PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical Reactions and Equations Kuch important terms:

→Precipitate: Insoluble solid formed after a
Chemical Reaction: The transformation of chemical substance
into another chemical substance. e.g. Rusting of iron, the setting chemical reaction.
of milk into curd. →Exothermic Reaction: Reaction releasing heat
Chemical Equation: Representation of chemical reaction using energy.
symbols and formulae of the substances. →Endothermic Reaction: Reaction absorbing heat
Reactant A+B →C+D Product energy.
→Catalyst: Speeds up a reaction without being
Reactant Mg + O2 → MgO Product
consumed.
Characteristic Example Reaction Balanced Chemical Equation: Number of atoms of each
element in reactants = number of atoms of each element
Change in Colour Fe + CuSO₄(Blue) → FeSO₄(Blue-green) + Cu in products. Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of
reactants = Mass of products
Change in
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat (heat is generated) Balance these: Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
Temperature
C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

Change in State H₂(g) + O₂(g) → H₂O(l) (i.e., gas to liquid) Draw boxes around formulas.
Count atoms on both sides.
Evolution of Gas Zn(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + H₂(g) Start with the biggest compound.
Balance elements one by one.
Formation of Use smallest whole numbers.
Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + KI(aq) → PbI₂(s) + KNO₃(aq)
Precipitate
Recheck for balance.
Endothermic Types of Chemical Reactions:
CaCO₃ + Heat → CaO + CO₂ (photosynthesis also)
Reaction
1.Combination Reaction: Two or more reactants
combine to form single products.
Exothermic CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat (digestion and
Reaction respiration also)
A + B → AB

The most effective way to test for CO₂ is to bubble the 3.Displacement Reaction: a more reactive element
gas through lime water, which is a diluted solution of displaces a less reactive element from its compound.
calcium hydroxide. Single Displacement A + BC → AC + B

2.Decomposition Reaction: A single reactant

decomposes to form two or more products. Double Displacement AB + CD → AD + CB

AB → A + B
Reaction Observation
Thermal Decomposition CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ Mg + O₂ → MgO Magnesium ribbon burns with a
(thermal energy) dazzling white flame and forms a
white powder (magnesium oxide).
Photolytic Decomposition 2AgBr → 2Ag + Br₂ Yellow precipitate of lead
(energy from sunlight) black & white photography
Pb(NO₃)₂ + KI → PbI₂
iodide forms, and the solution
Electrolytic Decomposition 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂ changes from colorless to
electrical energy) yellow.
Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂ Bubbles of hydrogen gas
form around the zinc
Hydrogen (cathode) will metal. Heat is released
produce a popping sound
during the reaction.
when a burning candle is
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ Calcium oxide reacts
brought close.
Oxygen (anode) will vigorously with water to
make the flame of the produce slaked lime, releasing
candle burn brighter. a large amount of heat.
2FeSO₄ → Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ + SO₃ Initially green; turns
white, then brown
(ferric oxide) with the
smell of burning sulfur.
Reaction Observation
2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ White silver chloride turns
(in sunlight) grey in sunlight.
The deep blue solution fades to
Fe + CuSO₄ → light green, and the iron nail
FeSO₄ + Cu becomes covered with a red-
brown layer of copper. Rancidity: the spoilage of fats and oils in
food, leading to unpleasant taste and smell.
Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → A white precipitate of Examples: Spoiled butter, Old cooking oil,
BaSO₄ + 2NaCl barium sulfate forms. Stale chips
Prevention: Adding antioxidants, storing
Black copper oxide (CuO)
foods in airtight containers, and
2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO forms. Hydrogen gas can
refrigerating can help slow down or prevent
reduce CuO back to copper
the oxidation process and, consequently,
during a reverse reaction.
rancidity
4. Redox Reactions: Oxidation: + oxygen or - hydrogen Effects of oxidation in daily life:
Reduction: - oxygen or + hydrogen Corrosion: metals are gradually destroyed by chemical
reactions with substances in their environment, such as
Oxidizing agent: An oxidizing agent is a substance
moisture and acids. Examples: Rusting of iron,
that causes oxidation by accepting electrons;
Tarnishing of silver, Green coating on copper
therefore, it gets reduced.
Prevention: Coating metals with protective layers (e.g.,
Reducing agent: A reducing agent is a substance
paint or galvanization) helps prevent direct exposure to
that causes reduction by losing electrons;
oxygen and moisture, reducing the risk of corrosion.
therefore it gets oxidized.
Silver develops a black coating after some time.
Issme batao:
Copper develops a green coating after some time.

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Balancing (MCQs)
Type of Reaction and Example
(Specially Decomposition and Redox)
Color Change Activities
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Acids , Bases And Salts Litmus solution is a purple dye from lichen, used as an indicator
Chemical Properties of Acid:
ACID BASES Base with Metal Metal + Base → Salt + Hydrogen Gas
Usually sour in taste. Bitter in taste and soapy to touch. eg; Zn + 2NaOH → Na₂ZnO₂ + H₂ {Hydrogen gas evolved; indicates
Turns blue litmus paper red. Turns red litmus paper blue. a reaction with the base}
Gives hydrogen ions in solution Gives hydroxyl ions in solution Base with Non- Non-Metallic Oxide + Base → Salt + Water
pH < 7 pH > 7 Metal Oxide {Neutralization reaction; forms
e.g. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), eg. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) eg; CO₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → CaCO₃ + H₂O salt and water, indicating acidic
Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH) nature of non-metal oxide}.
ta nt
Impor Base + Acid → Salt + Water NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O
Natural Source Acid Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk (Curd) Lactic acid Chemical Properties of Acids:
Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid Acid with Metal eg: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting {Hydrogen gas evolved; bubbles in soap solution ignite with a
Methanoic acid
Oxalic acid Nettle sting popping sound when a burning candle is brought near.}
Tomato Methanoic acid
Metal Carbonate eg: Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO₂ + H₂O
INDICATORS: A chemical compound that changes its colour in
{Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky, indicating its presence}
presence of an acid or a base.
Metal Hydrogencarbonate eg: NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + CO₂ + H₂O
OLFACTORY: substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic
{Carbon dioxide turns lime water milky, indicating its presence.}
medium are called Olfactory indicators. eg- Vanilla, Onion. clove oil.
base (no smell), acid (smell remains) Metallic Oxide eg: CuO + 2HCl → CuCl₂ + H₂O
{The solution turns blue-green, indicating the formation of
Natural: (found in nature)
copper(II) chloride.}
Indicator Neutral solution Reac. with Acid Reac. with Base Strength of Acids and bases:
Litmus Pale purple (Mauve) Red Blue Strength of Acid and Base can be estimated using universal
Hydrangea Blue Blue pink indicator.
flowers It shows different colours at different concentrations of H+
Turmeric yellow yellow Red ions in the solution.

Synthetic: (from chemical proesses) P(potenz)H: pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen

ions in solution. {power of hydrogen}
Indicator Reac. with Acid Reac. with Base pH<7 { Acidic }
Phenolphthalein Colourless pink ph = 7 { neutral }
Methyl Orange Red yellow pH>7 { Basic }

H: strong acid + strong base are neutral (pH 7).

Strong acids release more H⁺ ions, while weak acids release
strong acid + weak base are acidic (pH < 7),
fewer H⁺ ions. The same applies to bases.
strong base + weak acid are basic (pH > 7).
Dilution occurs when an acid or base is mixed with water, reducing
the concentration of H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions per unit volume, making the Sodium Chloride (NaCl) HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O (Neutral)
acid or base less concentrated. Found in seawater and Used in food seasoning, raw
rock salt deposits material for chemicals like NaOH,.
diluted acid - small amount of Concentrated acid - large Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) 2NaCl + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + Cl₂ + H₂
acid (solute) dissolved in a amount of acid dissolved in a (Basic) (Chlor-alkali process)
large amount of water (solvent) small amount of water. Produced by electrolysis of brine
At anode: Cl₂ (uses Water treatment, PVC, disinfectants)
Importance of pH in daily life: At cathode: H₂ gas (uses Fuels, margarine.)
Digestion: The stomach uses hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1 to Near cathode: NaOH solution is formed (Soap, paper,
3 to break down food. textiles.)

Soil: Plants thrive in soil with a pH of 6.3 to 7.3. If soil is too

acidic, adding lime helps; if too basic, gypsum is added.

Tooth Decay: Bacteria in the mouth make it acidic, leading to

tooth decay. Toothpaste, being basic, balances the mouth's pH.

Blood: Blood functions best with a pH between 7.0 to 7.8.

Plants and Animals: They prefer specific pH levels, with most

plants growing best in soil around pH 7.

Bee Stings: Baking soda neutralizes the acidity caused by bee

stings.

