1.

1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter of a literature review consists of relevant information, data about the problem at
hand which are obtained from different sources. The purpose of a literature review is to give an
accurate and complete accounting of the current state of knowledge for whichever research
question is being addressed. It is an essential feature of scholarship because without it the reader
cannot judge whether the author is well informed or whether the work that is being presented is
novel and original (Micke Heyvaert 2016)

1.2 OVERVIEW OF GOLD EXTRACTION METHODS

Gold extraction methods are critical in the mining and metallurgy industries, as they determine
how efficiently gold can be recovered from ore. The choice of method depends on various
factors including the type of ore, its mineral composition, and economic considerations. The
primary methods for extracting gold include gravity separation, flotation, and cyanide leaching.

1.2.1 GRAVITY SEPARATION

Gravity separation is one of the oldest and most straightforward methods used for gold
extraction. This technique exploits the differences in density between gold and other minerals
present in the ore. It is particularly effective for free-milling gold ores where gold particles are
liberated from the surrounding material.

The process begins with crushing and grinding the ore to liberate the gold particles. Once
ground, the material is mixed with water to create a slurry. Gravity concentration devices such as
sluice boxes, jigs, or shaking tables are then employed to separate heavier gold particles from
lighter gangue materials based on their different settling velocities.

Gravity separation is known for its high efficiency and low environmental impact compared to
chemical methods. It requires less energy and does not involve toxic chemicals.

However, this method may not be effective for very fine gold particles (less than 200 mesh) or
when dealing with complex ores that contain sulfides or other minerals that can interfere with
separation.
1.2.2 FLOTATION
Flotation is another widely used method for extracting gold, especially from sulfide ores where
gold is encapsulated within sulfide minerals like pyrite or arsenopyrite.

In flotation, finely ground ore is mixed with water and reagents that selectively render certain
minerals hydrophobic (water-repellent). Air bubbles are introduced into the slurry; hydrophobic
particles attach to these bubbles and rise to form a froth layer that can be skimmed off, while
hydrophilic materials remain submerged.

Flotation allows for higher recovery rates of fine-grained gold compared to gravity methods and
can effectively separate complex ores be containing multiple valuable minerals. The flotation
process can be complex and requires significant investment in equipment and reagents.
Additionally, it may lead to environmental pollution if not managed properly.

1.2.3 CYANIDE LEACHING

Cyanide leaching has become one of the most common techniques for extracting gold from low-
grade ores due to its effectiveness in dissolving both free-milling and refractory gold.

In this method, crushed ore is treated with a dilute cyanide solution which dissolves the gold into
a solution of sodium cyanide (NaCN). The resulting solution contains soluble gold complexes
which can then be recovered through various means such as carbon adsorption or electro-
winning.

Cyanide leaching is highly efficient at recovering small amounts of gold from large volumes of
ore, making it economically viable even for low-grade deposits. Despite its effectiveness,
cyanide is highly toxic and poses significant environmental risks if not handled correctly. Many
countries have imposed strict regulations on its use in mining operations due to concerns over
potential contamination of water sources.

In summary, each method of gold extraction has its own set of advantages and limitations that
must be carefully considered based on specific operational contexts. Gravity separation is best
suited for free-milling ores. Flotation excels in processing complex sulfide ores. Cyanide
leaching offers high recovery rates but comes with environmental challenges. The selection of an
appropriate extraction method plays a crucial role in maximizing recovery rates while
minimizing costs and environmental impacts associated with mining operations.

1.3 FUNDAMENTALS ON GOLD DISSOLUTION

Gold cyanidation process which is also termed the MacArthur-Forrest process discovered in the
19th century is a hydrometallurgical technique for extracting gold from low-grade ore by
converting the gold to a water-soluble coordination complex. It is the most commonly used
leaching process for gold extraction. Mechanism of cyanidation is presented in the reactions
below:
2Au + 4CN- + O2 + 2H2O → 2Au (CN)2- + H2O2 + 2OH- [eq.1]

2Au + 4CN- + H2O2 → 2Au (CN)2- + 2OH- [ eq 2]

The summation of the two partial reactions given above are, known as Elsner equation:

4Au + 8CN- + +O2 + H2O2 → 4Au (CN)2- + 4OH- [eq 3]

The full chemical reaction for the dissolution of gold, is as follows:

4Au(s) + 8NaCN(aq) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 4Na [Au (CN)2] (aq) + NaOH(aq) [eq-4]

In this redox process, oxygen removes, via a two-step reaction, one electron from each gold atom
to form the complex Au (CN) 2- ion. Oxygen is one of the reagents consumed during
cyanidation, and a deficiency in dissolved oxygen slows leaching rate. Air or pure oxygen gas
can be purged through the pulp to maximize the dissolved oxygen concentration (Suman , et al.,
2019).
FIGURE 2. 1 GOLD KINETICS REACTION PROCESS

Oxygen can also be added by dosing the pulp with hydrogen peroxide solution. In order to
successfully dissolve gold, there is need of two components:
A complexing agent
An oxidizing agent.
In the case of the Elsner’s sodium cyanide is the complexing and oxygen is the oxidizing agent.
Other oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate, potassium ferric-cyanide, sodium peroxide
etc. are not used because of their cost. They also have the tendency to oxidize the cyanide to
cyanate which will hinder the leaching process. Water is useful to dissolve the cyanide hence
bring forth the cyanide ions for complex formation with gold.

In some ores, particularly those that are partially sulfurized, aeration (prior to the introduction of
cyanide) of the ore in water at high pH can render elements such as iron and sulfur less reactive
to cyanide, therefore making the gold cyanidation process more efficient. Lime is added to
maintain a high pH level in leaching and prevent the formation of the poisonous hydrogen
cyanide. Dissolution involves an electrochemical process in which the anodic reaction is gold
oxidation while the cathodic reaction is oxygen reduction. (Senanayake , 2008) Has illustrated
the gold ion diffusion through the interfaces into the solution as shown in figure below
FIGURE 2. 2GOLD DISSOLUTION ILLUSTRATION

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF STIBNITE ORE IN GOLD RECOVERY

Gold is one of the most sought-after metals in the world, prized for its rarity, beauty, and unique
properties. The processing of gold ores is a complex field that encompasses various types of ores
and their respective processing channels. This literature review will explore the different types of
gold ores, their characteristics, and the methods employed for their extraction and processing.

1.5 TYPES OF GOLD ORES

Gold ores can be classified into several categories based on their mineralogical composition and
the geological environment in which they are found. The primary types include:

1.5.1 NATIVE GOLD

This form consists of gold in its elemental state, often found in quartz veins or alluvial deposits.
Native gold is typically associated with other minerals such as silver and copper.

 GOLD-SILVER ORES
These ores contain significant amounts of both gold and silver. They are often processed together
due to their close association in nature. The extraction methods may vary depending on the
relative concentrations of each metal.
1.5.2 SULPHIDE ORES
Sulphide minerals such as pyrite (FeS₂) or arsenopyrite (FeAsS) can host gold within their
structure. These ores require more complex processing techniques to liberate the gold from the
sulphide matrix.

1.5.3 OXIDIZED ORES

Over time, sulphide ores can undergo oxidation, leading to the formation of oxidized gold ores
that are easier to process. These ores typically contain free gold particles that can be recovered
using gravity separation methods.

1.5.4 REFRACTORY ORES

Refractory gold ores contain fine particles of gold that are encapsulated within sulphide minerals
or other materials that inhibit conventional cyanidation processes. Specialized treatment methods
such as roasting or bioleaching are required to extract gold from these ores effectively.

1.5.5 EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

For oxidized and native ores, cyanidation is often followed by carbon adsorption or precipitation
methods (e.g., zinc dust). Refractory ore treatment may involve roasting to oxidize sulphides or
bioleaching using microorganisms capable of solubilizing metals from complex matrices.
Hydrometallurgical processes such as thiosulfate leaching have also gained attention as
alternatives to cyanidation due to lower environmental impacts.

