, Raymundo (2001). Os Donos do Poder (https://web.archive.org/web/20160804114059/http://ww
w.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDonosdoPoder.pdf) (PDF) (in Portuguese). Globo.
pp. 343–344. Archived from the original (http://www.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDono
sdoPoder.pdf) (PDF) on 4 August 2016.
126. McCaughey, J. Davis (1993). The Crown at State Level (https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/veiled-sc
eptre/rejection-of-advice-to-act-illegally-or-unconstitutionally/86BBD8142954446646630418C1291A12)
(Speech). Hugo Wolfsohn Memorial Lecture. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: La Trobe University.
Retrieved 15 April 2024.
127. Arthur Bousfield & Gary Toffoli, ed. (1991). Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada: Dundurn Press.
128. Walther L. Bernecker (January 1998). "Monarchy and Democracy: The Political Role of King Juan Carlos
in the Spanish Transicion" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/260997). Journal of Contemporary History. 33
(1): 65–84. doi:10.1177/003200949803300104 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F003200949803300104).
JSTOR 260997 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/260997).
129. The Monitor's Editorial Board (4 June 2019). "The Spanish king who set, then saved, democracy" (http
s://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2019/0604/The-Spanish-king-who-set-then-save
d-democracy). Christian Science Monitor. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
130. "Section 61 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s354).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
131. "Section 56 (3), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
132. "Section 64, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s388).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
133. "Section 65, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s393).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
134. "Section 62 (a), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
135. "Section 91, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s576).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
136. "Section 62 (b), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
137. "Section 68 (4), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
138. "Section 69 (6), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
139. "Section 116 (5), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s715).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
140. "Section 168, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1191).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
141. "Section 62 (e), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
142. "Section 123 (2), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s763).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
143. "Section 160, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1148).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
144. "Section 124 (4), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s768).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
145. "Section 152 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
146. "Section 62 (f), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
147. "Section 62 (h), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
148. "Section 63 (3), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
149. "Section 63 (2), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
150. "Section 63 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
151. "Section 62 (i), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
152. "Section 62 (j), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
153. "Functions of the Head of State" (https://www.casareal.es/EN/corona/Paginas/la-corona-hoy_papel-jefe.
aspx). Royal Household of Spain. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
154. "Section 62 (g), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
155. "Section 115, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s708).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
156. "Section 92, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s578).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
157. "Section 122 (3), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s756).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
158. "Section 159 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1136).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
159. "Section 62 (d), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
160. "Section 99, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
161. "Section 66, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s400).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
162. "Section 68, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
163. "Section 69, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
164. "Functions" (https://www.congreso.es/en/cem/func). Congress of Deputies of Spain. Retrieved 11 April
2024.
165. "Composition of the Senate" (https://www.senado.es/web/conocersenado/temasclave/composicionsenad
oelecciones/index.html). Senate of Spain. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
166. "Section 97, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
167. "Part V. Relations Between the Government and the Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution" (https://co
nstituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s677). Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
168. "Section 98 (1), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
169. "Section 97, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 15 April 2024.
170. "Section 100, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s636).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
171. "Section 98 (2), Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
172. "Section 99, Spanish Constitution" (https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625).
Constitute Project. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
173. Spanish Constitution 1978, Article 143.
174. Spanish Constitution 1978, Article 147.
175. "Catalonians vote for more autonomy" (http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vot
e/index.html). CNN. 18 June 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080604012034/http://editio
n.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html) from the original on 4 June 2008.
Retrieved 13 August 2008. See also: "Economic Survey: Spain 2005" (http://www.oecd.org/document/5
7/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080417005653/http://www.oecd.org/document/5
7/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html) from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved
13 August 2008. and "Country Briefings: Spain" (http://www.economist.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-F
actSheet). The Economist. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121014000013/http://www.economis
t.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-FactSheet) from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 9 August
2008. and "Swiss Experience With Decentralized Government" (http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decen
tralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf) (PDF). The World Bank. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20080819191608/http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
176. "Estatut" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090326021746/http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.
pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf)
(PDF) on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
177. "Nuevo Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110120074716/http://www2.
gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html). .gobiernodecanarias.org. Archived from the original
(http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html#pre) on 20 January 2011. Retrieved
30 April 2011.
178. "BOCAe32.QXD" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090711090828/http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_ille
s/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf) (PDF) (in Catalan). Archived from the original (http://www.c
aib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf) (PDF) on 11 July 2009.
Retrieved 20 July 2009.
179. "Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091211225055/http://narros.congres
o.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1).
Narros.congreso.es. Archived from the original (http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatuto
s.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1) on 11 December 2009. Retrieved 20 July
2009.
180. "Spain: Main executive and legislative bodies" (https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-s
ystems/spain/main-executive-and-legislative-bodies). European Commission. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
181. "Unidad de Policía de la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía" (http://www.cartujo.org/pag(a9).htm) (in
Spanish). Cartujo.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071107145807/http://www.cartujo.org/pa
g(a9).htm) from the original on 7 November 2007. Retrieved 23 October 2007.