Acid Rain: Pollution can cause rain to become acidic, harming fish
and other animals. Sodium Hydrogen
NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ + NH₃ → NH₄Cl + NaHCO₃
Salts Carbonate (NaHCO₃) (Basic)
Used in bakng powder,
alts are ionic compounds composed of positively charged ions
Produced using sodium chloride, antacids, soda-acid fire
(cations) and negatively charged ions (anions), These ions are
water, and carbon dioxide extinguisher.
held together by ionic bond
Sodium Carbonate 2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O Baking Soda Are the Crystals of Salts really Dry?
(Na₂CO₃) (Basic)
Copper sulphate, contain water molecules in their crystal
Obtained by heating sodium Used in glass, soap, and structure, known as water of crystallisation.
hydrogen carbonate and paper industries, and to When copper sulphate crystals are heated, they lose their
recrystallization remove water hardness. water of crystallisation and turn from blue to white.
Rehydration: Adding water back to the white, anhydrous copper
Calcium Oxychloride
Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ → CaOCl₂ + H₂O sulphate restores its blue color.
(CaOCl₂) Bleaching powder Chemical Formula: The hydrated form of copper sulphate is
Produced by reacting Used for bleaching in textile represented as CuSO₄·5H₂O, indicating it has five water
chlorine with slaked lime and paper industries, molecules per formula unit..

Calcium Sulphate CaSO₄·2H₂O (gypsum) → CaSO₄·½H₂O (Plaster

Hemihydrate of Paris) + 1½H₂O (Neutral)
(CaSO₄·½H₂O)
Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Found as gypsum in Used for removing permanent
natural deposits hardness of water. Indicators + pH scale
Chlor - Alkali Process
Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃·10H₂O POP, Washing, Baking Soda (Specially
(Basic) (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) Washing Soda
Baking Soda)
Produced by Used as washing soda, in glass,
recrystallization of sodium soap, and paper industries, and
carbonate for removing permanent hardness
of water.

Copper(II) Sulphate CuSO₄·5H₂O (blue) → CuSO₄ (white) + 5H₂O

(CuSO₄·5H₂O) (Acidic)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Metals and Non Metals Reactions of Metals and Non Metals
Oxygen - Non - metals
Property Metals Non-Metals
Non-Metal + Oxygen → Non-Metal Oxide (Acidic/Neutral)
Example: C + O₂ → CO₂
Can exist in all three states:
S + O₂ → SO₂
Solid at room solids (e.g., Sulfur,
State temperature (except Phosphorus), liquid (Bromine - Oxygen - Metals
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide (Basic)
Mercury - liquid) only liquid), gases (e.g.,
Example: 2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO
Oxygen, Nitrogen)
Amphoteric Metals: Beryllium (Be), Zinc (Zn), Tin (Sn),
Lustre Shiny (metallic lustre) Dull (except Iodine - lustrous)
Lead (Pb), Aluminium (Al), (Antimony (Sb)
Aluminium with Oxygen: 4Al(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2Al₂O₃(s)
Generally hard Generally soft (Diamond -
Zinc with Oxygen: 2Zn(s) + O₂(g) → 2ZnO(s)
Hardness (except Sodium, exception, hardest natural Aluminium Oxide Reactions:
Potassium - soft) substance) Al₂O₃(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l)
Al₂O₃(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO₂(aq) + H₂O(l)
Can be beaten into Brittle, cannot be beaten into Water- Non - metals
Malleability
sheets sheets Non metals don’t react with water
Non-Metal Oxide + Water → Acid
Can be drawn into Non-ductile, cannot be drawn SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
Ductility
wires into wires SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃
Good conductors Poor conductors (except NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₃ + HNO₂
Conductivity
(except Lead, Graphite - conducts Water- Metal
(Heat &
Mercury - poor electricity but not heat Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + H₂
Electricity)
conductors of heat) efficiently)
Na₂O, K₂O, CaO, and MgO dissolve in water to form metal
hydroxides
Generally high
Generally low (Diamond - Example: 2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂
Melting & (except Gallium,
exception, extremely high K, Na react violently with water; Ca reacts mildly;
Boiling Point Caesium - low melting
melting point) Ca+2H2​O→Ca(OH)2​+H2​
points)
Mg reacts with hot water. Al, Fe, Zn react with steam;
2Al+3H2​O (steam)→Al2​O3​+3H2​
Produces sound when
Sonority Does not produce sound 3Fe+4H2​O (steam)→Fe3​O4​+4H2
struck
Pb, Cu, Ag, Au do not react with water.

Acids- Non - metals No Reaction

Acids- Metal Property Description
Metal + dil. Acid → Salt + H₂
Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂
Hydrogen gas isn't produced when metals react with HNO₃ Solid, hard, brittle due to strong ionic
Physical nature
because it oxidizes H₂ to water and reduces to nitrogen oxides. bonds.
Only Mg and Mn with very dilute HNO₃ release H₂ gas.
Metal (Mg and Mn) + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Hydrogen gas
2Mg + 4HNO₃ → 2Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂ High, due to strong inter-ionic
Melting &
Mn + 2HNO₃ → Mn(NO₃)₂ + H₂ attractions requiring more energy to
Boiling points
Other Metals + Dilute nitric acid → Salt + Water + NO₂/N₂O/NO break.
Aqua regia is a mix of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric
acids in a 3:1 ratio. It’s highly corrosive and can dissolve gold
Soluble in water, insoluble in organic
and platinum. Solubility
solvents like kerosene and petrol.
Metal Salts Non - metals
No Reaction
Electrical Conducts in molten and aqueous states,
Metal Salts Metal
conductivity not in solid due to immobile ions.
More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from
their salt solutions (displacement reaction).
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B Metallurgy: Science & tech of metals' properties,
Example: Pb + CuCl₂ → PbCl₂ + Cu production, purification
When metals react with non-metals, electrons transfer from
Minerals: Naturally occurring elements/compounds in
metals to non-metals, forming ions. The compound formed is
Earth's crust
ionic.
Ores: Minerals from which metals can be extracted
Metal + Non-metal → Ionic compound PROPERTIES?
economically and conveniently

Gangue Particles: Impurities in ores (sand, oil, etc.)

Enrichment of Ore/Concentration: Process of removing

gangue particles from ore
Zinc (Zn) - Zinc Blende (Sphalerite) : ZnS Zn (Zinc)
- Calamine : ZnCO₃ Fe (Iron) Reduction Moderately reactive metals (Zn,
Mercury (Hg) - Cinnabar : HgS Pb (Lead) using carbon Fe, Pb) are usually extracted
Copper (Cu) - Copper Glance : Cu₂S
through carbon reduction.
Aluminium (Al)- Bauxite : Al₂O₃·xH₂O Cu (Copper)
Ag (Silver) Metals like gold and silver are
Found in native
Au (Gold) found in a free state due to
state
low reactivity.

Roasting Calcination

Heating of a metal ore in the Heating of a metal ore in

presence of excess air or the presence of limited air
oxygen. or oxygen.

Requires an excess amount of air Done with limited air or

or oxygen. oxygen.

Mainly done for sulphide ores. Done for carbonate ores.

Releases volatile
Releases toxic gases and
compounds, often less
substances (e.g., SO₂).
toxic than in roasting.

Electrolysis Highly reactive metals (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al) are
K (Potassium) extracted using electrolysis.
Na (Sodium) Highly reactive metals (K, Na, Reduction using Moderately reactive metals (Zn, Fe, Pb) are
Ca (Calcium) Electrolysis Ca, Mg, Al) are extracted usually extracted through carbon reduction.
carbon
Mg (Magnesium) using electrolysis.
Al (Aluminum) Found in native state Metals like gold and silver are found in a
free state due to low reactivity.

Refining of Metals Alloying

An alloy is a mixture of metals or a metal with a non-
metal, altering properties like conductivity and melting
Electrolyte point.
Examples :
Electrolytic refining is Brass (Copper + Zinc) and Bronze (Copper + Tin) are
widely used for poor conductors, unlike Copper, which powers electrical
purification. circuits.
Metals like copper, Solder (Lead + Tin) melts easily, making it perfect for
zinc, tin, nickel, silver, welding electrical wires.
gold are refined using Pure gold is soft, so it is alloyed with silver or copper to
Insoluble impurities form
this method make jewelry, typically in 22 carat form in India.
anode mud, while soluble
ones stay in the solution. The Iron Pillar near Qutub Minar in Delhi, over 1600
years old, resists rust due to ancient Indian metallurgy
techniques

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Chemical Properties of Metal
Reactivity Series (Give reasons type of questions)
Exceptional Cases (HNO₃ reaction with metals )
Metallurgy
Electrolytic Reduction Cathode : Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na Calcination/Roasting
Anode : 2Cl⁻ → Cl₂ + 2e⁻ Electrolytic Refining
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Carbon And Its Compound
Allotropes: the various physical forms in which an element can exist.
Carbon: Carbon is the 15th most abundant in the earth's
crust.
Atomic number : 6. DIAMOND GRAPHITE FULLURENCE
Valency : 4
Atomic mass :12u. no. of protons = no. of
3D network, each
neutrons = 6 Layers of hexagons Hollow, cage-like
shell -KL carbon bonds with
held by weak forces with 60 carbons;
No. of electrons- 2 4 elctronic arrangment four others; very
soft and slippery soccer ball shape.
hard.
Covalent bond
chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to form Four strong
Three covalent bonds Strong covalent
electron pairs between atoms. covalent bonds per
per carbon, with bonds in hexagons
Three types of covalent bonding carbon; highly
delocalized electrons. and pentagons.
stable.
Single Covalent Bond Double Covalent Bond Triple Covalent
Hard, transparent,
Properties of Covalent Compounds: Bond
high refractive Unique electronic
Low melting/boiling points due to weaker intermolecular forces Soft, used in pencils properties; used in
index; jewelry,
compared to ionic compounds. and lubricants. nanotech, drugs.
abrasives.
- Physical state can be solid, liquid, or gas.
- Poor conductors of electricity as they lack charged particles. HYDROCARBON
- Generally soluble in organic solvents, insoluble in water (exception:
sugar in water).
Catenation: Carbon forms strong covalent bonds with itself, creating
chains, branches, or rings. Aliphatic
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Polymerisation: Small molecules (monomers) join to form large
molecules (polymers). Unsaturated
Saturated
Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but
different structures. ALKANES ALKENE ALKYNES
Tetravalency of Carbon: Carbon has four valence electrons, forming Single bond
Double bond Triple bond
four covalent bonds instead of gaining or losing electrons, ensuring
stability and diverse organic compounds.

