Lecture Note with ESSLCE Questions

For

Mathematics for Natural Science

(Remedial Program)

Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD, Mathematics staff

at Madda Walabu University)
Email: tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Telegram: @tesfaye_teferi

Text book (Grade 9-12), different web sources are used

while the lecture note is prepared.
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Solution of Equation .................................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1. Revision on Number System............................................................................................................................... 7
1.2. Equations Involving Exponents and Radicals ..................................................................................................... 7
1.3. Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables .................................................................................................. 8
1.3.1. Types of Solutions.................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2. System of Equation Word Problems ................................................................................................... 10
1.4. System of linear inequality ............................................................................................................................... 11
1.4.1. Solution of system of equations ........................................................................................................... 11
1.5. Equations Involving Absolute Value ................................................................................................................ 12
1.5.1. Properties of absolute value ................................................................................................................. 13
1.6. Solving absolute value inequality ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.7. Quadratic Equations .......................................................................................................................................... 13
1) Method of factorization ................................................................................................................................ 13
2) Method of Completing the square .............................................................................................................. 14
3) Method of Quadratic Formula ..................................................................................................................... 15
1.8. Word problem ................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.9. Quadratic Inequalities ....................................................................................................................................... 16
1.9.1. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using Product Property ................................................................... 16
1.9.2. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Sign Chart Method: ........................................................ 17
1.9.3. Solving quadratic inequalities graphically........................................................................................... 17
1.10. Rational expressions: Simplification and Solution ......................................................................................... 19
1.10.1. Operations with Rational Expressions .............................................................................................. 20
1.10.2. Partial Fraction ..................................................................................................................................... 20
1.10.2. Solving Rational Equations ................................................................................................................ 21
ESSLCE Question.................................................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Relations and Functions ........................................................................................................................................... 25
2.1. Revision on Set theory ...................................................................................................................................... 25
2.1.1. Definition and Representation of Set .................................................................................................. 25
2.1.2. Ordered pair ............................................................................................................................................ 25
2.1.3. Cartesian Product of Sets ..................................................................................................................... 26

1
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

2.2. Definition and examples of relation .................................................................................................................. 26

2.2.1. Domain and range of a relation............................................................................................................ 27
2.2.2. Representing a relations ....................................................................................................................... 27
2.2.3. Inverse of Relation ................................................................................................................................. 28
2.2.4. Graphs of relations involving inequalities ........................................................................................... 29
2.2.5. Graphs of inverse Relations ................................................................................................................. 31
2.3. Definition and examples of function ................................................................................................................. 32
2.3.1. Definition of Function ............................................................................................................................. 32
2.3.2. Domain and Range Of Function .......................................................................................................... 34
2.3.3. Equality of functions ............................................................................................................................... 37
2.4. Real-Valued Function ....................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4.1. The Domain of the Sum, Difference, Quotient or Product Function ............................................... 38
2.5. Composition of functions .................................................................................................................................. 38
Even Functions and Odd Functions ............................................................................................................... 40
2.6. Graphs of Functions .......................................................................................................................................... 42
2.6.1. Transformations of functions ................................................................................................................ 42
2.6.2. Graph of quadratic functions: 𝒇𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 ............................................................................. 43
2.7. Power function, Absolute value function, Signum function and greatest integer function............................... 44
2.8. Exponential functions and their graphs ............................................................................................................. 45
2.8.1. Exponential function .............................................................................................................................. 45
2.8.2. Graph of Exponential function .............................................................................................................. 47
2.8.3. Laws of logarithm ................................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.3. Graph of Logarithmic function .............................................................................................................. 49
2.8.4. Transformation of logarithmic functions graph .................................................................................. 49
2.9. Classification of functions ................................................................................................................................ 50
2.9.1. Injection/One-One function ................................................................................................................... 50
2.9.2. Surjection/Onto function ........................................................................................................................ 51
2.9.3. Bijection ................................................................................................................................................... 52
2.10. Inverse function .............................................................................................................................................. 54
2.10.1. Steps for finding the Inverse of a One-to-one Function ................................................................. 55
2.10.2. Graph of inverse function.................................................................................................................... 55
2.11. Polynomial functions ...................................................................................................................................... 56
2.11.1. Graph of polynomial ............................................................................................................................ 57
2.11.2. End Behavior of Polynomial Functions ............................................................................................. 57
2.12. Rational Function ............................................................................................................................................ 59
2
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

2.12.1. Graphing Rational Functions.............................................................................................................. 59

Vertical asymptote ......................................................................................................................................... 59
Horizontal Asymptotes.................................................................................................................................. 60
2.12.2. Sketching Rational Functions Having Removable Discontinuities ............................................... 62
2.13. Trigonometric functions .................................................................................................................................. 63
2.13.1. Reference angle ................................................................................................................................... 65
2.13.2. Sine, Cosine and Tangent .................................................................................................................. 67
2.13.3. The functions 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 and 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝒙 ........................................................................ 67
2.13.4. Common angles ................................................................................................................................... 68
2.13.5. Trigonometric Identities ....................................................................................................................... 70
2.13.6. Graphs of some trigonometric functions........................................................................................... 70
Graph of Sine Function and Cosine Function .................................................................................................. 70
Graph of Tangent Function and Cotangent Function ....................................................................................... 71
Graph of Cosecant Function and Secant Function ........................................................................................... 71
2.13.7. Inverse of trigonometric functions ..................................................................................................... 73
2.13.8. Graph of Inverse Trigonometric Functions....................................................................................... 74
2.13.9. Applications of trigonometric functions ............................................................................................. 75
Non-Right Triangles: Laws of Sines and Cosines ........................................................................................ 76
Law of Cosines .................................................................................................................................................. 77
Solved Problems ...................................................................................................................................................... 80
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 84
Geometry and Measurement .................................................................................................................................... 84
3.1. Polygon ............................................................................................................................................................. 84
3.1.1. Regular Polygon ..................................................................................................................................... 84
3.1.2. Regular Polygons vs. Irregular Polygons ........................................................................................... 85
3.1.3. Interior and exterior angles of a polygon ............................................................................................ 85
3.1.4. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a Polygon ......................................................... 86
3.1.5. Properties of Regular Polygons ........................................................................................................... 89
3.1.6. Inscribed and subscribed Polygon....................................................................................................... 89
3.1.7. Apothem and Radius of regular polygon ............................................................................................ 90
3.2. Different Types of Quadrilaterals ..................................................................................................................... 91
3.2.1. Rectangle ................................................................................................................................................ 92
3.2.2. Rhombus ................................................................................................................................................. 92
3.2.3. Square...................................................................................................................................................... 93
3.2.4. Trapezium................................................................................................................................................ 93
3
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

3.2.5. Parallelogram .......................................................................................................................................... 93

3.2.6. Kite ........................................................................................................................................................... 94
3.3. Congruency and Similarity ............................................................................................................................... 96
3.3.1. Congruent Polygons .............................................................................................................................. 96
3.3.2. Congruency of Triangles ....................................................................................................................... 97
3.3.3. Similar Polygons ................................................................................................................................... 100
3.3.4. Similarity of Triangles .......................................................................................................................... 102
3.4. Theorems on Similarity of Triangles .............................................................................................................. 103
Properties and types of triangles. ................................................................................................................. 104
Classify Triangles by Sides ............................................................................................................................ 104
Classify Triangles by Angles ......................................................................................................................... 104
3.5. Areas of Triangle and parallelogram .............................................................................................................. 104
3.5.1. Area of a Parallelogram ...................................................................................................................... 104
3.5.2. Area of a Triangle ................................................................................................................................. 105
3.5.3. Application ............................................................................................................................................. 105
3.6. Circles ............................................................................................................................................................. 105
3.5.1. Secant and Tangent line ..................................................................................................................... 106
3.5.2. Angle formed by chord ........................................................................................................................ 107
3.7. Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines Intersecting Outside a Circle............................................................. 110
3.7.1. Angle formed by tangent ..................................................................................................................... 110
3.7.2. Arc lengths, perimeters and areas of segments and sectors ........................................................ 111
3.8. Areas of Triangles and Parallelograms ........................................................................................................... 113
3.8.1. Area of Triangle .................................................................................................................................... 113
3.8.2. Area of parallelograms ........................................................................................................................ 114
3.9. Surface area and volume of solid figures (Prism, Cylinder, Cone and Sphere) .............................................. 114
3.9.1. Sphere.................................................................................................................................................... 115
3.9.2. Prisms .................................................................................................................................................... 116
3.9.3. Cylinder .................................................................................................................................................. 117
3.9.4. Pyramids ................................................................................................................................................ 119
3.7.4. Cone ....................................................................................................................................................... 120
3.10. Frustum of pyramids and cones .................................................................................................................... 121
ESSLCE Exam ................................................................................................................................................ 125
Worksheet .............................................................................................................................................................. 126
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................................................ 127
Coordinate Geometry ............................................................................................................................................. 127
4
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

4.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 127

4.1. Distance between two points........................................................................................................................... 127
Solved Problems .................................................................................................................................................... 128
4.2. Division of a line segment .............................................................................................................................. 130
Midpoint of two given points .......................................................................................................................... 131
4.3. Equation of a straight line ............................................................................................................................... 133
Slope (Gradient) of a line ............................................................................................................................... 133
Slope of a Line in Terms of Angle of Inclination ......................................................................................... 134
Equations of the Straight Line ....................................................................................................................... 135
Intercepts .......................................................................................................................................................... 136
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines .................................................................................................................. 136
Point of intersection of two lines ........................................................................................................................... 137
Angle between two intersecting lines .................................................................................................................... 138
4.4. Distance between a point and a line and between two lines. .......................................................................... 138
4.4.1. Distance between a Point and a Line ............................................................................................... 138
4.4.2. Distance between Two Parallel Lines ............................................................................................... 139
4.5. Conic Sections ................................................................................................................................................ 141
4.5.1. Circles .................................................................................................................................................... 141
4.5.2. Ellipse..................................................................................................................................................... 144
4.5.3. Parabola ................................................................................................................................................ 146
4.5.3. Hyperbolas ............................................................................................................................................ 148
Solved Problems .................................................................................................................................................... 149
ESSLCE Questions ................................................................................................................................................ 151
Worksheet .............................................................................................................................................................. 152
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................................................ 153
Vectors and Transformation of the Plane .............................................................................................................. 153
5.1. Introduction to vectors and scalars (Grade 9, Page 291) ................................................................................ 153
5.2. Representation of vectors .......................................................................................................................... 154
5.3. Components of a Vector ......................................................................................................................... 155
5.4. Magnitude of a vector ............................................................................................................................. 156
5.5. Types of Vectors ..................................................................................................................................... 156
5.6. Vectors in 𝒊𝒋𝒌 Notation ......................................................................................................................... 158
5.7. Vector Arithmetic ..................................................................................................................................... 158
N4a 5.7.1. Addition and subtraction of vectors ......................................................................................... 158
N4b 5.7.2. Scalar multiplication ................................................................................................................ 160
5
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