182. Articles 140 and 141 (https://web.archive.org/web/20071026020151/http://www.constitucion.es/constituci
on/lenguas/ingles.html#8). Spanish Constitution of 1978
183. Garcia Cantalapiedra, David, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo, Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy
(Routledge, 2014). Pg. 126
184. "Resolution 2070: Question of Gibraltar" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183726/http://daccess-d
ds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement) (PDF). United
Nations. 16 December 1965. Archived from the original (http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTIO
N/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement) (PDF) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 19 February
2010.
185. "Resolution 2231: Question of Gibraltar" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183729/http://daccess-d
ds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement) (PDF). United
Nations. 20 December 1966. Archived from the original (http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTIO
N/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement) (PDF) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 19 February
2010.
186. "La cuestión de Gibraltar" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090529192351/http://www.maec.es/subwebs/
Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20T%C3%ADtulo.%20Prefac
io.%C3%8Dndice.%20Informe%20%2827.02.08%29.doc) (in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
Cooperation of Spain. January 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajada
s/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20Título.%20Prefacio.Índice.%20Inform
e%20(27.02.08).doc) on 29 May 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
187. Spain's letter to the UN (https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2
013.pdf) (PDF) (in Spanish), UN, September 2013, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201705251853
34/http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2013.pdf) (PDF) from
the original on 25 May 2017
188. "Spain disputes Portugal islands" (http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/spain-disputes-portugal-island
s/29269) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130908225016/http://www.theportugalnews.com/new
s/spain-disputes-portugal-islands/29269) 8 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Portugal
News. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
189. Fernández Liesa, Carlos R. (2004). "La cuestión de Olivenza, a la luz del Derecho internacional público"
(http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1)
(PDF). Encuentros: Revista luso-española de investigadores en Ciencias humanas y sociales.
Separatas (4). Ayuntamiento de Olivenza: 234–235. ISSN 1138-6622 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/11
38-6622). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140829092427/http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/ha
ndle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF) from the original on 29 August
2014.
190. Spanish Constitution 1978, Article 8.
191. Spanish Constitution 1978, Article 62.
192. "El jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército de Tierra y 11 tenientes generales aspiran a JEMAD" (https://www.
lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-estado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-teni
entes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html). La Vanguardia. 6 November 2016. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20200201044144/https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-est
ado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-tenientes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html) from the original on 1
February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
193. "Update: Spain to increase defence spending" (http://www.janes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-incre
ase-defence-spending). janes.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073610/http://www.j
anes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-increase-defence-spending) from the original on 18 May 2015.
Retrieved 8 May 2015.
194. Julve, Rafa (9 March 2016). "Señores, se acabó la mili" (https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/201603
09/supresion-mili-servicio-militar-2001-aniversario-4962193). El Periódico. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20200201043203/https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20160309/supresion-mili-servicio-milit
ar-2001-aniversario-4962193) from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
195. "2024 Global Peace Index" (https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024
-web.pdf) (PDF).
196. Spanish Constitution 1978, preamble.
197. Spain 2015/2016 (https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/spain/report-spain)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160808081615/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-a
nd-central-asia/spain/report-spain/) 8 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International.
Retrieved 22 June 2016.
198. "Analysis of 8 years of Gender Violence Law in Spain | Gender violence and justice" (http://justiciadegen
ero.com/en/analysis-of-8-years-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/). justiciadegenero.com. 4 March 2015.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185333/http://justiciadegenero.com/en/analysis-of-8-yea
rs-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
199. Rincón, Reyes (25 November 2015). "The successes and failures of Spain's fight against domestic
abuse" (http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_599926.html). EL PAÍS. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170525190421/http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_5
99926.html) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
200. "Global Acceptance of Homosexuality" (https://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-ho
mosexuality/). Pew Research Center. 4 June 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201411100517
28/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/) from the original on 10
November 2014.
201. "SPAIN: No Turning Back from Path to Gender Equality" (http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turni
ng-back-from-path-to-gender-equality/). Ipsnews.net. 15 March 2007. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20140419015814/http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turning-back-from-path-to-gender-equal
ity/) from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
202. "Women in National Parliaments" (http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm). Ipu.org. 28 February 2010.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm) from the
original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
203. "Human Development Report 2007/2008" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110429033726/http://hdr.undp.
org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf) (PDF). Hdr.undp.org. p. 330. Archived from the
original (http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf) (PDF) on 29 April 2011.
Retrieved 18 January 2014.
204. Lluch, Jorge. "The real reason Spain's economy is bucking the trend of European decline" (https://fortun
e.com/europe/2024/11/26/real-reason-spain-economy-bucking-trend-european-decline-starrtups-tech/).