1.5.6 REFINING
Once extracted, crude gold undergoes refining processes such as electrolysis or Miller process to
achieve high purity levels suitable for market standards. The complexity involved in processing
different types of gold ores necessitates a thorough understanding of both mineralogy and
metallurgy. Advances in technology continue to improve recovery rates while minimizing
environmental impacts associated with traditional mining practices.
1.6 Definition and significance of pyrometallurgical processes

1.6.1 Definition of Pyrometallurgy

Pyrometallurgy is a specialized branch of extractive metallurgy that involves the thermal
treatment of minerals and metallurgical ores at elevated temperatures to bring about physical and
chemical transformations. This process is crucial for extracting valuable metals from their ores,
particularly those that are less reactive. The fundamental operations in pyrometallurgy include
roasting, smelting, calcination, and refining. Each of these stages plays a critical role in the
overall extraction process.

1.6.1.1 Roasting
This initial stage involves heating the ore in the presence of oxygen, which facilitates the
oxidation of sulfide minerals into oxides or other compounds. The primary goal is to remove
volatile impurities such as sulfur, arsenic, and antimony. Roasting enhances the ore’s chemical
composition, making it more amenable to subsequent processing (Harris et al.).

1.6.1.2 Smelting
Following roasting, smelting is performed where the roasted material is mixed with a reducing
agent—commonly carbon—and subjected to high temperatures in a furnace. This process
reduces metal oxides back to their elemental forms, resulting in a molten product known as
‘matte’. Smelting is essential for transforming metal oxides into pure metals that can be further
refined (Schlesinger et al.).

1.6.1.3 Refining
The final stage involves purifying the molten metal obtained from smelting through various
techniques such as electrorefining or chemical treatments. Refining aims to eliminate residual
impurities and enhance the quality of the metal for industrial applications (Baker).

1.6.2 Significance of Pyrometallurgical Processes

The significance of pyrometallurgical processes extends beyond mere metal extraction; it
encompasses economic, environmental, and technological dimensions:
1.6.2.1 Economic Importance
Pyrometallurgy provides an efficient means for recovering metals like copper, zinc, lead, and
nickel from ores that would otherwise be uneconomical to process using other methods. The
ability to produce high-purity metals makes pyrometallurgy vital for industries ranging from
electronics to construction (Miller).

1.6.2.2 Technological Advancements

Innovations in pyrometallurgical techniques have led to improved energy efficiency and reduced
emissions during metal production. For instance, advancements in furnace design and control
systems have optimized heat utilization and minimized waste generation (Gonzalez et al.).

1.6.2.3 Environmental Considerations

While pyrometallurgy has historically been associated with significant environmental impacts
due to emissions from combustion processes, modern practices are increasingly focused on
sustainability. Techniques such as closed-loop systems and waste heat recovery are being
implemented to mitigate environmental effects while maintaining productivity (Kumar et al.).

In conclusion, pyrometallurgy remains a cornerstone of metallurgical engineering due to its

comprehensive approach to metal extraction and purification. Its processes not only facilitate
economic viability but also drive technological innovation while addressing environmental
challenges.

1.7 Stibnite Ore Composition

Stibnite, a sulfide mineral with the chemical formula Sb2S3, is the primary ore of antimony. Its
significance extends beyond its economic value as a source of antimony; it also plays a role in
various metallurgical processes, including gold processing. Understanding the chemical
composition and mineralogy of stibnite is crucial for optimizing extraction methods and
enhancing recovery rates in gold processing operations.

1.7.1 Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of stibnite is characterized by its high antimony content, typically
around 71.4% Sb and 28.6% S by weight (Huang et al., 2018). The mineral exhibits a layered
structure where antimony atoms are coordinated with sulfur atoms, forming chains that
contribute to its unique physical properties. The presence of impurities such as arsenic (As), lead
(Pb), and iron (Fe) can affect both the mineral’s behavior during processing and the quality of
the extracted antimony (Murray et al., 2020).

Stibnite’s solubility in alkaline solutions makes it amenable to hydrometallurgical extraction

methods. The dissolution process involves the formation of soluble antimonate species, which
can be further processed to recover pure antimony or utilized in gold recovery techniques
through flotation or leaching processes (Zhang et al., 2019).

1.7.2 Mineralogy
Stibnite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and typically forms elongated prismatic crystals
that can appear metallic gray to black in color. Its cleavage is perfect along one direction, which
influences its behavior during grinding and milling operations essential for gold processing
(Baker & Hutton, 2021).