5.7.3. Scalar product (Dot Product) ............................................................................................................... 162

5.8. Equation of lines ..................................................................................................................................... 164
5.9. Transformation of the plane (Reflection, Translation, Rotation) .................................................................... 165
5.9.1. Reflections............................................................................................................................................. 166
5.9.2. Rotations................................................................................................................................................ 170
ESSLCE Questions ................................................................................................................................................ 173
Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................................................................ 174
Matrices and Determinant ...................................................................................................................................... 174
6.1.1. Definition of Matrices ........................................................................................................................... 174
6.1.2. Algebra of matrices .............................................................................................................................. 175
6. 1. 3. Transpose of a matrix. ...................................................................................................................... 180
6. 1. 4. Special types of matrices .................................................................................................................. 180
6.2. Determinant and its properties ........................................................................................................................ 184
6.2.1. Singular and Non-singular Matrices .................................................................................................. 184
6.2.2. Minors and Co-factors of element ..................................................................................................... 184
6.3. Inverse of a square matrix ............................................................................................................................... 187
6.4. Solving system of linear equations with two and three variables ................................................................... 190
6.4.1. Elementary Row Operations............................................................................................................... 190
N4c 6.4.2. Echelon form ............................................................................................................................ 190
6.4.3. Gaussian Elimination ........................................................................................................................... 192
1. 1. 8. Solving system of linear equations: 𝑨𝒙 = 𝑩. ................................................................................. 194
N4d 1. By inversion of coefficients matrix. ............................................................................................... 194
N4e 2. Cramer's rule. ................................................................................................................................. 195
N4f 3. Gaussian’s method ......................................................................................................................... 196
ESSLCE Questions ................................................................................................................................................ 197
Chapter 7: Limit and Continuity (8 hrs)................................................................................................................. 198
Chapter 8: Derivative and its Application (11 hrs) ................................................................................................ 198
Chapter 9: Integration and its Application (11 hrs) ............................................................................................... 199

6
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Chapter 1
Solution of Equation
1.1. Revision on Number System
ℕ⊆𝕎⊆ℤ⊆ℚ⊆ℝ⊆ℂ
 If 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝑐 is called a multiple of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
 If 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called factors or divisor of 𝑐.
 A natural number that has exactly distinct factors, namely 1 and itself
is called prime number..
 A natural number that has more than two factors is called a composite number.
Note: 1 is neither prime nor composite.
1 𝑎𝑛
Note: 𝑖) 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 𝑖𝑖) 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚
𝑛
𝑖𝑣) 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 𝑣) 𝑎1/𝑛 = √𝑎, 𝑛 > 1 𝑣𝑖) (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎
𝑣𝑖𝑖) √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 𝑣𝑖𝑖) √𝑏 = 𝑛
√𝑏

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑±𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
Note: 𝑖) ±𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖) 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑏 ÷ 𝑑 = 𝑏 × 𝑐 =
𝑏 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐

1.2. Equations Involving Exponents and Radicals

Classwork: Express each of the following in power form: i) 125 ii) 1296 iii) 625

Note: i) If 𝒂 > 𝟎, 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂𝒚 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝒚.

ii) 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒃𝒙 , (𝒙 ≠ 𝟎) ⟺ 𝒂 = 𝒃.
Example: Solve each of the following
1 3𝑥−1
i) 2𝑥 = 32 ii) 𝑥 3 = 27 iii) (16) = 32

Solution: i) 2𝑥 = 32 ⟹ 2𝑥 = 25 ⟹ 𝑥 = 5.

ii) 𝑥 3 = 27 ⟹ 𝑥 3 = 33 ⟹ 𝑥 = 3.
1 3𝑥−1 1
iii) (16) = 32 ⟹ (2−4 )3𝑥−1 = 25 ⟹ 2−12𝑥+4 = 25 ⟹ −12𝑥 + 4 = 5 ⟹ 𝑥 = − 12

Home Work: Solve for 𝑥

3 1 𝑥+2
i) √812𝑥−1 = 3𝑥 ii) 92𝑥+2 (81) = 243−3𝑥−2

7
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

1.3. Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables

 A system of equations is two (or more) equations with the same variables.
 An equation is linear if the degree of the equation is one and no product of the variables.
𝑥+𝑦 =5 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 8
Example: i) { ii) { are example of system of linear equation.
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 2𝑥 = 4
Example: The following are not system of linear equation:

𝑥 + 𝑦2 = 5 𝑥−𝑦 =3 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 = 3
i) { ii) { 1 1 iii) {
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 +𝑦 =5 𝑥−𝑦=5
𝑥

General form of system of two linear equations is given by

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1
{
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2
where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are constants.

1.3.1. Types of Solutions

Class work: Solve the equation −2(2𝑥 − 4) = −2(−3𝑥 + 6).
The solution to a system of equations is the ordered pair(s) that satisfies (solves) all of the equations.

There are three types of solutions to any system of equations:

1) Unique solution: exactly one ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) will solve all equations.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3
Example: { have unique solution (1, 1).
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1
2) No solution: no ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) will ever solve all equations.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3
Example: {
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6
3) Infinitely many solutions: an infinite number of ordered pairs will solve all equations.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3
Example: { have solutions (3, 0), (1, 1), (5, −1), ⋯.
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 6
There are three solving methods for system of equations:
1) Graphing
2) Substitution
3) Elimination

8
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Method 1: Graphing
The method involves to find the intersection of lines.

Note: The point where the two lines intersect is the only solution. An inconsistent system has no solution.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 3
Example: Solve the following graphically: i) 2𝑥−5𝑦=20 ii) { iii) {
−3𝑥+𝑦=4 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 6 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 10
Solution:

Method 2: Substitution - Substitute one equation into the other

Example: Solve 2𝑥−5𝑦=20

−3𝑥+𝑦=4
by substitution method.
Solution: From the second equation 𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑥, then replacing it in the value of y in the first equation
gives,
40
2𝑥 − 5(4 + 3𝑥) = 20 ⟹ 2𝑥 − 20 − 15𝑥 = 20 ⟹ −13𝑥 = 40 ⟹ 𝑥 = −
13
120 68
Then 𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑥 = 4 − 13 = − 13.

Method 3: Elimination - Eliminate one variable from both equations

3𝑥 − 7𝑦 = −14
Example: Solve by elimination.
5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 45

9
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

−5 3𝑥 − 7𝑦 = −14 −15𝑥 + 35𝑦 = 70 205

Solution: { ⟹{ ⟹ 41𝑦 = 205 ⟹ 𝑦 =
3 5𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 45 15𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 135 41

Note: Consider the general system of two linear equations

𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1
{ 1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Case I: If 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 = 𝑐1 the system has infinite solutions. The system is called dependent. The graphs overlap.
2 2 2

𝑎1 𝑏 𝑐
Case II: If = 𝑏1 ≠ 𝑐1 the system has no solutions. The system is called inconsistent. The graphs are
𝑎2 2 2
parallel (Inconsistent).
𝑎 𝑏
Case III: If 𝑎1 ≠ 𝑏1 the system has unique solutions. Thus the system is called independent. The graphs
2 2
intersects.

1.3.2. System of Equation Word Problems

1. Read the problem carefully and identify any important information
2. Define Variables (𝑥 and 𝑦)
3. Write a system (2 equations) with variables
4. Solution Method: Based on your equations, decide on the best method(Graph, Substitution, Elimination)
5. Answer the question.
Examples:

1. The length of a rectangle is equal to triple the width. Which system of equations can be used to find
the dimensions of the rectangle if the perimeter is 86 centimeters?
𝑙 = 3𝑤
{
2(𝑙 + 𝑤) = 86
2. Fatuma’s Shop sells orange for 10 birr and banana for 5birr. During night, she sold 8 more sundaes than
banana splits and made 185 birr.
10𝑠 + 5𝑏 = 185
{
𝑠 = 𝑏 + 8
3. A collection of 105 coins consists of 1.00 cents and 5.00 cents. If the total value is 205.00
cents, find the number of coins of each denomination in the collection.
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 105
{
𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 205
4. A merchant paid 48,000birr for some dresses and shoes. He paid 400birr for each dress and
1,000birr for each pair of shoes. He sold the dresses at a profit of 20% and the shoes at a profit
of 50%. If his total profit was 18,000 birr. How many dresses and shoes did he buy?
400𝑑 + 1000𝑠 = 48000 10𝑑 + 25𝑠 = 12000
{ ⟹{
400 ∗ 20%𝑑 + 1000 ∗ 50%𝑠 = 18000 80𝑑 + 500𝑠 = 18000
Homework
1. Find 𝑏 and 𝑐 given that the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 passes through (3, 14) and (−4, 7).

10
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation
2 3
+ = −2
𝑥 𝑦
2. Solve {4 5
−𝑦 =1
𝑥

1.4. System of linear inequality

 There are five inequalities: <, ≤, >, ≥, ≠.
 A system of linear inequalities is a collection of two or more linear inequalities to be solved
simultaneously.
 A solution of system of two linear inequality is the set of order pair that satisfies both inequalities.
 Best way to solve a system of linear inequalities is to use the graphical method.
 Treat the inequality as a linear equation and graph the line as either a solid line (≤ or ≥) or a dashed
line (< or >) depending on the inequality sign. The solution set will be the overlapped region of all
the inequalities.
 A solution region of as system of linear inequalities is said to be bounded if it can be enclosed by a
rectangle, otherwise it is unbounded.

Intervals
 Interval is a set of real number that lies between two numbers.

Example: The solutions for the inequality 2𝑥 − 6 < −4𝑥 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 1} = (−∞, 1).

Example: The solutions for the inequality 2𝑥 − 6 ≥ −4𝑥 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ 1} = [1, ∞).

Example: The solutions for the inequality −8 ≤ 𝑥 − 6 ≤ −4 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2} = [−2, 2].