Fortune Europe. Retrieved 14 December 2024.
205. "Spain shows Europe how to keep up with America's economy" (https://www.economist.com/europe/202
4/12/12/spain-shows-europe-how-to-keep-up-with-americas-economy). The Economist. ISSN 0013-
0613 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613). Retrieved 14 December 2024.
206. "Spain - Migration, Immigration, Emigration | Britannica" (https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Migrati
on#ref70285). www.britannica.com. 11 December 2024. Retrieved 14 December 2024.
207. "Economically Active Population Survey. Fourth Quarter 2024" (https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/op
eracion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595). INE
Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Retrieved 29 January 2025.
208. Benton, Lauren A. (1990). Invisible Factories: The Informal Economy and Industrial Development in
Spain. SUNY Press.
209. Roberto A. Ferdman, Spain's Black Market Economy Is Worth 20% of Its GDP: One million Spanish
people have jobs in the underground economy (https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/07/sp
ains-black-market-economy-is-worth-20-of-its-gdp/277840/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170
911114536/https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/07/spains-black-market-economy-is-worth
-20-of-its-gdp/277840/) 11 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Atlantic (16 July 2013)
210. Angel Alañón & M. Gómez-Antonio, [Estimating the size of the shadow economy in Spain: a structural
model with latent variables], Applies Economics, Vol 37, Issue 9, pp. 1011–1025 (2005).
211. "OECD report for 2006" (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf) (PDF). OECD. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf) (PDF)
from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
212. Salmon, K. (2001). "Privatisation of state-owned enterprises in Spain: redefining the political economy"
(https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/handle/2299/4282). International Journal of Iberian Studies. 14 (3): 136–147.
doi:10.1386/ijis.14.3.136 (https://doi.org/10.1386%2Fijis.14.3.136). ISSN 1364-971X (https://search.worl
dcat.org/issn/1364-971X).
213. "A good bet?" (http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705). The
Economist. Business. Madrid. 30 April 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090504012604/htt
p://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705) from the original on 4 May 2009.
Retrieved 14 May 2009.
214. "Spain's Iberdrola signs investment accord with Gulf group Taqa" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100607
172216/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html). Forbes. 25 May 2008. Archived
from the original (https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html) on 7 June 2010.
215. "Big in America?" (http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445). The
Economist. Business. Madrid. 8 April 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090412092504/htt
p://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445) from the original on 12 April
2009. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
216. "Spain is the 2nd largest automaker in Europe and the 8th largest in the world" (https://www.investinspai
n.org/en/industries/automotive-mobility). ICEX-Invest in Spain. 22 July 2024 – via investinspain.org.
217. "Tourist Movement on Borders" (https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=23984). National Statistics
Institute (Spain). 3 February 2025. Retrieved 3 February 2025.
218. "Spain sets a new record with 94 million international tourists last year" (https://apnews.com/article/spain
-tourism-record-housing-crisis-c9ef4af335ac6194dc4a71f73c4af4eb). Associated Press. 15 January
2025. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
219. "Touristic expenditure" (https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=23994). National Statistics Institute
(Spain). 3 February 2025. Retrieved 3 February 2025.
220. "Tourism Satellite Account of Spain. Year 2023" (https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=
Estadistica_C&cid=1254736169169&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735576863). ine.es. National Statistics
Institute (Spain).
221. "Spain Is World's Leader in Solar Energy" (https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12853
2115). NPR.org. NPR. 15 July 2010. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100919210041/http://www.
npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115) from the original on 19 September 2010.
Retrieved 4 September 2010.
222. "Spain becomes solar power world leader" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101124024231/http://europea
nfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader).
Europeanfutureenergyforum.com. 14 July 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.europeanfutureen
ergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader) on 24 November
2010. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
223. Villalobos, Alvaro (6 May 2018). "Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector" (https://phys.
org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.html). Phys.org (in Spanish). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20221224013552/https://phys.org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.
html) from the original on 24 December 2022. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
224. AFP (6 May 2018). "Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector" (https://www.thelocal.es/2
0180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lead-european-wind-power-sector). The Local (in Spanish). Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20180706161819/https://www.thelocal.es/20180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lea
d-european-wind-power-sector) from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
225. "Spain becomes the first European wind energy producer after overcoming Germany for the first time" (h
ttp://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082). Eolic Energy News. 31 December 2010. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20110427085056/http://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082) from the original on 27
April 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
226. "Asociación Empresarial Eólica – Spanish Wind Energy Association – Energía Eólica" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20211020220021/https://aeeolica.org/en/). Aeeolica. Archived from the original (http://www.ae
eolica.org/en) on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
227. Méndez, Rafael (9 November 2009). "La eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción
eléctrica" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/
elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes). El País (in Spanish). Ediciones El País. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20110513064239/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/
produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes) from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved
8 August 2010.
228. "Wind power in Spain breaks new instantaneous power record" (https://web.archive.org/web/201112141
41437/http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Es
pa%C3%B1a%20bate%20de%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/l
en/en/). renovablesmadeinspain.es. 9 November 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.renovable
smadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Espa%C3%B1a%20bate%20d
e%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/len/en/) on 14 December
2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
229. "14 reactores nucleares movidos por el viento" (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/reactores/nucle
ares/movidos/viento/elpepusoc/20101109elpepusoc_4/Tes). El País. 9 November 2010. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20230912033952/https://elpais.com/sociedad/2010/11/09/actualidad/128925720
4_850215.html) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
230. "La Fuerza del Mar" (http://revista.consumer.es/web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php).