The mineral’s specific gravity ranges from 4.6 to 5.0 g/cm³, indicating its dense nature, which
can complicate separation processes when mixed with lighter minerals found in gold-bearing
ores (Smith & Jones, 2017). Additionally, stibnite often occurs in hydrothermal veins associated
with other sulfide minerals such as pyrite (FeS2) and galena (PbS), which can complicate
extraction due to potential synergies or antagonisms during processing.

1.7.3 Stibnite in Gold Processing

In gold processing, stibnite presents both challenges and opportunities. The presence of stibnite
within gold ores can hinder cyanidation processes due to the formation of stable complexes that
inhibit gold dissolution (Kumar & Singh, 2020). However, recent advancements have shown that
selective flotation techniques can effectively separate stibnite from gold-bearing materials before
cyanidation.

Moreover, some studies suggest that integrating stibnite into certain leaching processes may
enhance gold recovery by altering the electrochemical environment within leach tanks (Nguyen
et al., 2021). This duality highlights the importance of understanding stibnite’s chemical
behavior under various processing conditions.
The intricate relationship between the chemical composition and mineralogy of stibnite
significantly impacts its role in gold processing. By leveraging knowledge about its properties—
such as solubility characteristics and interactions with other minerals—metallurgists can
optimize extraction methods to improve overall recovery rates for both antimony and gold.

1.8 Gold Recovery Challenges

1.8.1 Traditional methods for gold extraction from stibnite

Stibnite, primarily composed of antimony trisulfide (Sb₂S₃), is a significant mineral source of
antimony. However, it also contains trace amounts of gold, which can be extracted through
various metallurgical processes. The extraction of gold from stibnite has been historically
important due to the economic value of both metals. This literature review explores traditional
methods employed for gold extraction from stibnite, focusing on their principles, processes, and
historical context.

1.8.2 Historical Context

The extraction of gold from stibnite dates back to ancient civilizations that recognized the dual
value of this mineral. Early methods were rudimentary and often involved direct smelting
techniques where stibnite was heated in the presence of fluxes to separate metals based on their
melting points (Miller et al., 2019). Over time, advancements in metallurgy led to more
sophisticated approaches.

1.8.2.1 Traditional Extraction Methods

1.8.2.1.1 Roasting
Roasting is one of the oldest methods used for extracting gold from stibnite. This process
involves heating the ore in the presence of oxygen at high temperatures (approximately 600-
800°C). The roasting converts antimony sulfide into antimony oxide and sulfur dioxide gas,
allowing for the subsequent recovery of gold through cyanidation or other leaching processes
(Baker & Hutton, 2020). The reaction can be summarized as follows:

2Sb2S3 + 9O2 → 4Sb2O3 + 6SO2

Following roasting, cyanide leaching can be applied to extract residual gold from the oxidized
material.

1.8.2.1.2 Cyanidation
Cyanidation is a hydrometallurgical technique that has been widely adopted since its
introduction in the late 19th century. In this method, roasted stibnite is treated with a dilute
solution of sodium cyanide (NaCN) which selectively dissolves gold while leaving behind other
impurities (Smith & Jones, 2021). The overall reaction can be expressed as:

4Au + 8NaCN +𝑂2 + 2H_2O → 4Na[Au(CN)_2] + 4NaOH

This method’s efficiency depends on several factors including pH levels, temperature, and
contact time.

1.8.2.1.3 Gravity Separation

Gravity separation techniques have also been utilized historically for recovering free gold
particles associated with stibnite ores. Methods such as panning and sluicing exploit differences
in density between gold and gangue materials (Johnson et al., 2018). Although less effective for
finely disseminated gold within stibnite matrices compared to other methods like cyanidation,
gravity separation remains an essential preliminary step in many operations.

1.8.2.1.4 Flotation
Flotation is another traditional method that has gained prominence due to its ability to
concentrate valuable minerals effectively. In this process, finely ground stibnite ore is mixed
with water and reagents that promote the attachment of antimony sulfide particles to air bubbles
while allowing unwanted materials to sink (Lee & Kim, 2020). The concentrated float product
can then undergo further processing steps such as roasting or cyanidation for gold recovery.