1.4.1. Solution of system of equations

Example: The order pair (1, 2), (0, 1), (−2, −2), ⋯ are a solutions to 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 < 2.

11
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Example: Find the solution of the following system of

inequalities graphically:
𝑦 ≥ −3𝑥 + 2
𝑦 <𝑥−2
The solution region is the intersection of the two regions.
𝑦 ≥ −3𝑥 + 2
The solution set of is shown by the cross-
𝑦 <𝑥−2
shaded region in the diagram. From the inequality we
observe

−3𝑥 + 2 ≤ 𝑦 < 𝑥 − 2 and −3𝑥 + 2 = 𝑥 − 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1

Hence, the solution set of the system is expressed as
{(𝑥, 𝑦): −3𝑥 + 2 ≤ 𝑦 < 𝑥 − 2 and 1 < 𝑥 < ∞}.

1.5. Equations Involving Absolute Value

Absolute value of 𝑥 denoted by |𝑥| is the distance of 𝑥 from the origin.
|𝑥| = { 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0
Note: For any real number 𝑥, |𝑥| = |−𝑥|.
Example: |−3 − 7| =

Note: i) If 𝑎 > 0, then |𝑥| = 𝑎 has two solution 𝑥 = −𝑎 or 𝑥 = 𝑎.

ii) If 𝑎 < 0, then |𝑥| = 𝑎 have no solution.

Note:
2𝑥 + 4 if 𝑥 ≥ −2
|2𝑥 + 4| = {
−(2𝑥 + 4) if 𝑥 < −2
Example: Solve the following

i) |3 − 𝑥| = 4 ii) |2𝑥 − 5| = 6 iii) |𝑥 + 3| = −4

Solution: i) |3 − 𝑥| = 4 ⟹ 3 − 𝑥 = 4 or 3 − 𝑥 = −4. i.e., 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 7.

11 1
ii) |2𝑥 − 5| = 6 ⟹ 2𝑥 − 5 = 6 or 2𝑥 − 5 = −6. i.e., 𝑥 = or 𝑥 = − .
2 2

iii) |𝑥 + 3| = −4, this equation has no solution.

Note: If |𝑥| = |𝑦| then 𝑥 = 𝑦 or 𝑥 = −𝑦.

Example: Solve

i) |4𝑥 − 3| = |𝑥 + 6| ii) |2𝑥 + 2| = |2𝑥 − 1|

Solution: i) |4𝑥 − 3| = |𝑥 + 6| ⟹ 4𝑥 − 3 = 𝑥 + 6 or 4𝑥 − 3 = −(𝑥 + 6)

12
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

⟹ 3𝑥 = 9 or 3𝑥 = −3 i.e., 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = 1. Hence S.S. {1, 3}.

ii) |2𝑥 + 2| = |2𝑥 − 1| ⟹ 2𝑥 + 2 = 2𝑥 − 1 or 2𝑥 + 2 = −(2𝑥 − 1)
1
⟹ 2 = −1 or 4𝑥 = −1 i.e., 𝑥 = − 4 is the solution.

1.5.1. Properties of absolute value

i) 𝑥 ≤ |𝑥|
ii) |𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥||𝑦|
iii) √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|
iv) |𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦| (Triangular inequality)

1.6. Solving absolute value inequality

Note: i) For 𝒂 > 𝟎, |𝒙| ≤ 𝒂 has solution −𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒂.

ii) For 𝒂 > 𝟎, |𝒙| ≥ 𝒂 has solution 𝒙 ≤ −𝒂 or 𝒙 ≥ 𝒂.

2
Example: Solve i) |2𝑥 + 1| < 7 ii) |5 − 3𝑥| ≥ 1

Solution: i) |2𝑥 + 1| < 7 ⟹ −7 < 2𝑥 + 1 < 7 ⟹ −8 < 2𝑥 < 6 ⟹ −4 < 𝑥 < 3

The solution set is {𝑥: − 4 < 𝑥 < 3} = (−4, 3).

2 2 2 3 1 7 7
ii) | − 3𝑥| ≥ 1 ⟹ − 3𝑥 ≥ 1 or − 3𝑥 ≤ −1 ⟹ −3𝑥 ≥ ⟹ 𝑥 ≤ − or −3𝑥 ≤ − ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ .
5 5 5 5 5 5 15
7 1 1 7
Hence the solution set is {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 15 or 𝑥 ≤ − 5} = [− 5 , 15].

Homework: Solve i) |5𝑥 + 15| = 0 Ans: 𝑥 = −3

3
ii) |2 − 7𝑥| − 1 > 4 Ans: (−∞, − 7) ∪ (1, ∞)

1.7. Quadratic Equations

 Linear equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 0.

 Standard Form of Quadratic Equations: 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 0.

When solving quadratic equations, we can use three methods:

1) Method of factorization
2) Method of Completing the square
3) Quadratic Formula
1) Method of factorization
Note: i) 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) ii) (𝑎 ± 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 ± 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
Class Work: Find 5502 − 2502 .
Solution: 5502 − 2502 = (550 − 250)(550 + 250) = (300)(800) = 240,000

13
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Example: Factorize i) 9𝑥 2 − 64 ii) 5𝑥 2 − 16

Solution: i) 9𝑥 2 − 64 = (3𝑥)2 − 82 = (3𝑥 − 8)(3𝑥 + 8)
2
ii) 5𝑥 2 − 16 = (√5𝑥) − 42 = (√5𝑥 − 4)(√5𝑥 + 4)
Zero-product rule: If 𝒂𝒃 = 𝟎, then either 𝒂 = 𝟎 or/and 𝒃 = 𝟎.

Example: Solve 1) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 5 2) 𝑚(𝑚 − 3) = 4 3) 4𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 12 = 6𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 − 60

4) 5𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 9 = 0 5) 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 = 3 6) √𝑥 + 5 = 𝑥 + 3

Solution:

1) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 5 ⟹ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 5) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = −5.

2) 𝑚(𝑚 − 3) = 4 ⟹ 𝑚2 − 3𝑚 − 4 = 0 ⟹ (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 − 4) = 0 ⟹ 𝑚 = −1 or 𝑚 = 4.

3) 4𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 12 = 6𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 − 60 ⟹ 𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 − 24 = 0

⟹ (𝑦 − 8)(𝑦 + 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 = 8 or 𝑦 = −3.

4) 5𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 9 = 0 ⟹ 5𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 9 = 0 ⟹ 5𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 9(𝑥 + 1) = 0

⟹ (5𝑥 + 9)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −9/5 or 𝑥 = −1.

5) 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7 = 3 ⟹ 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0

⟹ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = 2.

2) Method of Completing the square

Note: (𝒂 ± 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 ± 𝟐𝒂𝒃 + 𝒃𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
To complete square 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, add (𝟐 𝒃) on both sides.

Example: Express in completing square i) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 ii) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6.

7 2 7 2 7 2 49 7 2 45
Solution: i) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + (2) − (2) + 1 = (𝑥 + 2) − + 1 = (𝑥 + 2) −
4 4

−5 2 −5 2 5 2 1
ii) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) + 6 = (𝑥 − 2) − 4.

Example: Solve 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 by completing the square.

Solution: 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 − 4 + 1 = (𝑥 − 2)2 − 3

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 2)2 − 3 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 2)2 = 3

⟹ 𝑥 − 2 = ±√3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 − √3 or 𝑥 = 2 + √3.

Example: Solve 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10 = 0

14
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

−6 2 −6 2
Solution: 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 10 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + ( ) — ( ) + 10
2 2

= 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 − 9 + 10 = (𝑥 − 3)2 + 1 = 0

⟹ (𝑥 − 3)2 = −1 ⟹ 𝑥 − 3 = ±√−1 which is undefined.

Hence the equation has no real solution.

3) Method of Quadratic Formula

The formula for solving quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called discriminant.

 If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, the equation does not have any real solution.
−𝑏
 If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the only solution is 𝑥 = .
2𝑎
 If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, the equation have two solutions.

−𝒃+√𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄 −𝒃−√𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄

Note: If 𝒓𝟏 = and 𝒓𝟐 = are two solutions of the quadratic equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂
𝒄 𝒃
𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, then 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂 and 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 = − 𝒂.
3 1
Example: Solve i) 4𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 + 1. ii) 2𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 4 = 0 iii) 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0

2±√4+16 2±√20 2±2√5 1±√5

Solution: i) 4𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 + 1 ⟹ 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = = = =
8 8 8 4

3 9 3 1
3 1 − ±√ −2 − ±√ −3±8
2 2 4 2 4
ii) 2𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = = =
4 4 8

iii) 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0, Since 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4 − 40 = −36 < 0, there is no real solution.

1.8. Word problem

Two different square have a total area of 274 𝑐𝑚2 and the sum of their perimeters is 88 𝑐𝑚. Find the
lengths of the sides of the squares.

Answer: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 274 and 4𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 88

Homework
4
1. Solve i) 6𝑥 − 1 = 4𝑥+1 ii) 9𝑥 2 + 25 = 30𝑥

2. For what value(s) of 𝑘 does the equation 𝑥 2 + (5 − 𝑘)𝑥 + 9 = 0 have

i) one real root? ii) Two distinct real roots? iii) no real root?

3. Find the value of x for each of the triangle shown below. (Hint use Pythagoras’ Theorem)

15
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

1.9. Quadratic Inequalities

For a constant 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0
are called a quadratic inequality.

 The solution set of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 is the set of all real numbers if 𝑎 > 0, and empty set if 𝑎 < 0.
 The solution set of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 is the set of all real numbers if 𝑎 < 0, and empty set if 𝑎 > 0.

1.9.1. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using Product Property

Note: i) 𝑎𝑏 > 0 iff 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 or 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 < 0.

ii) 𝑎𝑏 < 0 iff 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0 or 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 > 0.

Example: Solve i) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ii) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0

Solution: i) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⟹ 𝑥 + 2 > 0 and 𝑥 − 4 > 0 or 𝑥 + 2 < 0 and 𝑥 − 4 < 0

Case I: 𝑥 + 2 > 0 and 𝑥 − 4 > 0 implies 𝑥 > −2 and 𝑥 > 4. The intersection is 𝑥 > −2.

Hence, the solution set for the first case is

𝑆1 = {𝑥: 𝑥 > −2 and 𝑥 > 4} = (−2, ∞) ∩ (4, ∞) = (4, ∞).