revista.consumer.es. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110826034707/http://revista.consumer.es/
web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php) from the original on 26 August 2011. Retrieved 5 June
2011.
231. Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror),
Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [1] (http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energi
myndigheten&view=default&cat=/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energi
myndigheten&view=default&cat=%2FBroschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f) 16
October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
232. "Scimago Institution Rankings" (https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all). Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20200308131304/https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all) from the
original on 8 March 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
233. World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of
Social Entrepreneurship (https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/). World
Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062 (https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.5006
2). ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 6 October 2024.
234. Añón Higón, Dolores; Díez-Minguela, Alfonso (2021). "Do universities matter for the location of foreign
R&D?" (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23409444211042382). Business Research Quarterly. 27 (2): 1; 5.
doi:10.1177/23409444211042382 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23409444211042382). hdl:10550/88686 (h
ttps://hdl.handle.net/10550%2F88686). S2CID 239695136 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23
9695136).
235. Giachi, Sandro; Fernández-Esquinas, Manuel (2020). "Mapping heterogeneity in a research system: The
emergence of a 'hybrid' organizational field between science and industry" (https://academic.oup.com/re
v/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304714258). Research Evaluation. 29 (4): 392–405.
doi:10.1093/reseval/rvaa014 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Freseval%2Frvaa014). Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20220511005340/https://academic.oup.com/rev/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304
714258) from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
236. "Algae Based Biofuels in Plain English: Why it Matters, How it Works. (algae algaebiofuels
carbonsequestration valcent vertigro algaebasedbiofuels ethanol)" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013051
8085937/http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it
-works/). Triplepundit.com. 30 July 2008. Archived from the original (http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/
algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it-works/) on 18 May 2013. Retrieved
19 November 2008.
237. "Spain to Put 1 million Electric Cars on the Road" (http://www.enn.com/energy/article/37798).
Triplepundit.com. 30 July 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081123072310/http://www.enn.
com/energy/article/37798) from the original on 23 November 2008. Retrieved 19 November 2008.
238. "Red de Alta Velocidad" (https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/red-de-alta-velocidad). ADIF.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20250220154534/https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/
red-de-alta-velocidad) from the original on 20 February 2025. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
239. Lara Galera, Antonio L. (2015). "El AVE Madrid-Barcelona, una obra de mérito" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20200201214714/http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf) (PDF).
Revista de Obras Públicas (3569): 57. ISSN 0034-8619 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-8619).
Archived from the original (http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf) (PDF)
on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
240. "El AVE español, el más veloz del mundo y el segundo en puntualidad" (http://www.elmundo.es/mundodi
nero/2010/11/09/economia/1289304399.html). El Mundo. Spain. 10 November 2010. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20111109012118/http://www.elmundo.es/mundodinero/2010/11/09/economia/128930
4399.html) from the original on 9 November 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
241. "Spain powers ahead with high-speed rail" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092807/http://www.rail
pro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34). railpro.co.uk. January 2010. Archived from the original (http://www.r
ailpro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
242. "Population Figures" (http://www.ine.es). Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Statistics Institute).
Retrieved 13 February 2025.
243. Joseph Harrison, David Corkill (2004). Spain: A Modern European Economy. Ashgate Publishing. p. 23.
ISBN 0-7546-0145-5.
244. "Indice coyuntural de fecundidad" (https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C
&cid=1254736177003&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735573002). Instituto Nacional de Estadística.
Retrieved 19 June 2024.
245. Roser, Max (2014), "Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries" (https://ourworldindata.
org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP), Our World in Data, Gapminder
Foundation, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180807185751/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/c
hildren-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP) from the original on 7 August 2018, retrieved 8 May
2019
246. "World Factbook EUROPE : SPAIN" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/), The
World Factbook, 12 July 2018, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210927024323/https://www.cia.g
ov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/) from the original on 27 September 2021, retrieved 23 January
2021
247. "Población extranjera por sexo, país de nacionalidad y edad" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080325043
135/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp04%2
Fa2005%2Fl0%2F&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Fcgi.opt&CO
MANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=%2Finebase%2Fcgi%2F). Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Archived
from the original (http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=/inebase/temas/t20/e245/p04/a2005/l0/
&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=/inebase/temas/cgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_U
RL=/inebase/cgi/) on 25 March 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
248. "EU27 Member States granted citizenship to 696 000 persons in 2008 (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/
cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-06072010-AP/EN/3-06072010-AP-EN.PDF) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20140906072250/https://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-06072010-AP/EN/3-060720
10-AP-EN.PDF) 6 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine" (PDF). Eurostat. 6 July 2010.