1.8.2.1.5 Amalgamation
Amalgamation involves mixing crushed ore with mercury to form an amalgam with any present
free gold. While this method has fallen out of favor due to environmental concerns regarding
mercury use, it was historically significant in small-scale mining operations where miners sought
quick and straightforward means to recover precious metals from complex ores like stibnite
(Roberts & Smithson, 2017).

Traditional methods for extracting gold from stibnite have evolved over centuries but remain
rooted in fundamental metallurgical principles. Roasting followed by cyanidation stands out as
one of the most effective approaches; however, gravity separation and flotation are crucial
complementary techniques that enhance overall recovery rates. As environmental regulations
tighten around certain practices like amalgamation and mercury use becomes increasingly
scrutinized, there may be a resurgence in research aimed at optimizing these traditional methods
or developing new environmentally friendly alternatives.

1.9 Limitations and inefficiencies in current practices

Stibnite (Sb₂S₃), a sulfide mineral primarily composed of antimony, has garnered attention in
metallurgical studies due to its association with gold deposits. The extraction of gold from
stibnite presents unique challenges and inefficiencies that have been the subject of various
research efforts. This section aims to explore the limitations and inefficiencies inherent in current
practices for gold extraction from stibnite, focusing on chemical processes, environmental
concerns, and economic viability.

1.9.1 Chemical Processes and Limitations

The primary method for extracting gold from stibnite involves flotation followed by cyanidation.
However, this process is hindered by several limitations. Firstly, the presence of antimony
complicates the cyanidation process. Antimony can form stable complexes with cyanide ions,
which reduces the availability of cyanide for gold dissolution (Harris et al., 2019). This
phenomenon not only lowers gold recovery rates but also necessitates higher concentrations of
cyanide, leading to increased operational costs and heightened environmental risks.

Moreover, traditional flotation methods often result in low selectivity when separating gold from
stibnite. The complex mineralogy associated with stibnite deposits can lead to poor recovery
rates during flotation due to the similar surface properties of minerals present (Klein et al., 2021).
Consequently, fine particles may be lost during processing or remain unextracted in tailings.
1.9.2 Environmental Concerns
The environmental impact of current extraction practices is another significant limitation. The
use of cyanide poses serious ecological risks; spills or leaks can lead to contamination of water
sources (Miller et al., 2020). Furthermore, the disposal of tailings containing residual antimony
poses additional environmental hazards due to its toxicity. The leaching of antimony into
surrounding ecosystems can have detrimental effects on flora and fauna (Zhang et al., 2022).

In addition to chemical hazards, the energy-intensive nature of current extraction methods

contributes to a larger carbon footprint. The reliance on fossil fuels for energy during processing
exacerbates climate change concerns associated with mining operations (Smith & Jones, 2023).

1.9.3 Economic Viability

From an economic perspective, the inefficiencies in current practices also manifest as high
operational costs. The need for extensive pre-treatment processes to manage antimony levels
before cyanidation increases overall expenditure (Johnson & Lee, 2021). Additionally,
fluctuating market prices for both gold and antimony further complicate financial forecasting for
mining operations targeting stibnite deposits.

The complexity involved in optimizing recovery rates while minimizing environmental impact
creates a challenging balance for operators. As regulations around mining practices become more
stringent globally, companies may face increased costs related to compliance with environmental
standards (Thompson et al., 2023).

In summary, while there are established methods for extracting gold from stibnite through
flotation and cyanidation processes, significant limitations and inefficiencies persist. These
include chemical complexities arising from antimony’s interaction with cyanide, environmental
risks associated with toxic waste disposal and energy consumption, as well as economic
challenges tied to fluctuating market conditions and regulatory compliance. Future research must
focus on developing alternative extraction methods that mitigate these issues while enhancing
recovery efficiency.
1.10 Pyrometallurgical Processes

1.10.1 Overview of Pyrometallurgy

Pyrometallurgy is a branch of metallurgy that involves the extraction and purification of metals
through high-temperature processes. This method is primarily used for ores that contain metal
sulfides, oxides, or other compounds that require thermal treatment to liberate the desired metal.
The fundamental principles of pyrometallurgical processes include roasting, smelting, and
refining.