Case II: 𝑥 + 2 < 0 and 𝑥 − 4 < 0 implies 𝑥 < −2 and 𝑥 < 4. The intersection is 𝑥 < −2.
Hence, the solution set for the second case is

𝑆2 = {𝑥: 𝑥 < −2 and 𝑥 < 4} = (−∞, −2) ∩ (−∞, 4) = (−∞, −2).

Therefore, the solution set of (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 is

𝑆1 ∪ 𝑆2 = (4, ∞) ∪ (−∞, −2)

ii) 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0 ⟹ (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) ≤ 0

Case I: 𝑥 + 1 ≤ 0 and 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0

𝑆1 = {𝑥: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2} = [−1, 2]
Case II: 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0

𝑆2 = ∅
16
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Therefore, the solution set for 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 0 is 𝑆1 ∪ 𝑆2 = [−1, 2].

Example: Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 > 4.

Solution: Given that 𝑥 2 − 4 > 0. Which is a parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4.

Factorizing 𝑥 2 − 4 we have (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) > 0

The quadratic equation is > 0 when the graph is above the 𝑥-axis.
Hence 𝑥 < −2 and 𝑥 > 2

Example: Solve 𝑥 ≤ 6 − 𝑥 2

Rearranging the inequality 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 ≤ 0.

Factorizing gives, (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) ≤ 0

1.9.2. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Sign Chart Method:

Example: Solve 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 > 0.

Solution: 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 12 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) > 0

-4 3

𝑥−3 −−− −−− +++

𝑥+4 −−− +++ +++

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) +++ −−− +++

>0 <0 >0

Hence the solution set is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < −4 or 𝑥 > 3} = (−∞, −4) ∪ (3, ∞).
Homework: Solve the following quadratic inequalities
1
i) 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 8 < 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 ii) 𝑥 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 2 iii) 9𝑥 2 − 64 < 0

1.9.3. Solving quadratic inequalities graphically

Quadratic inequality in one variables:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 , 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≥ 0, 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≤ 0

Solving 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0 we mean we are finding intervals when 𝑓(𝑥) < 0. We want to know when
the parabola is below the 𝑥-axis.

Solving 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0 we mean we are finding intervals when 𝑓(𝑥) > 0. We want to know when
the parabola is above the 𝑦-axis.

To solve 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0, graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, which is parabola.

17
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

 If 𝑎 > 0 then the graph is upward parabola

 If 𝑎 < 0 then the graph is downward parabola
𝑏
 Axis of symmetry is the line 𝑥 = − 2𝑎.
𝑏 𝑏
 The vertex is (− 2𝑎 , 𝑓 (− 2𝑎)).
 To find 𝑥-intercepts solve for 𝑥 from 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
 To find 𝑦-intercept find 𝑓(0) ⟹ 𝑓(0) = 𝑐. Thus, (0, 𝑐) is 𝑦-intercept.

𝑎>0 𝑎<0

Example: Solve 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 < 0 graphically.

Solution: Since 𝑎 = 1 > 0, the parabola opens upward.

𝑏
 Axis of symmetry: 𝑥 = − 2𝑎 = 3
 The vertex is (3, −1).
 x-intercepts: 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 4. The x-
intercepts are (2, 0) and (4, 0).
 𝑦 −intercept: Since 𝑓(0) = 8, the y-intercept is (0, 8).

The inequality asks for the values of 𝑥 which make the function less
than 0, i.e., values of 𝑥 which make the parabola below the 𝑥-axis.

Thus, the solution interval is (2, 4).

Example: Solve 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 ≥ 0 graphically.

The inequality asks for the values of 𝑥 which make the function greater than or equal to 0, i.e., values of
𝑥 which make the parabola above the 𝑥-axis.

Thus, the solution interval is (−∞, 2] ∪ [4, ∞).

Example: Solve −𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 10 ≤ 0

Solution: (−𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 5) ≤ 0

Quadratic inequality in two variables

18
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

Quadratic inequality in two variables are of type: 𝑦 < 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,

𝑦 > 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑦 ≥ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, and 𝑦 ≤ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Example: Solve 𝑦 < 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3.

Solution: Graph the related parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3. Since the

inequality symbol is < the curve is drawn as a dashed line. To determine
which region is the solution region, choose a test point from either above or
below the parabola and identify which will satisfy the inequality.

Example: Solve 𝑦 < −2(𝑥 − 3)2 + 1 and determine if the point (2, −4) is a
solution to the inequality.

1.10. Rational expressions: Simplification and Solution

If both the numerator and denominator are polynomials, the fractional
expression is called a rational expression.
𝑃(𝑥)
Rational expression: 𝑄(𝑥) , 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0 where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials.

Note: Non-zero constant is a polynomial of degree 0.

𝑥 3 −2 1
Example: The following are rational expressions: i) 5𝑥 4 −3𝑥+7 ii) 𝑥 2 −4

𝑥 2 −1 𝑥
Example: Find the domain of i) ii) 𝑥 + 1 iii)
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10

𝑥 2 −1
Solution: i) Domain of is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 1}
𝑥−1

ii) Domain of 𝑥 + 1 is ℝ.
𝑥
iii) Domain of 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ −5 and 𝑥 ≠ 2}.

Note: A rational expression has been reduced to lowest terms if all common factors from the numerator
and denominator have been canceled.

To reduce rational expression to lowest terms (simplify) a rational expression:

i) Find the domain.
ii) Factorize the numerator and denominator completely.
iii) Cancel like terms in the numerator and denominator.
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
Example: Reduce the rational expression 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 to lowest terms.

𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1) 𝑥−1

Solution: 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 = (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3) = 𝑥−3 , 𝑥 ≠ −2, 3.

19
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

1.10.1. Operations with Rational Expressions

𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑎/𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑑
Note: i) − 𝑏 = = −𝑏 ii) 𝑏 × 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑 iii) 𝑐/𝑑 = 𝑏 ÷ 𝑑 = 𝑏 𝑐 =
𝑏 𝑏𝑐

𝑎 𝑎𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑎/𝑏 𝑎1 𝑎
iv) 𝒃/𝒄 = 1 𝑏 = v) = 𝑏 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐
𝑏 𝑐

Classwork: Operate
𝑥 2 +3𝑥 2𝑥+12 3 2 𝑚2 −9 3−𝑚
i) 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−15 − 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−15 ii) 𝑥 2 −𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 iii) 𝑚2 +5𝑚+6 ÷ 𝑚+2

1.10.2. Partial Fraction

1 1 1 1
Example: Show that ( − 𝑥+1) = 𝑥 2 −1
2 𝑥−1

Proper fractions: The degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
𝑥 𝑥 2 +5
Example: 𝑥 2 −5 , 𝑥 4 +𝑥−1

Improper fractions: The degree of the numerator is greater than or equal of the denominator.
𝑥2 𝑥 4 +5
Example: 𝑥 2 −5 , 𝑥 2 +𝑥+2

Factor in the denominator Corresponding term in the partial fraction

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
+ 2
+ ⋯+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
2
+ 2 2
+ ⋯+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛

Note: For improper fraction apply long division before finding the partial fraction.
Example: Find the partial fraction of
𝑥 7𝑥+6 5𝑥+1 (𝑥+3)2 𝑥−18
i) (𝑥+1)(𝑥+5) ii) 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 iii) iv) (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥−3) v) 𝑥(𝑥−3)2
𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +4)
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝑥 𝐴(𝑥+5)+𝐵(𝑥+1)
Solution: i) (𝑥+1)(𝑥+5) = 𝑥+1 + 𝑥+5 ⟹ (𝑥+1)(𝑥+5) = (𝑥+1)(𝑥+5)
⟹ (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (5𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑥 ⟹
1 5
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1 and 5𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 solving we obtain 𝐴 = − 4 and 𝐵 = 4. Hence
𝑥 −1 5
(𝑥+1)(𝑥+5)
= 4(𝑥+1) + 4(𝑥+5)

20
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation
7𝑥+6 7𝑥+6 𝐴 𝐵 (𝐴+𝐵)𝑥−2𝐴+3𝐵
ii) = (𝑥+3)(𝑥−2) = + =
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑥+3 𝑥−2 (𝑥+3)(𝑥−2)

𝐴+𝐵 =7
⟹ (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 7𝑥 + 6 ⟹ { ⟹ 𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 4 . Thus,
−2𝐴 + 3𝐵 = 6
7𝑥 + 6 3 4
2
= +
𝑥 +𝑥−6 𝑥+3 𝑥−2
5𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 2 +4)+𝐵(𝑥 2 +4)+𝑥 2 (𝐶𝑥+𝐷)
iii) = 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + =
𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +4) 𝑥 2 +4 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +4)

𝐴+𝐶 =0
𝐵+𝐷 =0
⟹ 5𝑥 + 1 = 4𝐴𝑥 + (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 3 + (𝐵 + 𝐷)𝑥 2 + 4𝐵 ⟹ {
4𝐴 = 5
4𝐵 = 1
5 1 −5 −1
⟹ 𝐴 = 4,𝐵 = 4,𝐶 = ,𝐷 =
4 4
5 1
5𝑥+1 5 1 − 𝑥−
4 4
Then, 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +4) = 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 +4
(𝑥+3)2 −13𝑥−9 18
iv) (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥−3) = 5(𝑥 2 +1) + 5(𝑥−3)
𝑥−18 2 2 5
v) 𝑥(𝑥−3)2 = − 𝑥 + 𝑥−3 − (𝑥−3)2

4𝑥 3 +10𝑥+4 4𝑥 3 +10𝑥+4 4 3
Homework: Express in partial fractions. Answer: = 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥+1
𝑥(2𝑥+1) 𝑥(2𝑥+1)

1.10.2. Solving Rational Equations

𝑥+1 𝑥+2 3𝑥 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 3 1 1
Example: Solve i) =5− ii) − = iii) 𝑥+2 − 𝑥 = 5𝑥
3 7 5 2 3

𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+1 33−𝑥 46

Solution: i) =5− ⟹ = ⟹ 7𝑥 + 7 = −3𝑥 + 99 ⟹ 10𝑥 = 92 ⟹ 𝑥 =
3 7 3 7 5

3𝑥 𝑥−3 𝑥+2 25
ii) 5
− 2
= 3
⟹ 18𝑥 − 15(𝑥 − 3) = 10(𝑥 + 2) ⟹ −7𝑥 = −25 ⟹ 𝑥 = 7

3 1 1 12
iii) 𝑥+2 − 𝑥 = 5𝑥 ⟹ 9𝑥 = 12 ⟹ 𝑥 = 9

𝑥−1 𝑥 1 3 √5
Homework: Solve 𝑥−2 + 𝑥−3 = 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6. (Answer: 𝑥 = 2 ± )
2