ALKANES ALKENE Functional groups:

In hydrocarbons, hydrogen atoms can be replaced by
heteroatoms (e.g., Cl, S, N, O), forming functional groups that
determine the compound’s reactivity and properties.
Rules for Naming Compounds with Functional Groups
Common Functional Groups & Their Formulae:
Alcohol (-OH) → Ends in -ol (e.g., Ethanol)
Aldehyde (-CHO) → Ends in -al (e.g., Ethanal)
Ketone (-CO-) → Ends in -one (e.g., Propanone)
Carboxylic Acid (-COOH) → Ends in -oic acid (e.g., Ethanoic acid)
Amine (-NH₂) → Ends in -amine or starts with Amino-
Naming Rules:
Identify the longest carbon chain.
Three types of Hydrocarbons
Number the chain to give the functional group the lowest possible
Straight chain : Each carbon atom is
number.
bonded to either one or two other
Functional groups have priority over alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
carbon atom
Use suffix or prefix based on the functional group.
Branched chain: Each carbon atom is
If multiple groups are present, the most important one gets the
bonded to one, two, or more than two
suffix.
other carbon atoms
ALKYNES Priority Order (Highest to Lowest):
Cyclic Hydrocarbon: Carbon atoms form a closed ring -COOH > -CHO > -CO- > -OH > -NH₂
structure. e.g. Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂), Benzene (C₆H₆). Homologous series:
a collection of compounds with the same general formula that
COMMON NOMENCLATURE: They are named after their sources of
differ only in the carbon chain length.
isolation. Formic acid derives from "Formectus," meaning red ant, and
-Homologues share the same general formula.
acetic acid from "Acetum," meaning vinegar.
- Differ by a –CH₂ group; molecular mass difference is 14 µ.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), - Similar chemical properties.
founded in 1919, establishes standardized naming rules in - Gradual change in physical properties.
chemistry - Functional group influences properties.
Isomerism Compounds with identical molecular formula but
different structures.

NAME THESE
Chemical properties of carbon Compounds Denatured alcohol is ethanol mixed with chemicals to make it unfit
Combustion (Burning) for drinking. It is used in industries for cleaning, fuel, and as a
Carbon compounds burn in oxygen (O₂) to form CO₂, H₂O, and solvent. The added substances, like methanol, make it poisonous
heat.Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Heat and undrinkable to avoid misuse. Denatured alcohol is cheaper than
Oxidation pure ethanol due to tax exemptions.
Alcohols are oxidized to acids using KMnO₄ or K₂Cr₂O₇.
Example: CH₃CH₂OH + [O] → CH₃COOH Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH):
Addition Reaction Commonly known as acetic acid, belongs to the carboxylic acid group.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes, alkynes) add H₂ in the presence 5-8% solution in water is called vinegar, used as a preservative in
of Ni/Pd catalyst. pickles. Melting point: 290 K; freezes in winter, hence called glacial
Example: CH₂=CH₂ + H₂ → CH₃-CH₃ acetic acid. Weak acid compared to mineral acids like HCl (does not
Substitution Reaction fully ionize in water).
Alkanes react with halogens (Cl₂, Br₂) in the presence of sunlight. Reactions of Ethanoic Acid:
Example: CH₄ + Cl₂ → (Sunlight) → CH₃Cl + HCl 1. Esterification Reaction: Reacts with ethanol in the presence of
Chemical properties of Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid concentrated H₂SO₄ to form ester (sweet-smelling, used in
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): perfumes & flavoring agents).
Physical Properties of Ethanol:
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
It is soluble in water in all proportions.
Commonly known as alcohol, it is the active ingredient in alcoholic 2. Saponification reaction: Process of converting esters into salts
drinks. of carboxylic acids and ethanol by treating them with a base.
It is a good solvent, used in medicines like tincture iodine, cough
syrups, and tonics.
Reactions of Ethanol:
Reaction with Sodium: Ethanol reacts with sodium, producing
hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. 3. Reaction with Bases: Reacts with sodium hydroxide to form
Equation: 2Na + 2C₂H₅OH → 2C₂H₅O⁻Na⁺ + H₂ sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate) and water.
Dehydration of Ethanol to Ethene: CH₃COOH + NaOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O
Ethanol is heated with excess concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 4. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates: Reacts
K, leading to the removal of water (dehydration) and formation of with Na₂CO₃ or NaHCO₃, producing carbon dioxide, water, and
ethene. sodium acetate.
Equation: C₂H₅OH → CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O (In presence of hot 2CH₃COOH + Na₂CO₃ → 2CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂
conc. H₂SO₄) CH₃COOH + NaHCO₃ → CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂
Sulphuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.
Structure of Soap/Detergent Molecule
Hard Water Soft Water
Soap/Detergent molecules have two ends:
Hydrophilic head (Water-attracting, polar)
Hydrophobic tail (Oil-attracting, non-polar) Contains high mineral content, mainly
Contains low mineral content, mainly
calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺)
Cleansing Process (Micelle Formation) sodium (Na⁺) or potassium (K⁺) ions.
ions.
Oil and dirt do not mix with water.
When soap/detergent is added, the hydrophobic tail attaches to
Does not lather easily with soap. Lathers easily with soap.
grease/dirt, while the hydrophilic head remains in water.
The molecules arrange themselves
Forms scum and scale in pipes,
in a micelle structure, surrounding boilers, and appliances.
Does not form scum or scale.
the dirt.
The dirt gets trapped inside
Can cause roughness in hair and skin. Feels smooth on skin and hair.
micelles and is lifted off the
surface.
When rinsed with water, the Example: Groundwater, well water. Example: Rainwater, distilled water.

micelles are washed away,

removing dirt

Soap Detergents Chapter ka KAZAANA:

IUPAC Naming
Molecules of soap are sodium or Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic Electron Dot Structure (Ethanol, Amine)
potassium salts of long-chain acids or ammonium salts with chloride or Homologous Series (MCQs)
carboxylic acids. bromide ions. Important Reactions: Esterification,
Saponification, Dehydration of Ethanol
Not so effective in hard water. Effective even in hard water. Working of Soap (diagram)

Relatively weak cleansing action. Strong cleansing action.

Soaps are biodegradable. Most of them are non-biodegradable.

 PRASHANT KIRAD Centre of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere of which
Light the mirror's reflecting surface forms a part.
- Rectilinear propagation of light - light travels in a straight line. Radius of Curvature (R): The radius of the sphere of which
8
- Speed of Light = c = 3 x 10 m/s the mirror's reflecting surface forms a part. R=2f
Reflection: The bouncing back of light from any shiny surface Principal Axis: The straight line passing through the pole and
e.g. mirror or water. the center of curvature of the mirror.
The Laws of reflection Principal Focus (F): The point where parallel rays of light
states that: either converge or appear to diverge after reflecting from the
1. The Incident ray, the mirror.
Reflected ray and Focal Length (f): The distance between the pole and the
Normal all lie in the principal focus.
same plane.
Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface of the
2. Angle of incidence
spherical mirror.
(∠i) = The angle of
reflection (∠r). Ray Diagrams
(i) A ray parallel to principal
Plane mirror: A smooth and polished surface that reflects axis will pass through focus
light uniformly. after reflection.
The image formed by a plane mirror is :
always virtual and erect.
(iii) A ray passing through
size of the image is equal to that of the object.
center of curvature will
image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is
follow the same path back
in front of it.
after reflection.
image is laterally inverted.
Spherical mirror: a mirror whose reflecting surface is part
(ii) A ray passing through
of a hollow sphere of glass.
the principal focus will
CONCAVE MIRROR become parallel to
reflecting surface is curved inwards, principal axis after
towards the center of the sphere reflection
CONVEX MIRROR
reflecting surface is curved outwards.
(iv) Ray incident at pole is
Pole (P): The center point of the reflected back making same
reflecting surface of a spherical angle with principal axis.
mirror.