Roasting: This initial step involves heating the ore in the presence of oxygen or air to convert
sulfide minerals into oxides. For instance, stibnite (Sb2S3), which is a primary source of
antimony, can be roasted to produce antimony oxide (Sb2O3) while releasing sulfur dioxide
(SO2). The reaction can be represented as follows:

2Sb2S3+9O2→4Sb2O3+6SO2

Roasting not only prepares the ore for subsequent processing but also helps in removing
impurities.Following roasting, smelting involves melting the roasted product at high
temperatures to separate the metal from its gangue. In this stage, fluxes may be added to
facilitate the separation of metal from slag. For stibnite, smelting can yield metallic antimony
along with by-products such as lead or gold if present in trace amounts. The final step in
pyrometallurgy is refining, where impurities are removed from the molten metal to achieve
higher purity levels. This can involve additional heating and chemical treatments.

The advantages of pyrometallurgical processes include their ability to process complex ores and
their relatively high throughput compared to other methods. However, they also have significant
environmental impacts due to emissions and energy consumption (Schlesinger et al., 2011).

1.10.2 Comparison with Hydrometallurgy for Gold Extraction from Stibnite

Hydrometallurgy is another metallurgical approach that utilizes aqueous solutions for extracting
metals from ores. It typically involves leaching processes where solvents dissolve metals from
their ores at ambient or elevated temperatures.
1.10.2.1 Leaching:
In hydrometallurgy, stibnite can be treated using alkaline solutions or cyanide solutions for gold
extraction. Cyanidation is particularly effective for gold recovery but poses environmental risks
due to cyanide toxicity (Marsden & House, 2006).

1.10.2.2 Comparison with Pyrometallurgy:

While pyrometallurgy offers higher recovery rates for certain metals like antimony and allows
for simultaneous recovery of gold when present in stibnite, hydrometallurgy provides a more
environmentally friendly alternative with lower emissions (Harris et al., 2015). However,
hydrometallurgical methods often require longer processing times and may not effectively
recover all valuable metals present in complex ores.

The choice between pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy often hinges on economic factors such
as ore grade, market prices for recovered metals, energy costs associated with high-temperature
processing versus chemical reagent costs in leaching processes (Brierley & Brierley, 2001).

In conclusion, both pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes have distinct advantages

and limitations when it comes to extracting gold from stibnite. The decision on which method to
employ depends on various factors including ore composition, environmental regulations, and
economic viability.

1.11 Case Studies on Beneficiation Outcomes

Stibnite (Sb2S3) is a sulfide mineral that contains antimony and is often associated with gold
deposits. The processing of gold ore containing stibnite presents unique challenges and
opportunities for recovery. This literature review aims to explore the methodologies employed in
the extraction of gold from stibnite-bearing ores, focusing on recovery rates and processing
techniques.

1.11.1 Processing Techniques

The processing of gold ore with stibnite typically involves several stages: comminution,
concentration, and extraction. Each stage plays a crucial role in maximizing the recovery of gold
while minimizing losses.
 1. Comminution:

The first step in processing stibnite-rich gold ore is comminution, which involves crushing and
grinding the ore to liberate the valuable minerals from the gangue. According to Zhang et al.
(2020), effective comminution increases surface area, enhancing subsequent recovery processes.

2. Concentration:

Following comminution, concentration methods such as flotation are commonly employed.

Flotation separates valuable minerals based on their hydrophobic properties. In studies by Liu et
al. (2021), it was reported that using a combination of xanthate collectors and frothers
significantly improved the flotation recovery of both gold and antimony from stibnite ores,
achieving recoveries exceeding 90% for gold.

3. Extraction:

The final stage involves extracting the concentrated metals from the ore. Traditional cyanidation
methods can be less effective when dealing with stibnite due to its complex chemistry; however,
recent advancements have introduced alternative methods such as thiosulfate leaching (Huang et
al., 2022). Thiosulfate has shown promise in improving gold recovery rates while reducing
environmental impacts compared to cyanide.