21
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

ESSLCE Question
3
1. The simplified form of √−27 × √0.02 ÷ √18 is equal to (Social Sci ESSLCE, 2014)
1 1
A. − 10 B. −10 C. 10 D. 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 (−27)3 (0.02)2 (−33 )3 (2×10−2 )2 −3(2)2 (10−2 )2 1
Solution: √−27 × √0.02 ÷ √18 = 1 = 1 = 1 = −10−1 = − 10
(18)2 (2×9)2 3(2)2

2. Consider the regions 𝑅 shown in the figure below. (Social Sci ESSLCE, 2014)

For which of the following systems of inequality does the region 𝑅 on the above figure represent?
(Social Sci ESSLCE, 2014)
2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≤ 4 2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≥ 4
2𝑦 + 3𝑥 ≤ 12 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 ≥ 12
A. { B. {
2𝑦 + 𝑥 ≥ 4 2𝑦 + 𝑥 ≤ 4
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0
2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≤ 4 2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≤ 4
2𝑦 + 3𝑥 ≥ 12 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 ≤ 12
C. { D. {
2𝑦 + 𝑥 ≤ 4 2𝑦 + 𝑥 ≤ 4
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 0
Solution: From the graph by taking test points we observe that

2𝑦 + 𝑥 ≥ 4, 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 ≤ 12 and 2𝑦 − 𝑥 ≤ 4
1
3. Which one of the following is equal to 818 ? (SS ESSLCE, 2014)
8
A. √3 C. √9
4
B. √81 D. √9
1
Solution: 818 = (34 )1/8 = 31/2 = √3

22
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

4. Which one ot the following is the solution set of the equation −2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 = 6? (SS ESSLCE, 2014)

A. {0, 5} C. {−√13, √13}

5 5 5−√13 5+√13
B. {− 2 , 2} D. { , }
2 2

Solution: Given −2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 6 = 0. Then, by quadratic formula

−10 ± √100 − 48 −10 ± √52 −10 ± √4 × 13 −5 ± √13 5 ∓ √13

𝑥= = = = =
−4 −4 −4 −2 2
64 𝑥 9 2𝑥−1
5. What is the solution set of the equation (729) − (4) = 0?

1 5
A. {5} C. {2}

2
B. {5} D. {5}

64 𝑥 9 2𝑥−1 8 2𝑥 9 2𝑥−1 2 6𝑥 3 4𝑥−2

Solution: (729) − (4) = 0 ⟹ (27) = (4) ⟹ (3) = (2)

2 6𝑥 2 2−4𝑥 1
⟹ (3) = (3) ⟹ 6𝑥 = 2 − 4𝑥 ⟹ 10𝑥 = 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 5

6. What is the solution set of the quadratic inequality −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 < 0? (SS ESSLCE, 2014)
3
A. (−∞, 1) ∪ (2 , ∞) C. (−∞, ∞)

3
B. (1, 2) D. (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

Solution: −2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3 < 0 ⟹ −2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 3 < 0 ⟹ −2𝑥(𝑥 − 1) + 3(𝑥 − 1) =

(−2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1) < 0
3
Thus, 𝑎𝑏 < 0 ⟹ 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 > 0 or 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0. So, −2𝑥 + 3 < 0 and 𝑥 − 1 > 0. That is 𝑥 > 2
3 3
and 𝑥 > 1. Hence, 𝑆1 = (2 , ∞) ∩ (1, ∞) = (2 , ∞). Also, from the case −2𝑥 + 3 > 0 and 𝑥 − 1 < 0,
3 3
we obtain 𝑥 < 2 and 𝑥 < 1. Hence 𝑆1 = (−∞, 2) ∩ (−∞, 1) = (−∞, 1)

3
Therefore, the solution set is ( , ∞) ∪ (−∞, 1).
2

−2𝑥 + 𝑧 = 1
7. What is the solution set of the system of linear equation {𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0? (Social Sci ESSLCE, 2014)
𝑦 + 𝑧 = −2

A. { } C. {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ}
5 11 3
B. {− 7 , − , − 7} D. {(−2 − 3𝑡, −2 − 𝑡, 𝑡), 𝑡 ∈ ℝ}
7

3 2𝑥−1
8. What is the solution set of the rational equation 𝑥 2 +𝑥 + 3 = ? (SS ESSLCE, 2014)
𝑥+1
23
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 1: Solution of Equation

A. {−3, −1} C. {−3}

B. {−1, 0} D. ∅
3 2𝑥−1 3+3𝑥 2 +3𝑥 2𝑥−1 3𝑥 2 +3𝑥+3 2𝑥−1
Solution: 𝑥 2 +𝑥 + 3 = ⟹ = ⟹ =
𝑥+1 𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥(𝑥+1) 𝑥+1

3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3
⟹ = 2𝑥 − 1, for 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥
⟹ 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = −3

Hence the solution set is {−3, −1}.

𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1
9. for 𝑥 ≠ −1 and 𝑥 ≠ 1, the simplified form of ÷ − 𝑥 is: (Natural S, December 2014)
2−2𝑥 𝑥 2 −1

1 3
A. C. 𝑥
2(𝑥+1) 2

1−𝑥 3
B. − D. − 2 𝑥
2

𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥(𝑥+1) (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)

Solution: 2−2𝑥 ÷ − 𝑥 ⟹ 2−2𝑥 × 𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 − 𝑥 ⟹ 2(1−𝑥) × −𝑥
𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥+1)2

𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 −𝑥 − 2𝑥 −3𝑥

⟹ 2
−𝑥 ⟹− −𝑥 ⟹ ⟹
2(1 − 𝑥)(𝑥 + 1) 2 2 2
10. If the sum and the product of the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 + 𝑚𝑘 = 0 are −3
and 7 respectively, what is the value of 𝑚? (Natural S, December 2014)
7
A. 2 C. − 2
7
B. 2 D. −2

Solution: If 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are any two roots of the quadratic equation, then
𝑐 𝑚𝑘 𝑏 𝑘+1
𝑟1 𝑟2 = 𝑎 ⟹ = 7 and 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = − 𝑎 ⟹ − = −3
1 1

⟹ 𝑚𝑘 = 7 and 𝑘 + 1 = 3
7 7
𝑘 = 2 and 𝑚 = = .
𝑘 2
3
11. The simplified form of √−27 × √0.02 ÷ √18
1 1
A. −10 B. − 10 C. 10 D. 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3
Solution: √−27 × √0.02 ÷ √18 ⟹ (−27)3 × (2 × 10−2 )2 ÷ 182 ⟹ (−3)3 3 × 22 (10−2 )2 ÷ (9 × 2)2
1 1 1 1
⟹ −3 × √2 ÷ 3√2 ⟹ −3 × √2 × ⟹−
10 10 3√2 10

24
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Chapter 2
Relations and Functions
2.1. Revision on Set theory
2.1.1. Definition and Representation of Set
Definition: Set is a well-defined collection of objects.
 Set can be described by three methods:

i) Partial Listing method

Example: The set of non-negative integer 𝐴 = {0, 1, 2, ⋯ }
ii) Complete listing method
Example: The set of even numbers between 1 and 10 is 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
iii) Set-builder method
Example: The set of even number between 1 and 10 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 is an even and 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}
Definition: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two set, then set 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵 or 𝐴 is contained in 𝐵 if every
element of 𝐴 is an element of 𝐵.
Notation: If 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵 we denote it by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵. If 𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵 it is denoted by
𝐴 ⊊ 𝐵.

2.1.2. Ordered pair

An ordered pair is a pair formed by two elements that are separated by a comma and written
inside the parentheses.
For example, (𝑥, 𝑦) represents an ordered pair, where '𝑥' is called the first element/component
and '𝑦' is called the second element/component of the ordered pair.
Example: If 𝐴 = {1, 2, 𝑎, 𝑏, −3, −5}, then (𝑎, 1), (−3, 2), (−5, 𝑏) are some examples of ordered
pairs
Classwork: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. List all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) from set 𝐴 which satisfy
the following sentences,
i) 𝑥 is a multiple of 𝑦 ii) 𝑥 is the square of 𝑦
Answer: i) (4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 3), (8, 2), (8, 4), (8, 1), (9, 3), (9, 1)
ii) (1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3)
Note: If (𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝒂, 𝒃) then 𝒙 = 𝒂 and 𝒚 = 𝒃.
Example: Identify the quadrants in which the following ordered pairs lie without plotting them.
(a) (2, −3) (b) (−2, −3).
Solution:

25
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

(a) In (2, −3), 𝑥-coordinate is positive and 𝑦-coordinate is negative. So it lies in Quadrant IV.
(b) In (−2, −3), both 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates are negative. So it lies in Quadrant III.

Example 2: Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if (2𝑥 − 3, 3𝑦 + 2) = (5, 8).

Solution: By the equality property of ordered pairs,

2𝑥 − 3 = 5
{
3𝑦 + 2 = 8
Then, 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑦 = 2.
2.1.3. Cartesian Product of Sets
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets. Then the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵
is called Cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵 and Cartesian product of A and B is denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵 (read
𝐴 cross 𝐵). thus, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}.
Note: For any non-set 𝐴 and 𝐵, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 if and only if 𝐴 = 𝐵.
For example, if 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, then the Cartesian product is
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)}
𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 1), (𝑐, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 3), (𝑐, 3)}

2.2. Definition and examples of relation

Any subset of the Cartesian product is called a relation.
Definition: For any sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, any subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is called a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

For example, if 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} then {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)} is a relation from 𝐴 into 𝐵.
 If an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅, then it is denoted by 𝑥𝑅𝑦 (𝑥 "is 𝑅 related to" 𝑦).
 Let 𝑅 be a relation from a set 𝐴 into a set 𝐵, then 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵.

A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The set of the first components of each ordered pair is called
the domain and the set of the second components of each ordered pair is called the range.

Example: 1) Let 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)| 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 + and 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 7}, then 𝐴 = {(1, 3), (3, 2), (5, 1)}.

2) Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and 𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)| 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑎 divides 𝑏}. Then

𝑆 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), ( 5, 5), (6, 6)}
Example: Let 𝐴 = {2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {4, 5, 6, 8}, a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is defined as

𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑏, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 }

Then, 𝑅 = {(2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 6), (4, 4), (4, 8), (5, 5)}. Notice that here 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵.