CONCAVE MIRROR CONVEX MIRROR Sign Conventions for Spherical

Mirrors:
The object is always placed to the
left of the mirror.
Distances are measured from the
pole of the mirror.
Distances along the incident ray
(+X-axis) are positive, and those
against it (-X-axis) are negative.
Distances above the principal axis
are positive. Object distance = always +ve
Distances below the principal axis Focal length of concave mirror = -ve
are negative. Focal length of convex mirror = +ve

Important Formulas:
h’ = positive (virtual images)
h’ = negative (real images)
m = negative (real)
m = positive (virtual)

Magnification refers to the ratio of the height of an image

to the height of an object
Refraction of Light
Phenomenon of change in the
direction of light when it passes from
one transparent medium to another.
Laws of refraction of light.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted
ray and the normal to the
interface of two transparent media
at the point of incidence, all lie in
Uses of Concave Mirrors: the same plane.
Torches, Search-lights, and Vehicle Headlights:
Shaving Mirrors
Dentist's Mirrors Snell’s law of refraction.
Solar Furnaces
Uses of Convex Mirrors:
Rear-view Mirrors in Vehicles: Refractive index:
Preferred in Vehicles:
Provide erect, though diminished, images.
Have a wider field of view due to their outward curve. measurement of how much a light ray bends when it passes
Allow drivers to view a larger area compared to plane mirrors. from one medium to another.
 Lenses:
A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one
or both surfaces are spherical.
CONVEX LENS CONCAVE LENS

CONCAVE LENS

Convex Lens – Thicker in the middle, converges light.

Concave Lens – Thicker at edges, diverges light.
Centre of Curvature (C₁, C₂) – Center of the sphere forming the lens
surface.
Principal Axis – Straight line through both curvature centers.
Optical Centre (O) – Central point where light passes undeviated.
Aperture – Effective diameter of the lens.
Principal Focus (F₁, F₂) – Point where parallel rays converge (convex)
or diverge (concave).
Focal Length (f) – Distance between the principal focus and optical
center.

(i) A ray of light from the object,

parallel to the principal axis

(ii) A ray of light passing through a

principal focus

Uses of Convex Lens:

(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical Uses of Concave Lens:
centre of a lens overhead projector
spy holes in the doors
camera
glasses
focus sunlight
some telescopes
simple telescope
CONVEX LENS projector microscope
magnifying glasses

Lens formula:

Power of Lens: The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the

ray of light after refraction through it is called the power of the
lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length. ‘
SI unit = Dioptre (D)
1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
1D = 1m.

power of a convex lens = positive

power of concave lens = negative.

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Numerical
Mirror Formula
Lens Formula
Power of Lens
All Ray Diagrams
Snell’s Law
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Human eye And The Colorful World
Near point: Minimum distance for clear vision without strain,
Sense organ for vision, located in the
typically 25 cm for a normal eye.
eye sockets of the skull; it helps us
see by detecting light and colors. When looking at a nearby object, the ciliary muscles contract,
making the lens thicker and decreasing its focal length.
Aqueous Humor: Clear fluid
between cornea and lens; Far point: Maximum distance seen clearly, normally at infinity.
maintains eye pressure and When looking at a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax,
nourishes cornea and lens. making the lens thin and increasing its focal length.
Pupil: Small opening in the iris;
controls light entry into the eye Defects of Vision & their Correlation
Iris: Ring-like, muscular tissue behind the cornea; determines
eye color and adjusts pupil size.
Lens: Fibrous, jelly-like, convex; focuses light on the retina,
creating a real, inverted image.
Cornea: Outermost transparent part; provides most light
refraction
Ciliary Muscles: Hold and adjust the lens curvature for focus.
Retina: Delicate membrane with light-sensitive cells.
Rods: Detect light intensity.
Cones: Detect primary colors cataract
Vitreous Humor: Provides nutrients and maintains eye shape.

Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to cloudy or

the brain. blurry vision
Sclera: Tough, white outer covering of the eye; provides
protection.
Causes: age related
Power of Accommodation condition, weakening
The ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different of eye muscles
distances by changing the focal length of the eye lens,
controlled by ciliary muscles.
treatment: surgery.

Defects of Vision & their Corrections Dispersion of White Light: Splitting of white light into
1. Myopia (Nearsightedness) seven colors when passing through a prism.
Cause: The eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved, causing light to Spectrum: The band of seven colors formed.
focus in front of the retina.
Effect: Distant objects appear blurry, while close objects are clear.
Color Sequence: VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Correction: Concave (diverging) lenses spread out light rays so they focus Yellow, Orange, Red).
on the retina. Causes:
2. Hyperopia (Farsightedness) Varying refraction indices of different colours.
Cause: The eyeball is too short or the cornea is too flat, causing light to
focus behind the retina.
wavelength of light when passing through transparent
Effect: Close objects appear blurry, while distant objects are clear. medium like prism.
Correction: Convex (converging) lenses bend light to focus it correctly on Newton’s Experiment: Used a
the retina.
3. Astigmatism
second inverted prism to
Cause: The cornea or lens has an irregular shape, leading to multiple recombine the spectrum into
focus points. white light, proving sunlight is
Effect: Blurred or distorted vision at all distances. made up of seven colors.
Correction: Cylindrical lenses or toric contact lenses adjust for the uneven
curvature.
White Light: Any light
4. Presbyopia producing a similar spectrum
Cause: Aging causes the lens to lose flexibility, making it harder to focus to sunlight is called white
on close objects.
light.
Effect: Difficulty reading or seeing nearby objects.
Correction: Bifocal or progressive lenses, and reading glasses. Red is the least deviated colour as it has largest/longest
Advantages of having eyes in front of the face... wavelength.
Violet is the most deviated colour as it has smallest
Gives a wider field of view.
wavelength in visible spectrum.
Enhances the ability to detect faint objects.
Provides three dimensional view. Natural spectrum: Rainbow :
Refraction through a glass prism Refraction of Sunlight -- Dispersion into Colors -- Internal
Prism: Transparent refracting Reflection -- Refraction Again
medium. Structure: Two
triangular bases, three Rainbow: A natural spectrum
rectangular lateral surfaces. appearing in the sky after a
Angle of Prism: Angle rain shower, caused by the
between two lateral faces. dispersion of sunlight by tiny
Angle of Deviation: Angle water droplets in the
between incident and atmosphere.
emergent rays.
Mechanism: Water droplets act like prisms, refracting and Scattering of Light
dispersing sunlight, reflecting it internally, and refracting it Scattering of light occurs when light is absorbed by particles
again. and then re-emitted in different directions.
Color Sequence: Red at the top, violet at the bottom. Red Sun at Sunrise/Sunset
Formation Direction: Always opposite to the sun. During sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a longer distance
through the atmosphere. Blue light is scattered away, while red
Atmospheric Refraction light, with a longer wavelength, reaches the observer's eyes,
The refraction of light caused by the Earth‘s atmosphere making the sun appear red.
(having air layers of varying optical densities)
Stars Twinkle
Caused by atmospheric refraction;
starlight bends as it enters Earth's
atmosphere, causing stars to appear to
change position and flicker.

Advanced Sunrise &

Delayed Sunset: Blue Sky
Sun appears ~2 minutes before sunrise and after sunset due due to the scattering of sunlight by small air molecules
to atmospheric refraction. The Sun's disc also appears and fine particles. Blue light, having a shorter
flattened at these times. wavelength, scatters more than red light, making the
sky appear blue.

Tyndall Effect:

Light scatters when it strikes particles in a colloid,

making the light path visible.
Seen in sunlight passing through mist or a dense forest
canopy.
Why Planets Don’t Twinkle Smaller particles scatter blue light, while larger particles
Planets are closer and seen as extended sources, averaging scatter red light.
out the light variations and reducing the twinkling effect.

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Human Eye (Diagram)
Defects (Myopia and Hypermetropia)
Prism (Diagram + Concept)
Electricity
Electric Charge
PRASHANT KIRAD

physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force

when placed in an electromagnetic field. S.I. Unit: Coulomb (C)
Positive charge : Loss of electron
Negative charge : Gain of electron
Q = ne.
Properties:
1. Additivity of Charge :Total charge=sum of all charges on the body.
2. Charge is Conserved : Charge cannot be created or destroyed.
3. Charge is Invariant : Charge value remains the same, regardless of
speed.
4. Quantization of Charge : Charge is a multiple of electron charge:

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Allow Current Medium Conductivity Don’t allow Current to
to pass pass

Electric Current Flow of electric charge through a conductor.

Unit: Ampere (A) → 1 A = 1 C/s.
I = current, Q = charge, t = time. Ohm’s Law
1 Ampere: When 1C of charge flows in 1 second Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
then current is said to be 1A. potential difference across its ends, at a constant temperature

Potential Difference
The work done to move a unit positive charge between two points.
Unit: Volt (V) → 1 V = 1 J/C.
1 Volt :1 Joule of work done to move 1 unit V = W/Q
positive charge between two points
Electric Circuit A continuous path for current flow, consisting of a Resistance: Factors Affecting Resistance:
power source, conductor, and load. Property of a conductor Length (l): R∝l
that resists the flow of Area (A): R∝1/A
charges. Unit: Ohm (Ω). Material: Different materials have
different resistivities (ρ)

Question Asked Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, components are connected in separate
Step 1 : Firstly check what question is asking and write given,
branches, and each component gets its own direct path to the
to find from question . Out of V,I,R two quantities will be given
power source
and you’ll have to find third one. Other information might also
be provided to find other two values.
Step 2 : Then finally use Ohm’s Law:
Resistance and
V = IR
Resistivity ka
*Don’t forget to write units*
diffrence yaad rkhna

Resistance Resistivity
Opposition to the flow of Resistance of a material with unit
electric current in a substance. length and unit cross-sectional
Depends on length and size of area. Independent of length or
the conductor. Unit: ohm (Ω). size of the conductor.Unit: ohm- question practice
meter (Ω·m). kro

Series circuit
In a series circuit,
components (like
resistors, bulbs, or Heating effect of electric current
batteries) are Joules Law oh Heating ; Heat is proportional to the square
connected end to end in of the current, resistance, and time.
a single path for the For a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R with a
electric current to flow. potential difference V, the work done to move a charge Q across the
resistor is VQ. The power input to the circuit is:

The energy supplied by the source in time t is VIt.