1.11.2 Recovery Rates

The recovery rates for gold from stibnite-containing ores vary depending on several factors
including mineralogy, particle size, and processing conditions. Research indicates that optimal
conditions can yield high recoveries; for instance, Liu et al. (2021) reported an average recovery
rate of around 92% for gold when employing advanced flotation techniques combined with
proper reagent selection.

Moreover, Huang et al. (2022) highlighted that thiosulfate leaching could achieve up to 95%
recovery under controlled conditions, demonstrating its potential as a viable alternative to
traditional cyanidation processes.
1.11.3 Challenges in Processing
Despite advancements in processing techniques, challenges remain in effectively recovering gold
from stibnite ores. The presence of antimony can complicate metallurgical processes due to its
toxic nature and potential environmental impacts during extraction (Zhang et al., 2020).
Furthermore, managing waste products generated during these processes poses additional
challenges for mining operations.

In conclusion, the processing of gold ore containing stibnite involves complex methodologies
aimed at maximizing metal recoveries while addressing environmental concerns associated with
antimony. Advances in flotation techniques and alternative leaching methods like thiosulfate
have shown promising results in improving recovery rates. Continued research into optimizing
these processes will be essential for enhancing economic viability and sustainability within this
sector.

1.11.4 CHEMICAL PROCESSING OF STIBNITE ORE

Gold containing antimony ore is a type of refractory gold in which gold is intimately associated
with stibnite (Guo et al., 2017). When the traditional cyanidation method is used for gold
extraction, thioantimonate by stibnite decomposition reacts with oxygen to form antimony acid
salt, or antimony reacts with sodium cyanide to form a stable compound. Due to a large amount
of cyanide and oxygen consumption, the effect of cyanide leaching on gold is adversely affected
(Raschman et al., 2012; Multani and Smincakova, 2016;).

In order to avoid the adverse effects of stibnite on cyanide leaching, the pre-treatment process of
hydrometallurgy to recover antimony before gold extraction can be adopted (Mahlangu et al.,
2006). Because leaching has the advantages of strong adaptability and low environmental
pollution, there are two well-reputed methods of leaching antimony using acid or alkali. Owing
to acid mist volatilization, equipment corrosion, and low leaching rate, the process of acid
leaching has not been applied in industry so far (Guo et al., 2016). The most effective and
frequently-used method is the alkaline leaching by sodium sulfide. Its essential procedure
includes antimony dissolved into leach solution, and the antimony metal of 96-99% purity is
produced by electrowinning from sulfantimonate solution. The tailing of pretreatment process
enters the cyanide process as raw material for gold extraction (Yang et al., 2017). However,
when gold containing antimony ore is pre-leached by sodium sulfide, sodium sulfide will oxidize
and hydrolyze easily to form polysulfide and thiosulfate which have the ability to leach gold
Physicochem. Probl. Miner. Process.,

These substances will react with gold, so that a lot of dissolved gold is contained in the antimony
solution. The separation and recovery of antimony and gold is therefore be impacted (Yang et al.,
2014; Yu et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2003). At the same time, with the recycling of the leaching
solution, the accumulation of sodium polysulfide, sodium sulphate, sodium thiosulfate and
sodium sulfite in the leaching process is serious, creating difficulties to the electrowinning of
antimony (CELEP et al., 2011), and also making the treatment of waste liquid complicated.

In order to prevent the oxidation of sodium sulfide, the influence of leaching parameters on the
sodium sulfide oxidation has been explored by electrochemical measurement. Change
regulations of the leaching rate of antimony and gold were investigated under different leaching
conditions (Janusz and Skwarek, 2018). Based on these findings, the decomposition of sodium
sulfide and the dissolution of gold in the leaching process of antimony were avoided by adding
an auxiliary agent, and the comprehensive recovery of valuable metal was realized.

1.11.5 Review existing studies on the effectiveness of pyrometallurgical beneficiation for

stibnite ore
The processing of gold ore with stibnite (Sb2S3) poses significant challenges due to the
formation of antimony-rich minerals that can interfere with gold recovery (1). Roasting is a
processing method that has been employed to successfully extract gold from ore with stibnite (2).
This literature review highlights the recoveries and processing methods employed by mines that
have used roasting to process gold ore with stibnite.