249. "Immigration statistics" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm). BBC. 11 December 2006.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130408081743/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.st
m) from the original on 8 April 2013. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
250. "Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Estadística del Padrón Continuo" (https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/e
s/ECP4T24.htm). ine.es. Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
251. "Cifras de Población (CP) a 1 de enero de 2025 Estadística de Migraciones (EM). Datos provisionales"
(https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/es/ECP4T24.htm). ine.es (in Spanish). Instituto Nacional de
Estadística. Retrieved 13 February 2025.
252. INE (http://www.ine.es/prensa/np648.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130723120919/http://
www.ine.es/prensa/np648.pdf) 23 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine, 2011.
253. "Financial crisis reveals vulnerability of Spain's immigrants – Feature (https://archive.today/2012053005
0737/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/295183,financial-crisis-reveals-vulnerability-of-spains-immi
grants--feature.html)". The Earth Times. 18 November 2009.
254. "Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20080726044741/http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06_02demog.pdf) (PDF). Instituto
Nacional de Estadística. Archived from the original (http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06
_02demog.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008. and "Spain: Immigrants Welcome" (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20081006223656/https://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_21/b4
035066.htm). Business Week. Archived from the original (http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/conte
nt/07_21/b4035066.htm) on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008. and "Immigrants Fuel Europe's
Civilization Clash" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080513052346/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/146285
64/site/newsweek/print/1/displaymode/1098/). MSNBC. Archived from the original (https://www.msnbc.m
sn.com/id/14628564/site/newsweek/print/1/displaymode/1098/) on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 13 August
2008. and "Spanish youth clash with immigrant gangs" (http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spa
in.php). International Herald Tribune. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080603175159/http://ww
w.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spain.php) from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 13 August
2008.
255. "Population in Europe in 2005" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://epp.eurostat.ec.eur
opa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF) (PDF). Eurostat. Archived from
the original (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-E
N.PDF) (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
256. Spain to increase immigration budget (http://www.workpermit.com/news/2007-10-10/spain/spanish-immi
gration-budget-increases.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080830020653/http://workpermit.
com/news/2007-10-10/spain/spanish-immigration-budget-increases.htm) 30 August 2008 at the
Wayback Machine, 10 October 2007
257. Tremlett, Giles (9 May 2005). "Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants" (https://www.theguardian.co
m/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett). The Guardian. London. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20130829050736/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett) from the original
on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
258. "Population series from 1998" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071102141040/http://www.ine.es/inebase/
cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0). INE Spanish Statistical Institute.
Archived from the original (http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcax
is&N=&L=0) on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2008.
259. "Europeans Favour Spain for Expat Jobs" (http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495). News.bg.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081010033728/http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_140616149
5) from the original on 10 October 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
260. Plan de Retorno Voluntario (http://www.planderetornovoluntario.es/index_uno.html) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20111018081322/https://www.planderetornovoluntario.es/index_uno.html) 18 October
2011 at the Wayback Machine Gobierno de España
261. Spain's Jobs Crisis Leaves Immigrants Out of Work (https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1232755523599118
07) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170710041236/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123275552
359911807) 10 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Wall Street Journal, 24 January 2009
262. 580.000 personas se van de España (http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Esp
ana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111115152500/http://
www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes)
15 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011
263. Conversi, Daniele (2002). "The Smooth Transition: Spain's 1978 Constitution and the Nationalities
Question" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080511172945/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.
pdf) (PDF). National Identities, Vol 4, No. 3. Carfax Publishing, Inc. Archived from the original (http://easy
web.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.pdf) (PDF) on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2008.
264. Casado Velarde, Manuel (2011). "Spain, a plurilingual state: Spanish and other official languages" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA129). In Stickel, Gerhard (ed.). National,
regional and minority languages in Europe. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. p. 129. ISBN 978-3-631-60365-9.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeV
XgC&pg=PA129) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2021.
265. Ramallo 2018, p. 465.
266. Ramallo, Fernando (2018). "17. Linguistic diversity in Spain" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3
25696721). In Ayres-Bennett, Wendy; Carruthers, Janice (eds.). Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics.
De Gruyter. p. 462. doi:10.1515/9783110365955-018 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110365955-018).
ISBN 9783110365955. S2CID 158999790 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158999790).