This energy is dissipated as heat in the resistor, so
the heat produced is:
Using Ohm's law, V=IR, the heat can also be expressed as:
Applications: Step 2: Use Ohm’s Law: V=IR
Electric Bulb-has a tungsten filament inside a neutral gas or
Ensure all units are correct before proceeding.
vaccum. When current passes through, the filament heats up
and emits light, with most energy lost as heat.
Electric fuse- is a low melting point wire in a circuit. If Step 3: For heat produced:
current rises suddenly, the wire melts, breaking the circuit
and preventing damages. or =
Electric heater- Use a nichrome coil with high resistance to
generate heat when current flows
Power (P): Rate of energy consumption.​ Step 4:
Electric Power :
Unit: Watt (W) → 1 W = 1 J/s. For power calculation:

1 watt is the power consumed by a

device carrying 1A of current at 1V. In
practice, a larger unit, the kilowatt Step 5:
(1000 watts), is used. Substitute the values into the appropriate formulas and
Electric Energy : energy used by a circuit to allow current flow.
calculate the required quantity. Always check your units at
It is the product of power and time, measured
the end.
in watt-hours (Wh).
Commercial Unit of Energy:
One watt-hour is the energy used when 1 watt of power is
consumed for 1 hour. The commercial unit of electric energy is the
kilowatt-hour (kWh), also called a "unit."

Question Based

Step 1: Read the question carefully. Identify the given values

(V, I, R) and determine what needs to be found.
Out of voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R), two
values will be given, and you'll have to find the third.
Other information might be provided to calculate remaining
values like power or heat.

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Numerical
Series and Parallel Resistance
R =ρ (l/A)
Power/ Heating effect
Ohm’s Law Graph
Calculating cost of Electricity of Appliance
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current Hans Christian Oersted (1820):
Discovered that electric current deflects
Magnet: is any substance that attracts iron or iron like
a compass needle, proving the link
substances.
between electricity and magnetism.
Properties of Bar Magnet:
A freely suspended bar magnet aligns in the Earth's north- Hans
south direction. Christian
Attractive and Repulsive Forces: Like poles repel, opposite Oersted
poles attract.
Dipole Nature: Always has two poles (north and south);
cutting the magnet creates smaller magnets, each with two Maxwell's Right Hand Thumb Rule
poles. The rule states that if a straight conductor
Creates a magnetic field around it where its effect can be carrying current is held in the right hand such
felt. that the thumb is pointed in the direction of the
It retains its magnetic properties over time. current, then the direction in which your fingers
Magnetic Field: is the area around a magnet in which the encircle the wire gives the direction of the
effect of magnetism is felt. magnetic lines of force around the wire
Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines that show the Thumb = upwards, curled fingers = magnetic field (clockwise),
strength and direction of a magnetic field. the field direction = anticlockwise.
Properties of Magnetic Filed Lines: Thumb = downwards, curled fingers = magnetic field
Magnetic field lines start at the north pole and end at (anticlockwise), the field direction = clockwise
the south pole.
Closer lines mean a stronger magnetic field (near
Magnetic field lines due to
poles).
Straight conductor
Field lines never cross each other.
They form closed continuous curves.
Magnetic field lines due to current carrying loop
They show the direction of magnetic force.

circular pattern
around the arms
straight at the
center of the loop
Horseshoe Bar magnet
shaped

Magnetic field lines due to Solenoid Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

electromagnet.
A coil of many circular turns of When a current-carrying conductor is placed in
insulated copper wire wrapped an external magnetic field, the conductor
closely in the shape of a cylinder. experiences a force which is mutually
Outside the solenoid: North to perpendicular to both the Magnetic field and to
South the direction of the current flow.
Inside the solenoid: South to North Stretch the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger
Factors: number of turns in the coil, of your left hand perpendicular to each other.
amount of current flowing through
it, radius of coil, Material of core of Forefinger = Magnetic field
the solenoid. direction, Middle finger =
Current direction, Thumb =
Force/motion direction.
Force on a current carrying conductor
in a magnetic field Domestic Circuit
1/100 second in India, i.e. the Potential Difference in
frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz. India: 220V at 50Hz.

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)

AC can travel safely over long DC cannot travel long distances;

distances, even between cities. it loses power.

Frequency is 50 or 60 Hz,
DC has zero frequency.
depending on the country.

Current direction reverses Current flows steadily in one

periodically. direction.

Cheaper then DC generation Expensive then AC generation

 Wire in Domestic Circuit

Live Wire
Earth Wire Neutral Wire

Power sockets (15A): For

high-power appliances
(geyser, fridge, AC).

Ekdum
simple Normal sockets (5A): For
chapter! low-power appliances (TV,
bulbs, fans).
Short Circuit : occurs when a live wire and a neutral wire come into
direct contact, causing a sudden and large amount of current to flow in
the circuit.
Reasons: damage of insulation in power lines, fault in an electrical
appliance.
Overloading: If the total current drawn through a wire by the appliances
connected to it exceeds the safety limit for that wire, it gets overheated.
Electrical fuse: is a low melting point copper or other metal wire that
breaks due
to heat caused by overvoltage or high load to avoid short circuit or
failure to the
device.

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Fleming’s left hand rule (Numerical)
Solenoid (Diagram)
Properties of Magnetic field lines
Live wire, Neutral and earth wire.
 PRASHANT KIRAD Non living organisms
OUR ENVIROMENT Aboitic Components
Environment: everything that is around us, which includes both
living and nonliving things such as soil, water, animals and plants,
which adapt themselves to their surroundings. Physical factors Chemical factors
Ecosystem: a community of living organisms and their physical
Air Protein,
environment that interact together in a specific area Organic
Water fats
Natural ecosystem The ecosystem which exist in nature on its own.
Example: forest, lake, ocean. Minerals
Inorganic Hydrogen
Soil ,Oxygen
Aquatic Territorial
Fundamental energy driving our climate system Sunlight

Environment Ecosystem
Marine Fresh water Forest Desert Grassland
The physical and biological A system where living (biotic) and
surroundings where organisms live. non-living (abiotic) components
Artificial ecosystem interact.
Man-made ecosystem. (Aquarium, Garden, Crop field etc ) Includes all the external conditions Includes interactions like food
Components of Ecosystem affecting an organism's life. chains, food webs, and nutrient
Living Organism cycles.
Biotic components Environment changes as an Ecosystems remain stable
organism moves from one place to regardless of an organism's
another. movement.
Autotrophs Heterotrophs

Producers Consumers Decomposers How Ecosystem Works?

1. Sunlight – Primary energy source.
All green plants and
blue green algae can Include all animals Include organisms which 2. Producers – Plants make food via photosynthesis.
produce their own food which depend on decompose the dead plants 3. Herbivores – Eat plants (Primary consumers).
using abiotic factors. producers directly or and animals. Example:
indirectly for their food bacteria, fungi, earthworms 4. Carnivores – Eat animals (Secondary/Tertiary consumers).
5. Decomposers – Break down dead organisms.
(i) Herbivores: Plant Eaters e.g., goat, deer, etc.
6. Nutrient Recycling – Nutrients return to soil for reuse.
(ii) Carnivores: Flesh Eaters e.g., tiger, crocodile, etc. Food Chain: A series of organisms feeding on one another.
(iii) Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals e.g., human.

Food web: is a network of interconnected food chains showing

complex feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
It demonstrates how each organism can be consumed by multiple
organisms and vice versa.
Trophic level
It is the position an organism occupies in a food Food Chain Food Web
chain, based on its role in the flow of energy
First Level: Autotrophs/Producers (e.g., green plants) A linear sequence of A complex network of
Fix solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. organisms where each is interconnected food chains in an
Second Level: Herbivores/Primary Consumers eaten by the next organism. ecosystem.
Third Level: Small carnivores/Secondary Consumers
Fourth Level: Larger carnivores/Tertiary Consumers Simple and straightforward,
Complex and branched, showing
showing one pathway of
multiple pathways of energy flow.
energy flow.