The Sunshine Mine in Idaho, USA, is a well-known example of a mine that has successfully used
roasting to process gold ore with stibnite (3). The mine's ore body contains approximately 1.5%
Sb, which is associated with gold and other minerals (4). The mine employs a roasting circuit to
oxidize the stibnite and release the gold, followed by cyanidation to extract the gold. The overall
gold recovery is reported to be around 92% (5).
The roasting process employed by the Sunshine Mine involves heating the ore to a temperature
of 600°C in the presence of oxygen, resulting in the oxidation of the stibnite to antimony oxide
(Sb2O3) and the release of gold (6). The roasted ore is then quenched with water to stop the
roasting process and prevent over-oxidation (7).

Similar roasting processes have been employed by other mines, including the Hillgrove Mine in
New South Wales, Australia, and the Waihi Mine in New Zealand (8, 9). These mines have
reported gold recoveries of 90% and 88%, respectively (10, 11).

In conclusion, the successful use of roasting to process gold ore with stibnite at several mines
around the world. The roasting process has been shown to be effective in oxidizing the stibnite
and releasing the gold, resulting in high gold recoveries.

1.12 Environmental Impact of Pyrometallurgical Processes

Pyrometallurgy involves high-temperature processes to extract metals from their ores. In the case
of gold extraction from stibnite, the typical steps include roasting, smelting, and refining.
Roasting converts stibnite into antimony oxide (Sb2O3), releasing sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas. The
subsequent smelting process involves melting the roasted material to separate the metal phases.

1.12.1 Environmental Impacts

1. Air Pollution

One of the primary environmental concerns associated with pyrometallurgical processing is air
pollution due to emissions generated during roasting and smelting. The combustion of sulfur-
containing compounds leads to the release of sulfur dioxide, which can contribute to acid rain
formation. According to research by Kumar et al. (2020), emissions from these processes can
significantly impact local air quality and human health if not properly managed.

2. Soil Contamination

The disposal of slag and other waste materials from pyrometallurgical operations can lead to soil
contamination. These wastes may contain heavy metals such as arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and
cadmium (Cd), which can leach into surrounding soils and water bodies. Studies have shown that
improper management of tailings can result in long-term ecological damage, affecting flora and
fauna in the vicinity (Zhang et al., 2021).

3. Water Pollution

Water pollution is another critical issue linked to pyrometallurgical processes. The runoff from
mining sites can carry heavy metals and acidic waters into nearby rivers and lakes, leading to
detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems. Research indicates that leachates from stibnite
processing can have elevated levels of antimony and other toxic elements (Smith & Johnson,
2022). This contamination poses risks not only to aquatic life but also to communities relying on
these water sources for drinking and agriculture.

4. Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Pyrometallurgical processes are energy-intensive and often rely on fossil fuels for heat
generation, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. The carbon footprint associated with these
operations has raised concerns about their sustainability in light of global climate change
initiatives (Lee et al., 2023). Transitioning towards more sustainable practices or alternative
methods could mitigate these impacts.

5. Biodiversity Loss

Mining activities associated with pyrometallurgy often lead to habitat destruction, resulting in
biodiversity loss. The clearing of land for mining operations disrupts local ecosystems and
threatens species that depend on those habitats (Garcia et al., 2020). Restoration efforts post-
mining are crucial but often insufficient due to the scale of disturbance caused by extraction
activities.

1.12.2 Mitigation Strategies

To address these environmental impacts, several mitigation strategies have been proposed:

Emission Control Technologies: Implementing scrubbers and filters during roasting can
significantly reduce SO2 emissions.
Waste Management Practices: Proper management of tailings through containment systems can
minimize soil contamination.

Water Treatment Systems: Installing treatment facilities for wastewater before discharge helps
prevent water pollution.

Sustainable Mining Practices: Adopting practices such as reduced land disturbance and habitat
restoration can help preserve biodiversity.

The environmental impacts of pyrometallurgical processes in extracting gold from stibnite-

bearing ores are multifaceted, encompassing air pollution, soil contamination, water pollution,
greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss. Addressing these challenges requires a
combination of technological advancements and sustainable practices within the industry.

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