267. Ramallo 2018, p. 463.
268. "CIA – The World Factbook – 5pain" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/). Cia.gov.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210927024323/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countrie
s/spain/) from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
269. Recalde Fernández, Montserrat (2016). "A contribución da inmigración ao multilingüismo do Estado
español" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210725112956/https://gramatica.usc.es/att/montserrat.recalde/
Recalde_2016.pdf) (PDF). In Recalde Fernández, Montserrat; Silva Domínguez, Carme (eds.). Ser
inmigrante en tempos de crise: Unha ollada multidisciplinar. Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio
Científico da Universidade de Compostela. p. 175. doi:10.15304/9788416533015 (https://doi.org/10.153
04%2F9788416533015). ISBN 9788416533015. Archived from the original (https://gramatica.usc.es/att/
montserrat.recalde/Recalde_2016.pdf) (PDF) on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
270. La Ley Orgánica 2/2006 (http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20110525013507/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html) 25
May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23 September 2009
271. Ley Orgánica 8/2013 (http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la
-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150212202355/http://noti
cias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativ
a.html) 12 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 December 2013
272. De la LGE a la LOMCE: Así son las siete leyes educativas españolas de la democracia (http://www.teint
eresa.es/educa/siete-leyes-educativas-franco-wert-zapatero-aznar-ucd-psoe-pp_0_1007900025.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150212211059/http://www.teinteresa.es/educa/siete-leyes-educ
ativas-franco-wert-zapatero-aznar-ucd-psoe-pp_0_1007900025.html) 12 February 2015 at the Wayback
Machine. teinteresa.es
273. "Educación Primaria │Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
201105082455/http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-primaria.html) (in
Spanish). Archived from the original (http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-
primaria.html) on 5 November 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
274. "Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO)│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20201116053618/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion
-secundaria.html) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/e
studiantes/educacion-secundaria.html) on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
275. "Bachillerato│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional" (https://web.archive.org/web/202011262
20810/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html). Archived from the
original (https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html) on 26 November
2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
276. "La Formación Profesional actual en el sistema educativo – TodoFP│Ministerio de Educación y
Formación Profesional" (https://web.archive.org/web/20201031234851/https://www.todofp.es/sobre-fp/inf
ormacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (https://w
ww.todofp.es/sobre-fp/informacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html) on 31 October 2020.
Retrieved 26 November 2020.
277. "Compare your country - PISA 2018" (https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en).
www2.compareyourcountry.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210927232854/https://www2.c
ompareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en) from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved
29 September 2021.
278. "The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): Spain" (https://www.oecd.org/pisa/public
ations/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210929211954/https://w
ww.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2021.
Retrieved 29 September 2021.
279. World Health Organization, World Health Staff, (2000), Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds., The
world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance (PDF), Geneva: World Health
Organization, ISBN 92-4-156198-X
280. "Health care in Spain: Beneficiairies" (http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPe
nsion10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501). seg-social.es.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185420/http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadore
s/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501)
from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
281. CIS."Barómetro de Enero de 2023" (https://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es3395marMT_A.pdf), 3,961 respondents.
The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no
practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?". Page 19.
282. Ley 26/1992 (https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24855) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20161126142129/http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24855) 26
November 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Documento BOE-A-1992-24855, Agencia Estatal Boletín
Oficial del Estado
283. Ley 25/1992 (https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24854) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20161227231842/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24854) 27 December
2016 at the Wayback Machine, Documento BOE-A-1992-24854, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del
Estado
284. Ley 24/1992 (https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24853) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20161126142109/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24853) 26 November
2016 at the Wayback Machine, Documento BOE-A-1992-24853, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del
Estado
285. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas: Barómetro de Julio 2020, página 21. (http://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es3
288marMT_A.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200720202206/http://datos.cis.es/pdf/Es328
8marMT_A.pdf) 20 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa:
católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no
creyente, o ateo/a?
286. Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (Centre for Sociological Research) (October 2019).
"Macrobarómetro de octubre 2019, Banco de datos" (http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estu
dios/ver.jsp?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446) (in Spanish). p. 160. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20200614123408/http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.js
p?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446) from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved
17 December 2019. The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante,
católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religion, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?",
the weight used was "PESOCCAA" which reflects the population sizes of the Autonomous communities
of Spain.
287. "WVS Database" (http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp). World Values Survey. Institute for
Comparative Survey Research. March 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160105141038/htt
p://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp) from the original on 5 January 2016.
288. "Gallup International Religiosity Index" (https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/
WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf) (PDF). The Washington Post. WIN-Gallup
International. April 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160201065414/https://www.washingto
npost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 1 February 2016.
289. "Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España – FEREDE" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110930083055/http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1). Ferede.org. Archived from the
original (http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1) on 30 September 2011. Retrieved
4 September 2010.
290. "Spain – Newsroom" (https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/country/spain). churchofjesuschrist.org.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200614092620/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/countr
y/spain) from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
291. "Los musulmanes en España superan por primera vez los 2 millones de personas" (https://www.heraldo.
es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-personas-135954
4.html). El Heraldo. September 2020. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201004014226/https://ww
w.heraldo.es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-person
as-1359544.html) from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
292. "Countries With the Most Cultural Influence" (https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/rankings/infl
uence). U.S. News. 1 January 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
293. Townson, N. (2007). Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959-1975. Routledge. p. 7.
ISBN 9780230592643.