Each organism is linked to Each organism is connected to

The 10% law of energy transfer, proposed by Raymond Lindeman, only one other organism at multiple organisms at different
states that only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed the next trophic level. trophic levels.
on to the next level in a food chain. The remaining 90% is lost as
heat, during movement, growth, and other life processes. Less stable; affected if one More stable; removal of one
Green plants capture 1% of solar energy falling on their leaves. organism is removed from organism has less impact due to
the chain. multiple connections.
At each trophic level: Heat loss: A large part of energy is lost
as heat to the environment. 10% Rule: Only 10% of the
consumed energy is converted into biomass and made available Energy flows in a single Energy flows through multiple
to the next level. direction (unidirectional). interconnected pathways.
Due to energy loss, food chains are usually limited to 3-4 levels.
Producers are the most numerous, with numbers decreasing Example: Grass is eaten by
progressively at higher trophic levels. Example: Grass →
grasshoppers, rabbits, or deer,
Grasshopper → Frog →
which are eaten by frogs, hawks,
Bio magnification: Progressive accumulation of harmful chemicals Snake → Hawk
or lions.
(e.g., pesticides) in organisms at higher trophic levels.
OZONE: Molecule made of three oxygen atoms. Protects Earth Some Methods of Waste Disposal
from harmful UV radiation, which can cause skin cancer in Biogas Plant – Converts biodegradable waste into biogas and
humans. Ozone is formed when UV rays split oxygen molecules manure.
(O₂), and free oxygen atoms combine with O₂ to form ozone Sewage Treatment – Cleans drain water before releasing it into
(O₃): O₂ → O + O (by UV rays) O + O₂ → O₃ (ozone formation) rivers.
Stratosphere Landfilling – Buries and compacts waste in low-lying areas.
Depletion of Ozone Layer:
Composting – Converts organic waste into manure.
Recycling – Processes non-biodegradable waste into new
products.
Reuse – Uses old items again, like making envelopes from
newspapers.
Incineration – Burns waste at high temperatures to form ash.
Improvements in lifestyle have resulted in Challenges: Improper disposal of plastics and e-waste harms the
Garbage disposal :
accumulation of large amounts of waste environment. Recycling may also have environmental impacts.
material.
Types of waste
Biodegradable Waste materials that can be broken down into
simpler substances by natural processes such as
the action of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi).
Examples: Food waste, paper, cotton,.
Non biodegradable Waste materials that cannot be broken down
by natural processes and remain in the
environment for a long time.
Examples: Plastic, glass, and metals.
Harmful effects of waste
Ozone depletion
Air, soil and water pollution
Bioaccumulation
Bio magnification

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
10% Law (Numerical)
Ozone (formation)
Biomagnification
 PRASHANT KIRAD Nutrition in Plants
LIFE PROCESSES
The basic functions performed by living organisms to
maintain their life on this earth Absorption of Conversion of light energy Reduction of
light energy by to chemical energy and carbon dioxide
Nutrition Photosynthesis is the process of capturing light splitting of water molecules to
chlorophyll
energy and transforming it into chemical energy into hydrogen and oxygen. carbohydrates
(glucose). (Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an
Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the
Organisms that prepare their own Organisms that are dependent on other chlorophyll during the day)
Pore like structure
food. e.g., Green plants, Algae, etc. organisms for food. E.g., Animals, fungi, etc.
Gaseous exchange photosynthesis
(stems, roots & leaves)
opening and closening of stomata
guard cells swell -> when water flows into them -> causing the
stomatal pore to open (endosmosis)
Holozoic nutrition: involves organisms Saprophytic nutrition: Parasitic nutrition:
pore closes -> the guard cells shrink (exosmosis)
ingesting whole food material, which Organisms feed on dead Organisms derive nutrition
is then digested and absorbed inside and decaying matter. from plants or animals
their bodies. Examples include: Food is digested externally without killing them. They Nutrition in Humans Ingestion – Food intake through the
Animals - [Herbivores: Cow, goat], and then nutrients are obtain nutrition by living on mouth.
[Carnivores: Lion, tiger], [Omnivores: absorbed. e.g. Bread mold, or inside the host. e.g. Teeth – Chewing and grinding of food.
Human beings], Unicellular organisms: Mushroom, Yeast. Tapeworm, Lice. Salivary Glands – Secretes saliva,
Amoeba, Paramecium wets food, contains salivary amylase
(starch → maltose).
Swallowing & Peristalsis – Moves food
from mouth to stomach.
Stomach – J-shaped organ, expands
Nutrition with food, muscular walls mix food
with digestive juices.
in
Gastric Juice – Pepsin (breaks
Amoeba proteins), HCl (acidic medium), Mucus
(protects stomach lining).
Small Intestine – Receives:
Bile (Liver) – Emulsifies fat.
Pancreatic Juice (Pancreas) – Trypsin
(proteins), Lipase (fats), Pancreatic
amylase (carbs).

Absorption – 5-7m long, secretes intestinal enzymes, villi absorb nutrients. Respiration in Humans
Large Intestine – Absorbs excess water, unabsorbed food moves ahead.
Egestion – Waste elimination. Nostrils: Air enters the body.
Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, and
Alimentary canal: A long hollow tube which contains organs through moistens air; removes dirt.
which the food actually passes (Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, Pharynx: Common passage for food
and air.
large intestine, etc.)
Larynx: Contains vocal cords;
Respiration is the process by which food is burnt produces sound.
Respiration in the cells (mitochondria) of the body with the Trachea: Windpipe carrying air to
help of oxygen to release energy. Energy is lungs.
Bronchus: Trachea splits into two
stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules. bronchi, leading to lungs.
Bronchioles: Smaller branches of
Breathing Respiration bronchi inside lungs.
Alveolus: Air sacs for gas exchange;
● Physical process
● Biochemical process oxygen enters blood, CO₂ exits.
● No enzymes involved
● Large number of enzymes are involved Blood: Transports oxygen to cells and
● Confined to certain organs
● Occurs in all the cells of the body removes CO₂.
● No energy is released; rather,
energy is used ● Energy is released in the form of ATP
Diaphragm and ribs: These structures facilitate breathing by changing the size
● Extracellular process ● Intracellular process
of the chest cavity. When we breathe in, the ribs lift, and the diaphragm
● Intake of fresh air and removal of ● Oxidation of food to form carbon
flattens, expanding the chest cavity and allowing air to be sucked into the lungs.
foul air dioxide, water, and energy

Transportation
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. Blood: Fluid connective tissue that transports nutrients, waste, and gases.
Occurs in the presence of oxygen. Occurs in the absence of oxygen. Blood Cells:
Takes place in the mitochondria. Takes place in the cytoplasm. Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Contain hemoglobin, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Complete breakdown of glucose. Incomplete breakdown of glucose. White Blood Cells (WBCs): Provide immunity by producing antibodies.
Produces CO₂, H₂O, and energy Produces less energy (2 ATP). Plasma: Fluid medium carrying nutrients, waste, and other substances.
(ATP). By-products: Platelets: Help in blood clotting and maintaining pressure.
Yields more energy (~36 ATP). In yeast: Alcohol and CO₂. 2. Blood Vessels:
In muscles: Lactic acid (causes muscle Arteries:
cramps). Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
Thick, elastic walls.
High pressure.
Veins:
Carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart.
Thin walls, contain valves.
Low pressure.
Capillaries:
Link arteries and veins.
Extremely thin walls for exchange of gases and nutrients.
3. Heart

Lymphatic System: Lymph: Colorless fluid carrying digested fats and excess
tissue fluid.
Function: Drains into lymphatic capillaries and then into veins.
Helps in fat absorption and returns excess tissue fluid to blood.
 Plants absorb raw materials like
Transportation in Plants nitrogen, phosphorus, and
minerals from the soil through
roots.

Xylem Phloem

1. Conducts water and minerals from 1. Conducts food from leaves to all
roots to leaves. parts of the plant.

2. Transport is unidirectional. 2. Transport is bidirectional.

3. Composed of mainly dead 3. Composed of mainly living

Double Circulation
elements. elements.

4. Has four types of cells: Tracheids, 4. Has four types of cells: Phloem
Vessels, Xylem parenchyma, and fibers, Companion cells, Sieve tubes,
Xylem fibers. and Phloem parenchyma.

Transportation in Humans

Heart - Muscular organ, Located in chest cavity, as big as

fist. It is a blood pumping organ that pumps oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood to and from the lungs and the rest
of the body.

Chambers in heart - To prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated

blood. More oxygen will be supplied to body organs in better way. Highly
efficient supply of oxygen to the body. More respiration leading to more
energy production.

Excretion in Human Beings

Kidneys : Location: Abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.

Function: Filter waste from blood to form urine. Nephrons act as
filtration units, selectively reabsorbing useful substances like
glucose, amino acids, salts, and water.