26
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.2.1. Domain and range of a relation

Domain: The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation 𝑅 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵, is called
the domain of 𝑅 and is denoted by 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅).
Range: The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation 𝑅 from a set to a set 𝐵, is called
the range of 𝑅 and is denoted by 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅)..

Mathematically,
𝑫𝒐𝒎(𝑹) = {𝒂: (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝑹 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩}

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆(𝑹) = {𝒃| (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝑹 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐬𝐨𝐦𝐞 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨}

Example: 1) Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝑅 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎)}. Then

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅) = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) = {𝑎, 𝑐}.

(2) Let 𝐴 = {2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵|𝑎 divides 𝑏}.
Then

𝑅 = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (4, 8)}

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅) = {2, 3, 4} and 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8}

Theorem: Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ ∅ be sets with 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑚 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 𝑛. Then the number of relations from A to B
is 2𝑚𝑛 .

Example: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏}. then 𝑛(𝐴) = 3 and 𝑛(𝐵) = 2 and 𝑛(𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) ∙
𝑛(𝐵) = 3(2) = 6. Therefore there are exactly 64(= 26 ) relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

2.2.2. Representing a relations

A relation can be represented in the following ways:

Ordered Table Graph Mapping Diagram

Pairs 𝒙 𝑦
-2
(𝟏, 𝟐) 1 2 2

(−𝟐, 𝟑) -2 3 1 3

-1
(−𝟐, −𝟏) -2 -1
3 0
(𝟑, 𝟎) 3 0

27
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Composition of relation
Definition: Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be sets, 𝑅 a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑆 a relation from 𝐵 to 𝐶. Define
𝑅 ∘ 𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐶| there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆}
Then 𝑅 ∘ 𝑆 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐶.

𝑆
𝑅
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

Example: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}, and 𝐶 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. Let 𝑅=
{(1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑑), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑑)} and 𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑦), (𝑏, 𝑥), (𝑏, 𝑦), (𝑎, 𝑧)}. Then 𝑅 is a relation form 𝐴 to
𝐵 and 𝑆 is a relation form 𝐵 to 𝐶.

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅) = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑅) = {𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑}

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑆) = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑆) = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}

𝑅 ∘ 𝑆 a relation from 𝐴 into 𝐶.

Since (2, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑎, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆, we have (2, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 ∘ 𝑆

Since (2, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑎, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑆, we have (2, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 ∘ 𝑆

Hence 𝑆 ∘ 𝑅 = {(2, 𝑦), (2, 𝑧)}.

 However 𝑅 ∘ 𝑆 is not defined.

Example: Suppose 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, 𝐵 = {0, 1}, 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3}. Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be the function 𝑓 =
{(𝑎, 0), (𝑏, 1), (𝑐, 0)}, let 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be the function 𝑔 = {(0, 3), (1, 1)}. Then

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑐, 3)}.

2.2.3. Inverse of Relation

Definition: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be non-empty sets and 𝑅 a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then the inverse of 𝑅
denoted by 𝑅 −1 is defined as the set {(𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝐵 × 𝐴|(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}. Thus

𝑅 −1 = {(𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝐵 × 𝐴|(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} = {(𝑎, 𝑏): (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅}.

Note: i) If 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵, then 𝑅 −1 is a relation form 𝐵 to 𝐴

ii) If (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅, then (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅−1.

28
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

iii) 𝑅 ∘ 𝑅 −1 is a relation on 𝐵 and 𝑅 −1 ∘ 𝑅 is a relation on 𝐴.

iv) (𝑅 −1 )−1 = 𝑅
v) Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be non-empty sets and 𝑅 a relation form 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑆 a relation form 𝐵 to 𝐶,
then
(𝑆 ∘ 𝑅)−1 = 𝑅 −1 ∘ 𝑆 −1
Homework: Let 𝐴 = {𝑥: 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 10} and 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8}. If 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 given by
𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 12}, then find
i) 𝑅 and 𝑅 −1 ii) domain (𝑅) and domain (𝑅 −1 )
iii) range (𝑅) and range (𝑅 −1 ) iv) 𝑅 ∘ 𝑅 −1
Answer: i) 𝑅 = {(8, 4), (6, 6), (4, 8)} 𝑅 −1 = {(4, 8), (6, 6), (8, 4) }
ii) domain (𝑅) = {4, 6, 8} ⊆ 𝐴 and domain (𝑅 −1 ) = {4, 6, 8} ⊆ 𝐵
iii) range (𝑅) = {4, 6, 8} ⊆ 𝐵 and range (𝑅 −1 ) = {4, 6, 8} ⊆ 𝐴
iv) 𝑅 ∘ 𝑅 −1 = {(4, 4), (6, 6), (8, 8) }
Note: i) domain (𝑅 −1 ) = Range (𝑅)
ii) 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑅 −1 ) = Domain(𝑅)
Example: Let 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦 < −3𝑥 − 6}. Find 𝑅 −1.
Solution: 𝑅 −1 = {(𝑦, 𝑥): 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦 < −3𝑥 − 6}
= {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 − 4 and 𝑥 < −3𝑦 − 6}
= {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 4 ≥ 𝑦 and 3𝑦 < 𝑥 − 6}
1
Thus, 𝑅 −1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 + 4 and 𝑦 < 3 𝑥 − 2}.

2.2.4. Graphs of relations involving inequalities

Example: Sketch the graph of the relation and determine their domain and range.
i) 𝑅1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑥 − 1, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
ii) 𝑅2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 > 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 > −2𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
ii) 𝑅3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≤ 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑦 > 2𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
iii) 𝑅4 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
Solution:
i) To graph the relations 𝑅1 consider the graph of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1, and to determine the region by
taking test points from each quadrant.

29
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Domain of 𝑅1 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ} and Range of 𝑅1 = {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

1
Domain of 𝑅2 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ} and Range of 𝑅2 = {𝑦: 𝑦 > 4}

Domain of 𝑅3 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 1} and Range of 𝑅3 = {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

Domain of 𝑅4 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ −3 or 𝑥 ≥ 1} and Range of 𝑅4 = {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

30
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Homework: Write the relation and find the domain and range of the following.

2.2.5. Graphs of inverse Relations

If the graphs of both functions are symmetric with respect to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, then we say that the two
functions are inverses of each other. That is, their graphs are mirror images over the line of reflection 𝑦 = 𝑥 .

Note: A figure has a line of symmetry, if it can be folded so that one half of the figure
coincides with the other half.

31
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.3. Definition and examples of function

2.3.1. Definition of Function

The word “function” is derived from a Latin word meaning operation. For example, when we
multiply a given real number 𝑥 by 2, we are performing an operation on the number 𝑥 to get another
number 2𝑥.
A function f is a relation with a special property: each x is related by f to one and only one y. That
is, two ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑥, 𝑧) in f imply that y = z.
Definition: A relation 𝑓 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is said to be function if every element of set 𝐴 has
one and only one image in set 𝐵. In other words, a function 𝑓 is a relation such that no two pairs
in the relation has the same first element.

If 𝒇 is a function and 𝒙 is an element of its domain, then 𝒇(𝒙) denotes the output of 𝒇
corresponding to the input 𝒙.
Note: A relation 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 is called a function from 𝐴 into 𝐵 if the following hold:
1. For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, there exists 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅.
2. If (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑏 = 𝑐.
The independent variable is the variable that represents the first element of an ordered pair and
the dependent variable is the variable that represents the second element of an ordered pair.

 Function is also called a map or a mapping.

 We often use the notation y = f(x) to mean that the dependent variable 𝑦 is a function of the
independent variable 𝑥.
Examples: (1) Let 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 2𝑥)|𝑥 ∈ ℤ}. Then 𝑅 is a function from ℤ into ℤ.
(2) Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}.
i) Let 𝑅1 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏), (4, 𝑏)}. Then 𝑅1 is a function from A into B.
ii) Let 𝑅2 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐), (3, 𝑎), (4, 𝑎)}. Then 𝑅 is not a function from 𝐴 into 𝐵, since we
have two ordered pairs (3, 𝑐) and (3, 𝑎) in 𝑅 whose first components are equal and the second
components are different.
iii) If 𝑅3 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (4, 𝑐)}, then 𝑅3 is not a function of 𝐴 into 𝐵, since 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑆) ≠ 𝐴.

Example: Determine whether or not each set is a relation. Is it a function?

i) 𝑅 = {𝑦: −1 < 𝑦 < 1}
Answer: Not a relation and hence not a function. B/C, it is not collection of ordered pairs.
ii) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5}
Answer: A relation and a function.

32
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

iii) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 }

Answer: A relation but not a function. B/C consider (1, 1) and (−1, 1)
iv) 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 5}
Answer: A relation but not a function. B/C (0, 1) ∈ 𝑅 and (0, 2) ∈ 𝑅 have the same first element
with different second element.

Note: Every function is a relation, but every relation may not necessarily be a function.

Note: A relation 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a function if 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑅) = 𝐴.

Notation:

1. If 𝑅 is a function from 𝐴 into B and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, then the unique element 𝑏 in 𝐵 such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅
is denoted by 𝑅(𝑎).

2. Usually functions will be denoted by lower case letters 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ, ….

3. If 𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 into 𝐵, then we denote this by 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵.

4. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, then there exists a unique element 𝑏 in 𝐴 such that

(𝑎 , 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓. This unique element is denoted by 𝑓(𝑎). We write 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 to say that (𝑎 , 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓
or 𝑎𝑓𝑏. Some authors also write (𝑎)𝑓 = 𝑏 or simply 𝑎𝑓 = 𝑏 to say that (𝑎 , 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓 . However in
this chapter we prefer to use 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Homework: List all four different functions 𝑓: {𝑎, 𝑏} → {0, 1}.

Answer: 𝑓1 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 1)}, 𝑓2 = {(𝑎, 0), (𝑏, 0)}, 𝑓3 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 0)}, 𝑓2 = {(𝑎, 0), (𝑏, 1)}

Vertical Line Test

You can use the graph of a relation to determine whether it is a function by applying the vertical
line test.

33
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

A relation is a function if and only if no vertical line intersects the graph of the relation at
more than one point.

2.3.2. Domain and Range Of Function

Definition: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. Then 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 and is denoted by

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓). 𝐵 is called the co-domain of 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓).

The set of allowable values of 𝑥 is called the natural domain of the function. The range of the function f is
the set of all possible output values.