294. "Spain" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es). UNESCO Culture Sector. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20140926042250/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es) from the original on 26
September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
295. "Spain – Intangible Cultural Heritage" (http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/es). UNESCO Culture
Sector. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140914115731/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/stat
e/es) from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
296. Gies, David T. (2004). The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 73–74. ISBN 0-521-80618-6.
297. Dapueto Reyes, María de los Ángeles (2015). "Literatura hispanorromance primigenia : la glosa
conoajutorio del Codex Aemilianensis 60" (http://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774).
Letras. 2 (72). Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina Santa María de los Buenos Aires: 90.
ISSN 0326-3363 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0326-3363). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
200806072649/https://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774) from the original on 6
August 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
298. Labanyi, Jo (2010). Spanish Literature. A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 18–19.
ISBN 978-0-19-920805-0.
299. Labanyi 2010, p. 24.
300. Labanyi 2010, p. 21.
301. Amorós Negre, Carla (2016), "The spread of Castilian/Spanish in Spain and the Americas: A relatively
successful language standardisation experience" (https://www.academia.edu/34053466),
Sociolinguistica, 1 (30): 26–28, doi:10.1515/soci-2016-0003 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fsoci-2016-000
3), ISSN 0933-1883 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0933-1883), S2CID 132493573 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:132493573), archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220531021154/https://ww
w.academia.edu/34053466) from the original on 31 May 2022, retrieved 5 April 2022
302. González Subías, José Luis (2007). "La extensión del Romanticismo en España" (https://revistas.uca.e
s/index.php/cir/article/view/236/2058). Cuadernos de Ilustración y Romanticismo: Revista del Grupo de
Estudios del siglo XVIII (15). Editorial UCA: 226; 228–229. ISSN 2173-0687 (https://search.worldcat.org/
issn/2173-0687). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011002/https://revistas.uca.es/index.p
hp/cir/article/view/236/2058) from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
303. Abad, Francisco (2007). "La 'Edad de Plata' (1868-1936) y las generaciones de la Edad de Plata :
cultura y filología" (http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-0906-715F-602D-3
CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf) (PDF). Epos. Revista de Filología (23): 244–245. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20220412004832/http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-09
06-715F-602D-3CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved
5 April 2022.
304. Orringer, Nelson R. (1998). "Redefining the Spanish Silver Age and '98 Within It". Anales de la literatura
Española Contemporánea. 23 (1/2). Society of Spanish & Spanish-American Studies: 317.
JSTOR 25642011 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25642011).
305. Labanyi 2010, p. 61.
306. Coluzzi, Paolo (2007). Minority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the
Situation of Friulian, Cimbrian and Western Lombard with Reference to Spanish Minority Languages (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103). Peter Lang. p. 103.
ISBN 9783039110414. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033942/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103) from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 15 April
2022.
307. Coluzzi 2007, pp. 103–104.
308. Antonova, N.V.; Myagkov, G.P; Nikolaeva, O.A (2019). "Genesis problem of philosophical thought in
spanish historiography" (https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf) (PDF).
Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana. 24 (5). Universidad del Zulia: 66–67. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20220401042617/https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf) (PDF) from
the original on 1 April 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
309. Caponigri, A. Robert (1967). Contemporary Spanish Philosophy (https://web.archive.org/web/202204021
43134/https://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%
20Spanish%20Philosophy%20(Caponigri).pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (https://yunus.hacettep
e.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%20Spanish%20Philosophy%
20(Caponigri).pdf) (PDF) on 2 April 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
310. Antonova, Myagkov & Nikolaeva 2019, p. 67.
311. Caponigri 1967, p. 169–170.
312. Anirudh. "10 Most Famous Paintings by Diego Velazquez | Learnodo Newtonic" (https://learnodo-newton
ic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201124092357/http
s://learnodo-newtonic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings) from the original on 24 November 2020.
Retrieved 21 November 2020.
313. Montes Fernández 2011, pp. 602–603.
314. Montes Fernández 2011, p. 603.
315. Montes Fernández, Francisco José (2011). "Recordando la historia del cine español" (https://dialnet.uniri
oja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf) (PDF). Anuario Jurídico y Económico Escurialense. XLIV.
ISSN 1133-3677 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1133-3677). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
20417135936/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 17
April 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
316. Montes Fernández 2011, pp. 609–610.
317. Jordan, Barry; Morgan-Tamosunas, Rikki (1998). Contemporary spanish cinema (https://archive.org/deta
ils/contemporaryspan0000jord). Manchester University Press.