Urine Formation: After filtration and reabsorption, the remaining fluid

Ureters: Location: Tubes connecting
is urine, containing waste products and extra water.
the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Transport: Urine travels from the kidneys through the ureters to the
Function: Transport urine from urinary bladder.
kidneys to the urinary bladder. Storage: Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until it becomes full.
Urinary Bladder: Location: Pelvic Excretion: When the bladder is full, the nervous system triggers the
region. Function: Stores urine until urge to urinate, and urine is released from the bladder through the
urethra and out of the body.
expelled. Muscular and under nervous
control for voluntary urination. Excretion in Plants
Urethra: Location: Tube leading from
Plants remove waste through various methods. Oxygen is
the urinary bladder to the outside of
released via transpiration, while stomata regulate gas
the body.Function: Allows urine to be
exchange. Excess water is removed through transpiration.
excreted from the body
Waste is stored in vacuoles, old xylem as resins and
Structural & functional unit of kidney/excretion system. gums, or in leaves that eventually fall off. Some waste is
Responsible for filtration of blood. There are millions of nephron also excreted into the soil.
in each kidney.
Glomerular Filtration: Blood enters the Chapter ka KAZAANA:
kidneys, and in the nephrons, nitrogenous
wastes, glucose, water, amino acids, and
Human Heart (Diagram)
excess salts are filtered out. This initial Excretion (Specially Nephron)
filtrate enters the Bowman’s capsule of each Respiration (Aerobic, Anaerobic)
nephron.
Nutrition (Diagram)
↓
Selective Reabsorption: As the filtrate moves
through the nephron, useful substances such
as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a
significant amount of water are reabsorbed
back into the blood by the capillaries
surrounding the nephron.
↓
Tubular Secretion: Urea, additional water,
and excess salts are secreted into the tubule,
which then opens into the collecting duct. The
urine then flows from the collecting ducts into
the ureters.
 How Do Organisms Reproduce PRASHANT KIRAD Fragmentation : The organism breaks up into small pieces upon
Reproduction: is a biological process by which living organisms maturation, each piece develops into new individual. E.g spirogyra.
produces new individuals similar to themselves. It ensures continuity Regeneration: If organism is somehow cut or broken into many
of life on earth and helps in evolution of species. pieces each piece growns into a complete organism. Example -
Planaria, Hydra.
DNA: (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is thread-like structure that carries
all information about our traits and is passed from one generation to Budding: A bud is formed which develops into tiny individual. It
the next. detaches from parent body upon maturation and develops into
Errors in Copying Variations in DNA new individual. Example - Hydra
DNA Copying (Biochemical
Process
➔ ➔ (DNA is not identical Spore formation : Spores are small bulb like structures which
reactions are not to the original) are covered by thick walls. Under favourable conditions, they
fully reliable) germinate and produce new organism.
Mild/Moderate Variation ➔
Extreme Variation ➔ vegetative propagation: In many plants, new plants develops
No severe consequences
New cell can't function from vegetative parts.
(Cell continues to function
➔ Cell dies Benefits of Vegetative Propagation
normally
Importance of Variation: Quick and cheap method to produce many plants.
(i) Variation helps organisms adapt to changing environments. Disease-free plants can be produced.
(ii) It provides stability to a species and supports evolution. Desired traits can be introduced.
(iii) DNA variation leads to different forms of a species and the Genetically identical plants are produced.
creation of new species. Almost 100% survival rate of new plants.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TYPES OF REPRODUCTION Tissue Culture
Tissue culture: Growing new plants from small plant pieces.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Cells from growing tip placed in artificial medium form a callus.
A single individual give rise to Two individuals, i.e one male and Callus is moved to a hormone-rich medium for growth and
new individual. one female need development.
Gametes are not formed Gametes are formed. Plantlets are transferred to soil to mature.
New Individual is identical to New Individual is genetically Many disease-free plants are grown from one parent.
parents similar but not identical to parent Commonly used for ornamental plants.
It is extremely useful as a means It is useful to generate more Sexual reproduction:
of rapid multiplication. variations in species. When reproduction takes
Example - Microorganisms Example - plants and humans place as a result of the
fusion of male and female
MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
gametes is called Sexual
Fission : The parent cell divides into daughter cells.
reproduction.

Reproduction in Plants It does not lead to genetic diversity.

Cross pollination
Parts Function It is the transfer of pollen to stigma of another flower of the
same plant or another plant of same kind.
Sepals Usually green and provide protection to flower during
It takes place both in unisexual and bisexual f!owners
bud stage
It leads to genetic diversity.
Petals Brighly coloured and have strong fragrance to attract
pollinators
Anther Produces pollen grain which consists male gametes
Filament It forms the stalk that bears anther
Reproduction in human beings
Stigma Recievea pollen grain during pollination
Puberty The period of life when production of germ cells, i.e
Style Elongated structure, connects stigma and ovary, pollen ova (female) and sperm (male) start in the body.
tube travel through the style to reach the ovule.
IN GIRLS
Ovary Basal swallen part of pistil, converts into fruit after Breast size begin to increase.
fertilization. Girls begin to menstruate.
Ovule Present inside ovary, consists of female gamete, site of Thick hair growth in armpits and genital
fertilization. area. These changes signs
Reproduction in plants Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples. that sexual maturity is
IN BOYS taking place.
Stamen/Male Pistil/Carpel/Female
reproductive organ reproductive organ Thick hair growth on face.
BISEXUAL: Both stamen UNISEXUAL: either stamen or pistil is Voice begin to crack.
and pistil are present in a present. E.g., Papaya, Watermelon, Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
same flower. E.g., Rose, lily Skin becomes oily may result in pimples.
PARTS OF SEED Primary sex organs
COTYLEDON Males Females
SEED COAT Sperm cell Egg cell
EMPRYO
Male sex hormon Female Sex hormone
PLUMULE
RADICLE Human female reproductive system
Reproduction in plants
Ovaries: A pair located on both sides of the abdomen.
Pollination The process of transferring of pollen grain from anther Function: Produce female germ cells (eggs).
of a flower to the stigma.
At birth, thousands of immature eggs are present.
Self pollination It is transfer of pollen to stigma of the same f!ower. At puberty, some eggs start maturing.
It is occurs only in bisxual flower One egg is released monthly from one ovary.
 Receives the egg Seminal vesicles: and prostate gland add their secretion to the
produced by the ovary sperms. This fluid provide nourishment to sperms and make their
and transfer it to the transport easy.
uterus. Testis: Location: In the scrotum, outside the abdomen.
Fertilisation i.e, fusion Function: Produce sperms and release testosterone.
of gametes takes place (i) Regulates sperm production.
here. (ii) Causes puberty changes like voice deepening and body hair
It is a bag like Vas defernce It passes sperms from testis upto urethra
structure where
development of the
Reproduction in human beings
offspring takes place.
Ring of muscles that is After copulation, millions of sperms are
nearby the lower end released during ejaculation.
Gathers sperm
of the uterus. deposited by the penis,
Sperms swim towards female gamete, with the
male gamete, with the act as birth channel
help of tail.
tail. for a child.
Human male reproductive system
Only one sperm will fertilizes the egg . The
Stores urine
fertilized egg will move towards the uterus.

Deposits sperm inside the vagina; Zygote develops into an embryo, and after about 8
furthermore disposes of urine weeks of development, the embryo becomes a fetus.
Implantation
Attachment of growing embryo to endometrium.
It is a common passage for both Placenta
sperms and urine The embryo grows inside the mother's
womb and gets nourishment from mother's
blood through tissue called placenta.
Testes are in the scrotum Villi on placenta provide a large surface area
outside the abdomen as of glucose and oxygen to develop embryo.
sperm formation needs
lower temperature than
body temperature

Reproduction in human beings Menarche Syphillis Is caused by bacterium, which affects the mucous
[11-12] membrane of genital, rectal area.
Female ovary
Viral
Produces egg ova once a month AIDS Is caused by HIV virus. It is fast spreading incurable
disease, which weakens the body's immune system.
uterus wall become thick Wards A small bump on the genitas caused by a common st infection.
Menopause
Some common contraceptive devices
[45+]
Methods and techniques to prevent pregnancy
Fertilized by sperm Not
fertilized Mechanical method
Pregnancy
Menstruation
Condom
Menstrual cycle Cervical cap
The uterus prepare itself every month to receive fertilized Chemical methods
egg. PILLS
The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required
IUCD
to support the embryo.
When fertilization had not taken place, this lining is not Loop
needed any longer. Copper T
The lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and Surgical method
mucus. This cycle takes around 28 days every month called Vasectomy
menstruation. Tubectomy
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive health is a condition of overall physical, mental and
Chapter ka KAZAANA:
social prosperity, and not just the nonattendance of reproductive
Asexual Reproduction
disease or ailment
Budding (Diagram)
Sexually Transmitted disease (STDs) Vegetative Propagation
Diseases transmitted to healthy person because of matting Fertilization in plants (Diagram + Functions)
with contaminated person Reproduction (diagram) - Male & female
STDs (MCQs)
Bacterial
Inflammation of the mucous membrane of urogenital
Gonorrhoea
tract, rectum, victims feels burning and pain during
urination.
 PRASHANT KIRAD Genes: a segment of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity and
Heredity is passed from parent to child, is a molecule that contains
Heredity the process of passing down traits and characteristics genetic information for the development and functioning of an
from parents to their offspring through genes organism.