The range of 𝑓 is also called the image of 𝑓 or the image of 𝐴 under 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝐼𝑚(𝑓).
That is,

𝐼𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑓(𝑎)|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴}

Note: 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) ⊆ 𝐴.

If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏, then 𝑏 is called the image of 𝑎 under 𝑓 and 𝑎 is called a pre-image of 𝑏.

Note: For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, the image of 𝑎 under 𝑓 is unique. But, for 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there may be several pre-
images of 𝑏.

Type Square Roots Logarithms Rationals Bounded Region

34
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

√𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇(𝒙) 𝟏

𝒇(𝒙)
Restriction 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 Denominator≠ 0
𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0
Example 𝑦 = √−3𝑥 + 4 − 1 𝑦 = log(4 + 5𝑥) y= 1 (x-3)2+(y+2)2=16
2 x  11x  6
2

−3𝑥 + 4 ≥ 0 4 + 5𝑥 > 0 Center is (3,-2) with

2x2 + 11x – 6  0 radius of 4
𝑥 ≤ 4/3 𝑥 > −4/5
(2x -1)(x + 6)  0 3 + 4 = 7, 3 − 4 = −1
𝐷𝑜𝑚 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ 4/3 } 𝐷𝑜𝑚 = {𝑥: 𝑥 > −4/3 }
x  1/2 , x  -6 𝐷𝑜𝑚 = {𝑥: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
or (−∞, 𝟒/𝟑] or (−𝟒/𝟓, ∞) 7} or [−𝟏, 𝟕]
𝑫𝒐𝒎 = ℝ ∖ {−𝟔, 𝟏/
𝟐}

Examples: Define a function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. That is, 𝑓 = {(𝑥, 𝑥 2 )|𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.

Here 𝑥 2 is the image of any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Note that 𝑥 2 is always non-negative for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and hence
a negative real number has no pre-image under 𝑓. For example, there is no 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑓(𝑥) =
−1.

Here both the domain and co-domain of the function are ℝ and the image of 𝑓 (or range of 𝑓) is
equal to the set of non-negative real numbers.

Example: Let 𝑓 be the function defined by

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 12
Find out the domain of 𝑓.

The expression of the right-hand side has meaning for all real numbers except when 𝑥 = 6 or 𝑥 =
2. Therefore, the domain of 𝑓 is the set at all real number other than 6 and 2, that is,

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ − {2, 6}

𝑥2
Example: Find the range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥 2 .

𝑥2 𝑥
The inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥 2 is 𝑦 = ±√1−𝑥

𝑥
provided 1−𝑥 ≥ 0, that is 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1. Thus the range of 𝑓 is [0, 1).

35
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

√𝑥 2 −6
Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Find, i) 𝑓(3) ii) 𝑓(−1) iii) 𝑓(ℎ − 5) iv) 𝑓(−5)
𝑥+5

Table: Domain and range of some standard functions

Functions Domain Range

Polynomial functions ℝ ℝ

Identity function ℝ ℝ

Constant function ℝ ℝ

Modulus function |𝒙| ℝ ℝ+ ∪ {𝒙}

Signum function 𝒔𝒈𝒏(𝒙) ℝ {−1, 0, 1}

Greatest integer ℝ ℤ

Exponential function 𝒂𝒙 ℝ ℝ+

Logarithmic function ℝ+ ℝ
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 ℝ [−𝟏, 𝟏]

𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 ℝ [−𝟏, 𝟏]

𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝝅 ℝ
ℝ − (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) ,𝒌 ∈ ℤ
𝟐
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 𝝅 (−∞, −𝟏] ∪ [𝟏, ∞)
ℝ − (𝟐𝒌 + 𝟏) , 𝒌 ∈ ℤ
𝟐
𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝒙 ℝ − 𝒌𝝅, 𝒌 ∈ ℤ (−∞, −𝟏] ∪ [𝟏, ∞)

𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 ℝ − 𝒌𝝅, 𝒌 ∈ ℤ ℝ

𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 (−𝟏, 𝟏] 𝝅 𝝅
[− , ]
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙 [−𝟏, 𝟏] [𝟎, 𝝅]

𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 ℝ 𝝅 𝝅
(− , )
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙 ℝ (𝟎, 𝝅)

𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 ℝ/(−𝟏, 𝟏) 𝝅
[𝟎, 𝝅] − { }
𝟐
𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 ℝ/(−𝟏, 𝟏) 𝝅 𝝅
[− , ] − {𝟎}
𝟐 𝟐

36
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.3.3. Equality of functions

Two functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐶 are said to be equal if their

i) 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) and

ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for all elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓).

Note: 𝑓 and 𝑔 can have different codomains but can still be equal.

2.4. Real-Valued Function

Definition: If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 then the image 𝑓(𝑎) is also called a value of 𝑓 at
𝑎. If the value of 𝑓 at each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is a real number, then 𝑓 is called a real-valued function on 𝐴 ;
that is, any function from a set 𝐴 into a subset of the real number system is called a real-valued
function on 𝐴.

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝑓 can be treated as a function from 𝐴 into 𝐶 as well.

Therefore, a real-valued function on A is just a function from A into ℝ.

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be real valued functions on a set 𝐴. Then we define the real-valued functions 𝑓 + 𝑔,
−𝑓, 𝑓 − 𝑔 and 𝑓 × 𝑔 on 𝐴 as follows:

1. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

2. (−𝑓 )(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)

3. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)

4. (𝑓 × 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
5. (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

𝑥 1
Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1, then

𝑥 1 𝑥(𝑥 2 −1)−(𝑥−1) 𝑥 3 −2𝑥+1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +𝑥−1) 𝑥 2 +𝑥−1

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 + 𝑥 2 −1 = = = = ,𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥 2 −1 𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥+1

𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥−1) (𝑥 2 −1) = (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 −1) = 𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 1 𝑥 (𝑥 2 −1) 𝑥 3 −𝑥
= (𝑥−1) / (𝑥 2 −1) = (𝑥−1) =
𝑔(𝑥) 1 𝑥−1

37
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.4.1. The Domain of the Sum, Difference, Quotient or Product Function

i) 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)}
ii) 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)}
𝑓(𝑥)
iii) 𝐷𝑜𝑚 {𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} − {𝑔(𝑥) = 0}

iv) 𝐷𝑜𝑚{√𝑓(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0}

Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 4|, then 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 0} = [0, ∞) and
𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ} = (−∞, ∞). Then,

i). 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + |𝑥 − 4| and 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩

𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} = [0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, ∞) = [0, ∞).
ii). 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − |𝑥 − 4| and 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩
𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} = [0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, ∞) = [0, ∞).
iii). 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥|𝑥 − 4| and 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} =
[0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, ∞) = [0, ∞).
𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
iv). = |𝑥−4| and 𝐷𝑜𝑚 {𝑔(𝑥)} = 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑓(𝑥)} ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚{𝑔(𝑥)} − {𝑔(𝑥) = 0} =
𝑔(𝑥)
[0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, ∞) − {4} = [0, ∞) − {4} = [0, 4) ∪ (4, ∞).

2.5. Composition of functions

The composition of functions is the process of combining two or more functions into a single function.
Definition: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be functions. Then the composition of 𝑓 with 𝑔 is defined
as the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 given by
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Note that 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is defined only when the range of 𝑓 is contained in the domain of 𝑔.

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function and 𝑔: 𝐷 → 𝐶 is another function such that 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑓) ⊆ 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔),

then 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 can be defined as a function from 𝐴 into 𝐶.

Example: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐶 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be
functions defined by 𝑓 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑏), (4, 𝑎)} and 𝑔 = {( 𝑎, 𝑦), (𝑏, 𝑧), (𝑐, 𝑥)}. Find 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.

Solution: We have 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are functions. Then 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 is given by

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 = {(1, 𝑦 ), (2, 𝑥 ), (3, 𝑧 ), (4, 𝑦 )}.

Theorem: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be functions. Then 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) = 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) and

𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) = 𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑔).

38
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Example: Let 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ and 𝑔: ℤ → ℤ be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 for all𝑥 ∈ ℤ.

Show that 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 ≠ 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

Solution: We have (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 2

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = (𝑥 + 2)2

Therefore 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 ≠ 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

Theorem: Let : 𝐴 → 𝐵 , 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 and ℎ: 𝐶 → 𝐷 be functions. Then ℎ ∘ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) = (ℎ ∘ 𝑔) ∘ 𝑓.

Note: 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑓𝑔.

Example: Find 𝑓(𝑔(5)) from the following graph.

Solution: From the graph we see, 𝑔(5) = 3 and 𝑓(3) = 2.

Hence, 𝑓(𝑔(5)) = 𝑓(2) = 3.

Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 1, then find i) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(2)

ii) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(2)

Solution: i) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(2) = 𝑓 (𝑔(2)) = 𝑓(9) = 81.

ii) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(2) = 𝑔(𝑓(2)) = 𝑔(4) = 19.

Classwork: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 , then find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥). Answer: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 2𝑥+1.

Homework: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2, then for what value of x does (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) =
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)?

Answer: (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 𝑥 2 + 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = −1/2.

1
Homework: Find the domain of (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) if i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−5. ii) ) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| and
1
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1.
1
Answer: i) Since, (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝐷𝑜𝑚{(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)} = {𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 0} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) = ℝ ∖
{0}.
1
ii) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = |𝑥|−1. Then, 𝐷𝑜𝑚{(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)} = ℝ ∖ {−1, 1} = (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪

(1, ∞).

39
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

1 1
Homework: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥, then find the domain of (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)?

Answer: 𝐷𝑜𝑚{(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)} = {𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 0, 1} = ℝ ∖ {0} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Homework: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2, then find the function ℎ such that 𝑔 ∘
ℎ = 𝑓?

Answer: ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2.

Composed of function With Itself

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 2, then

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(5𝑥 − 2) = 5(5𝑥 − 2) − 2 = 25𝑥 = 12.

Even Functions and Odd Functions

Even Functions

Definition: Let 𝑋 be a symmetric set and 𝑓: 𝑋 → ℝ a function. Then 𝑓 is said to be an even

function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋.

Note: If the function 𝑓 is defined in ordered pair, 𝑓 is even function if (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓, then (−𝑥, 𝑦) ∈
𝑓.
Graphically: Even function is symmetrical around the y-axis (Reflect across y-axis)
Example: 1) If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all ∈ ℝ , then 𝑓 is an even
function, since, for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥)

2) If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| for all ∈ ℝ , then 𝑓 is an even function, since,
for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

𝑓(−𝑥) = |−𝑥| = |𝑥| = 𝑓(𝑥).