318. Yuste, Javier (13 December 2019). "Viaje por la cara B del cine español" (https://www.elespanol.com/el-
cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-espanol/451706612_0.html). El Cultural. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20220401051257/https://www.elespanol.com/el-cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-esp
anol/451706612_0.html) from the original on 1 April 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022 – via El Español.
319. "El Festival de San Sebastián y el de Málaga, entre las diez iniciativas culturales más importantes de
España en 2021" (https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-san-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las
-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/). Audiovisual451. 9 February 2022.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220209173041/https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-s
an-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/)
from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
320. La Spina, V (2018). "Earth and gypsum: From theory to practice in Spanish vernacular architecture". In
Mileto, C.; Vegas López-Manzanares, F.; García-Soriano, L.; Cristini, V. (eds.). Vernacular and Earthen
Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability. London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-1-138-
03546-1.
321. Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West. North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.
New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-300-21870-1.
322. Bloom 2020, p. 171.
323. Leblon, Bernard (2003). Gypsies and Flamenco: The Emergence of the Art of Flamenco in Andalusia (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=farZoyKozikC). Translated by Ni Shuinear, Sinead. Hatfield: University
of Hertfordshire Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 9781902806051.
324. "Music Festivals, UK Festivals and London Festivals" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111028170946/htt
p://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/). Spoonfed.co.uk. Archived from the original (http://www.spoonf
ed.co.uk/london/festivals/) on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
325. "The History of the Guitar in Spain" (http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm). Linguatics.com. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110429082016/http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm) from the original on 29
April 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
326. Richardson, Paul (19 August 2007). "Spain's perfect paella" (https://web.archive.org/web/201006041742
10/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece). The Times. London. Archived from the
original (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece) on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 6 August
2010.
327. DiGregorio, Sarah (1 December 2009). "Spain Gain at Mercat Negre" (http://www.villagevoice.com/2009
-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/). The Village Voice. New York. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20091208050334/http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-
negre/) from the original on 8 December 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2010.
328. Smillie, Susan (18 January 2010). "World's most expensive ham?" (https://www.theguardian.com/lifeand
style/wordofmouth/2010/jan/18/worlds-most-expesive-ham-jamon). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191031011437/https://
www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/jan/18/worlds-most-expesive-ham-jamon) from the
original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
329. Limón, Raúl (7 March 2016). "The world's most expensive ham is from Huelva and costs €4,100 a leg"
(https://elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/07/inenglish/1457342056_191303.html). El País. ISSN 1134-6582 (htt
ps://search.worldcat.org/issn/1134-6582). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191127235546/http
s://elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/07/inenglish/1457342056_191303.html) from the original on 27 November
2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
330. "Bank holidays in Spain" (http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm). bank-holidays.com.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080918001803/http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_5
8.htm) from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
331. Nogués y Secall (1862), 68 (https://archive.org/stream/historiacritica00secagoog#page/n92/mode/2up).
332. Paloma Aguilar, Carsten Humlebæk, "Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish
Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War", History & Memory, 1 April 2002, pag. 121–
164
333. "Acuerdo entre el Reino de España y Nueva Zelanda sobre participación en determinadas elecciones de
los nacionales de cada país residentes en el territorio del otro, hecho en Wellington el 23 de junio de
2009" (http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/ai281209-aec.html). Noticias Jurídicas. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20160831012228/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/ai281209-
aec.html) from the original on 31 August 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2010.

Works cited
Gates, David (2001). The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-
306-81083-1.
"The Spanish Constitution" (https://www.boe.es/legislacion/documentos/ConstitucionINGLES.pdf) (PDF).
Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado. 1978. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
Marcos, F. Javier (2006). La Sierra de Atapuerca y el Valle del Arlanzón. Patrones de asentamiento
prehistóricos (https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=264088). Editorial Dossoles. Burgos, Spain.
ISBN 9788496606289.
Marcos, F. Javier (2016). La Prehistoria Reciente del entorno de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos,
España) (https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=663925). British Archaeological Reports (Oxford,
U.K.), BAR International Series 2798. ISBN 9781407315195.

Further reading
Carr, Raymond, ed. Spain: a history. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000.
Callaghan O.F. Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press 1983.
Frank, Waldo D. Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great People (https://www.gutenber
g.org/ebooks/74212) NYC: Boni & Liveright, 1926.

External links
Spain (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/). The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency.
Spain (https://web.archive.org/web/20080821113429/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/spain.h
tm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Spain (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17941641) from the BBC News
Key Development Forecasts for Spain (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ES)
from International Futures

Government

E-Government portal for Spain (https://administracion.gob.es/pag_Home/en/index.html#.XLTfN-gzaUk)

Maps

Wikimedia Atlas of Spain

Geographic data related to Spain (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/1311341) at
OpenStreetMap

Tourism

Official tourism portal for Spain (http://www.spain.info/en/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spain&oldid=1277039719"