Variation The difference between individuals in a species or

Acquired Traits Inherited Traits
group of organisms
Environment variation
Genetic Variation a) Do not change germ cells Bring changes in germ cells
Importance of Variation
Variation helps organisms adapt to changing environments. b) Cannot be passed on to Can be passed on to their
It drives the evolution of new, better-adapted species. future generations progeny
Accumulation of Variation During Reproduction
c) Do not lead to evolution May lead to evolution
Asexually Variation are fewer.
Occurs due to small inaccuracies in DNA
Sexually Variation are large. Example: Losing limbs due to Example: Deformed limbs at
Occurs due to crossing over, separations of an accident birth due to a genetic defect
chromosomes.
The biological science, which deals with the mechanism Alleles: a pair of genes that occupy a specific location on a
of heredity and causes variation called genetics. particular chromosome and control the same trait
"genetics" was coined by English biologist William
Haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes (n) and are
Bateson
Father of Genetics (Gregor Johann Mendel) formed through meiosis. They are primarily involved in sexual
reproduction, with examples including sperm and egg cells.
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains
Diploid cells, on the other hand, have two sets of chromosomes
genetic information for the development and functioning
(2n) and divide through mitosis. These cells make up most of
of an organism.
the body’s tissues, such as nerve and muscle cells.
Chromatin: refers to a mixture of DNA and proteins that Rules of inheritance
form the chromosomes found in the cells of humans and
other higher organisms

Chromosomes: is a DNA molecule that consists of a part

or all of the genetic material of an organism

Dominant allele Why only pea Large no. of offsprings Annual Plant
The dominant allele is the stronger of the two alleles. plant? Short Life Cycle 7 pairs of allelic
Represented by a capital letter, it determines the dominant
characteristics
traits. Monohybrid Cross Cross between two pea plants with
Dominant traits manifest in both homozygous and one pair of contrasting characters
heterozygous conditions.
Recessive allele
The recessive allele is the weaker of the two alleles.
Represented by a lowercase letter, it remains suppressed in
the presence of a dominant allele.
Recessive traits are expressed only in the homozygous
condition.
-Genotype: The unique DNA sequence or allele combination
inherited from parents.
- Phenotype: Observable traits like appearance and behavior,
influenced by genotype and environment.
Characters/traits like T are called dominant trait ( because it
Homozygous Condition: Heterozygous Condition: express itself ) and t are recessive traits.
Inherits identical alleles of a Inherits different alleles of
gene from both parents Dihybrid Cross A cross between two plants having two pairs
a gene from each parent of contrasting characters.
Phenotypic Ratio
Gregor Mendel's experiment
Round, yellow :9
Plant selected by Mendel: Pisum sativum( garden pea) .
Round, green : 3 Parents-> Round green × wrinkled yellow
used a number of contrasting characters for garden pea Wrinkled , yellow: 3
Mendel's rules for the inheritance of traits. Wrinkled, green :1

Law of Dominance: In heterozygous pairs, the dominant Self-pollination of F1 plants resulted in parental
allele masks the recessive one. phenotypes and two new mixtures.
Law of Segregation: Traits have two alleles that separate Round and yellow seeds are dominant traits.
during gamete formation; one from each parent combines New phenotype combinations indicate that genes for
during fertilization. round and yellow seeds are inherited independently.
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes
assort independently into gametes
 Sex Determination the process through which the sex of a
newborn individual is established.

Factors affecting the sex determination

Environmental In certain animals, like turtles, the temperature

at which fertilized eggs are kept determines the
gender.

Genetic In humans and other animals, gender is determined

by a pair of sex chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs
of chromosomes

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Definition of 3 Laws of Mendel
Monohybrid Cross (Numerical on F2 generation)
Difference in Acquired and Inherited traits
Control & Coordination PRASHANT KIRAD Synapse
Gap between the nerve ending of one neuron and dendrite of the
Coordination: working together of the various organs of an
other neuron.
organism to adjust various activities of life.
Electrical signal to Chemical signals
Stimuli: change in the environment that can cause a physical or
behavioral change in a living organism. Neuromuscular junction (NMJ):
a synaptic connection between the
Response: the reaction of an organism to an internal or external
terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle.
stimulus.
Receptors: Cells or groups Photo Dendrites Cell body Axon Nerve ending Synapse
of cells in sense organs
that detect stimuli and Thermo Olfactory
Types of Neuron:
convert them into impulses.
Sensory Neurons Transmit impulses from sense organs to brain
Effectors: Parts of the body that
Motor Neurons Transmit impulses from Brain and spinal cord to body
respond to impulses sent by the nervous
Relay Neurons Allow sensory and motor neuron to communicate
system, converting them into actions. e.g. Phono Gustatory
muscles and glands. Aspect Voluntary Actions Involuntary Reflex Actions
COORDINATION IN ANIMALS: Actions
Nervous system Definition Actions under Actions occurring
Sudden, automatic
conscious control without conscious
Endocrine system responses to
control
Central Hormones stimuli
Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Controlled by
Involves the brain’s Controlled by
Fore - Brain Cranial nerves
Spinal nerve Control thinking and decision- the autonomic
Mid - Brain the spinal cord
Arise from the brain Arise from making nervous system
Hind- Brain via reflex arc
spinal cord or lower brain
Cell body centers
NEURONS: Acquired information Heartbeat, Pulling hand away
Examples Walking, writing,
travels as an electrical impulse digestion, from a hot
speaking
breathing object, blinking
Axon
Longest fibre on the cell body. It Reflex action: spontaneous automatic and involuntary response.
transmits electrical impulse from
Monitored through the spinal cord.
cell body to dendrite of next neuron.
Dendrites the pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called
Acquires information Nerve ending reflex arc.

Protection of nervous system

Brain
Spinal cord
Brain in cranium (bone
box, part of skull). Spinal cord wrapped
Covered by 3 membrane in meninges.
layers (meninges). Protected by
Fluid protects brain from vertebral column
injuries. (backbone).
Vertebral column
Spinal cord: cylindrical made of 33 bones
Human brain: Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. extension of brain, starts (vertebrae).
from medulla.
Most complex or specialized part of brain (largest also).
Surrounded by meninges.
Consists of cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus.
31 pairs of nerves arise.
Functions: Thinking part of the brain Control the voluntary
Handles spinal reflexes.
actions. Store information. Receives sensory impulse
Conducts nerve impulses
Centre associated with hunger. more about Spinal cord
to/from brain.

Controls involuntary actions CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN PLANTS :

such as:
Changing pupil size.
NASTIC TROPIC
reflex movement of head,
neck and trunk
Phototropism: Growth towards
Thigmonasty or away from light.
Control involuntary actions, Non-directional Hydrotropism: Growth in
regulation of respiration movement in response to response to water.
touch (e.g., Mimosa
controls posture and balance. pudica). Chemotrpism: Growth towards or
controls voluntary Precision of voluntary act. away from chemicals.
Photonasty
act. Eg: blood Non-directional Geotropism: Growth in
pressure, movement in response response to gravity.
salivation, vomiting. to light (e.g., dandelion, Thigmotropism : Growth in
moonflower) response to touch.
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:
structure made of cells or tissue
Nastic Movement Tropic Movement GLANDS that secretes specific
substances in the body.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Non-directional response to stimuli. Directional response to stimuli. Secrete substances directly into the bloodstream (ductless).
Substances are hormones.
Secretion occurs throughout the body via blood.
Fast movement. Slow movement. Examples: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands.
Part of the endocrine system.
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Involves flat organs (leaves, petals). Involves all plant parts.
Secrete substances through ducts onto body surfaces.
Substances include enzymes, sweat, saliva, etc.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS: Secretion occurs on external body surfaces or into body cavities.
HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES) Examples: Sweat glands, salivary glands, digestive glands.
Not part of the endocrine system.
Growth of a plant can be divided into three stages:
1.Cell division
2.Cell enlargement
3.Cell differentiation (or cell specialization
Auxin → Promotes cell elongation, helps in phototropism (bending
towards light), and root development.
Gibberellins → Stimulates stem elongation, seed germination, and
flowering.
Cytokinins → Promotes cell division, delays aging of leaves, and
helps in fruit and seed development.
Abscisic Acid (ABA) → Inhibits growth, induces dormancy in
seeds, and helps in closing stomata during water stress.
Ethylene → Promotes fruit ripening and helps in leaf and flower
shedding. HORMONES: Chemical messengers in the bloodstream that
regulate and control the activity of organs and tissues.

Feedback Mechanism: A process that maintains hormonal

balance by adjusting hormone secretion in response to
changes in hormone levels.

Endocrine Glands, Their Hormones, and Functions

Hypothalamus (Brain) → Hormone: Releasing & Inhibitory →
Function: Regulates pituitary gland hormones
Pituitary Gland (Below the brain) → Hormone: Growth
Hormone → Function: Controls body growth (bones, muscles) -
master gland → Condition: Dwarfism, Gigantism
Thyroid Gland (Attached to windpipe) → Hormone: Thyroxine
→ Function: Regulates metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins
→ Condition: Goitre (iodine deficiency)
Parathyroid Gland (Embedded in thyroid gland) → Hormone:
Parathormone → Function: Regulates calcium and phosphate
levels in blood
Thymus Gland (Lower neck/upper chest) → Hormone: Thymus
Hormone → Function: Develops immune system; large in
children, shrinks after puberty
Pancreas (Below the stomach) → Hormones: Insulin &
Glucagon → Function: Regulates blood sugar levels; insulin helps
glucose uptake → Condition: Diabetes
Adrenal Glands (On top of kidneys) → Hormone: Adrenaline
→ Function: Prepares body for 'fight or flight' response Chapter ka KAZAANA:
(increases heart rate, breathing, energy mobilization) Neuron (Function + Diagram)
Testes (Male reproductive organs) → Hormone: Testosterone Reflex arc (Diagram)
→ Function: Controls male puberty (voice, hair growth) Hormone Topic is very important
Ovaries (Female reproductive organs) → Hormones: Estrogen Function of Brain (MCQ)
& Progesterone → Function: Controls female puberty (voice,
skin, breasts); progesterone supports menstrual cycle and
pregnancy