3) Any constant function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is even, that is, for any 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, defined
by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, is even.

The following functions are even function:

40
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Odd Functions

Definition: Let 𝑋 be a set and 𝑓: 𝑋 → ℝ is a function. Then 𝑓 is said to be an odd function if

𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋.
Note: If the function 𝑓 is defined in ordered pair, 𝑓 is odd function if (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓, then (−𝑥, −𝑦) ∈
𝑓.
Graphically: Even function is symmetrical around the origin (Reflect across 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis)
Examples: (1) The identity function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, is an odd
function, since 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3 = −𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

The following functions are odd function:

Remark: Unlike in integers, a function can be neither even nor odd. For example, consider the
function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Then f (-1) = 1 and f (1) = 3 and
hence
𝑓(−1) ≠ 𝑓(1) and 𝑓(−1) ≠ −𝑓(1).

Therefore 𝑓 is neither even nor odd. Next, note that a function f is both even and odd if and only
if 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥.

Theorem: Let 𝑋 be a symmetric set and 𝑓 and 𝑔 functions of 𝑋 into ℝ. Then, the product 𝑓𝑔 is an
even function if both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are even or both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are odd.

41
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Theorem: For any real-valued functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 defined on a symmetric set 𝑋, the product 𝑓𝑔
is an odd function if one of f and g is odd and the other is even.
Theorem: Any function can be expressed as a sum of an even function and an odd function.

Properties of even & odd function:

(a) The graph of an even function is always symmetric about y-axis.
(b) The graph of an odd function is always symmetric about origin.
(c) Product of two even or odd function is an even function.
(e) Product of an even or odd function is an odd function.
(f) Sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
(d) Sum & difference of two even (odd) function is an even (odd) function.
(g) Zero function, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, is the only function which is both even and odd.
(i)A given function can be expressed as sum of even and odd function.

2.6. Graphs of Functions

2.6.1. Transformations of functions
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function, then

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝐶) 𝐶𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝐶𝑥)

If 𝐶 > 0 moves If 𝐶 > 1 stretches it in If 𝐶 > 1 compress it in the

If 𝐶 > 0 moves it up 𝐶 units
it left 𝐶 units the y-direction x-direction

If 𝐶 < 0 moves If 0 < 𝐶 < 1 compress

If 𝐶 < 0 moves it down If 0 < 𝐶 < 1 stretches it
it right it

42
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.6.2. Graph of quadratic functions: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄

If 𝑎 > 0 If 𝑎 < 0

Opens upward Opens downward

Has a y-intercept at (0, 𝑐)

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Vertex at (− 2𝑎 , 𝑓 (− 2𝑎)) Vertex at (− 2𝑎 , 𝑓 (− 2𝑎))

𝑏 𝑏
Has a minimum value 𝑓 (− ) Has a maximum value 𝑓 (− )
2𝑎 2𝑎

Domain: ℝ Domain: ℝ

43
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝑏 𝑏
Range: [𝑓 (− 2𝑎) , ∞) Range: (−∞, 𝑓 (− 2𝑎)]

2.7. Power function, Absolute value function, Signum function and

greatest integer function
Identity function: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 is called an identity function if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and is
denoted by 𝐼𝐴 .
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = ℝ
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = ℝ

Periodic function: Let 𝐴 be a subset of ℝ and 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ a function. A positive real number 𝑝 is

called a period of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) whenever 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑝 belong to 𝐴. A function with a
period is called periodic function. Among the periods of f, the least one (if it exists) is called the
least period.

Step function (greatest integer function): Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥] for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where [𝑥] is the largest integer less than or equal to
𝑥. This function 𝑓 is called step function.

44
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

The Modulus function: Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined by

−𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0

for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is called the modulus function.

Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ and Range of 𝑓 = ℝ+ ∪ {0}.

Homework: Solve |𝑥 + 3| = 2𝑥 + 1.

4
Answer: 𝑥 = 2. (Solving analytically 𝑥 = − 3 is also solution, but verifying it does not keep the

equality.)

Signum function: Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined by

−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
is called Signum function and is written as 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑥).
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ and Range of 𝑓 = {−1, 0, 1}.
Constant function: The function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ where 𝐶 is a
constant in ℝ, is a constant function.
Domain of 𝑓 = ℝ

Range of 𝑓 = {𝐶}

2.8. Exponential functions and their graphs

2.8.1. Exponential function
Exponential function is a function of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 is a constant and 𝑥 is a variable.

Properties of Exponents
Property Definition (𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ) Example
Product 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 23 24 = 23+4 = 27

Power of a power (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 (𝑥 2 )3 = 𝑥 3(2) = 𝑥 6

45
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝑎 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 3 3 33 27
Power of a quotient (𝑏 ) = 𝑏 𝑛 , 𝑏 ≠ 0 (5) = 53 = 125

Power of a product (𝑎𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 (2𝑥)3 = 23 𝑥 3 = 8𝑥 3

𝑎𝑚 25
quotient = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , 𝑏 ≠ 0 = 25−3 = 22 = 4
𝑎𝑛 23

Definition: For any real number 𝑎 > 0 and any integer 𝑛 > 1
1
𝑛
i) 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎
𝑛
ii) 𝑎𝑚/𝑛 = √𝑎𝑚
1
𝑛
Note: i) For 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑛 is odd, 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎.
1 𝑎 −𝑛 𝑏 𝑛
ii) For 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 > 0, i) 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑏 ) = (𝑎) .

iii) For any non-zero number , 𝑎0 = 1.

37 94
Example: Evaluate √276

37 94 37 32(2) 37+4 311 311

Solution: √276 = 1 = 1 = 273 = = 311−9 = 32 = 9
(276 )2 6( ) 39
27 2

46
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.8.2. Graph of Exponential function

The graph of an exponential function , such as 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 , is increasing for 𝑎 > 1, decreasing for 0 <
𝑎 < 1, and neither increasing nor decreasing for 𝑎 = 1.

𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝒂 > 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏

 The function is defined for all values of  The function is defined for all values of
𝑥. Therefore, the domain is {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ}. 𝑥. Therefore, the domain is {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.
 The function has only positive values  The function has only positive values
for 𝑦.Therefore, the range is {𝑦|𝑦 > for 𝑦.Therefore, the range is {𝑦|𝑦 >
0, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}. 0, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}.
 The graph never intersects the x-axis, so  The graph never intersects the x-axis, so
there is no 𝑥-intercept. there is no 𝑥-intercept.
 The graph crosses the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = 1,  The graph crosses the 𝑦-axis at 𝑦 = 1,
so the y-intercept is 𝑦 = 1. so the y-intercept is 𝑦 = 1.
 The values of 𝑦 increase as the values of  The values of y decrease as the values of
𝑥 increase. Therefore, the function is x increase. Therefore, the function is
increasing over its domain. decreasing over its domain.
 Since the graph approaches the line 𝑦 =  Since the graph approaches the line 𝑦 =
0 as the values of 𝑥 get very small, 𝑦 = 0 as the values of 𝑥 get very small, 𝑦 =
0 is the horizontal asymptote. 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
 When 𝑥 → −∞ then 𝑓 (𝑥) → 0 and  When 𝑥 → −∞ then 𝑓 (𝑥) → ∞ and
when 𝑥 → ∞ then 𝑓 (𝑥) → ∞. when 𝑥 → ∞ then 𝑓 (𝑥) → 0.

 Why is the definition of an exponential function restricted to positive values of 𝒂?

1 2𝑥+1
Classwork: Solve i) 162𝑚−3 = 32𝑚,+3 ii) (8) = 32𝑥−3

47
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.5.4. Logarithmic functions, graphs of logarithmic functions and equations

involving logarithms
For the exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , the inverse is 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 . This inverse is called a logarithmic
function. It is written as 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥, where 𝑎 is a positive number other than 1.

Example: Solve log10 0.001

Solution: Let log10 0.001 = 𝑥. Then in exponential form
10𝑥 = 0.001 ⟹ 10𝑥 = 10−3 ⟹ 𝑥 = −3. Therefore, log10 0.001 = −3.
2
Example: Determine the value of 𝑥 for i) log 64 𝑥 = ii) log 𝑥 64 = 2
3

2 1 2
2
Solution: i) Expressing in exponential form log 64 𝑥 = 3 ⟹ 643 = 𝑥 ⟹ (643 ) = 𝑥 ⟹ 42 =
𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 = 16
ii) Expressing in exponential form log 𝑥 64 = 2 ⟹ 𝑥 2 = 64 ⟹ 𝑥 2 = 26 ⟹ 𝑥 = 6

2.8.3. Laws of logarithm

If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are positive numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑏 ≠ 1 then
1. log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦
𝑥
2. log 𝑏 (𝑦) = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦
3. log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑘 log 𝑏 𝑥 for any real number 𝑘
4. log 𝑏 𝑏 = 1 , log 𝑏 1 = 0
log 𝑎
5. log 𝑏 𝑎 = log𝑐 𝑏
𝑐
log𝑏 𝑥
6. 𝑏 =𝑥
 log e 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 is called the natural logarithm of 𝑥
 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥 , 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1 defines an exponential function. The function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural exponential function.
 Logarithms to base 10 are called common logarithms.
Property of equality for logarithmic equations
If b, x and y are positive numbers with 𝑏 ≠ 1, then
log b 𝑥 = log b 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Example: If log 3 6 = log 3 𝑥, then 𝑥 = 6.
Homework: Find 𝑥 if:

i) log 49 1/7 = 𝑥 ii) log1/3 9 = 𝑥

iii) log 2 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2) = 1 iv) log 4 (𝑥 + 1) + log 4 (𝑥 + 3) = 1

48
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.8.3. Graph of Logarithmic function

Example: Graph the inverse of an exponential function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 .
Solution: The inverse of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 is 𝑦 = log 3 𝑥. Then set up tables of values for both the
exponential function and its inverse.

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = log 3 𝑥

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦

−3 1 1 −3
27 27
−2 1 1 −2
9 9
−1 1 1 −1
3 3
0 1 1 0

1 3 3 1

2 9 9 2

3 27 27 3

The graphs of an exponential function and its inverse logarithmic function are reflections of each
other in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, as shown.
For the logarithmic function 𝑦 = log𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1,

 the domain is {𝑥|𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}

 the range is {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
 the 𝑥- intercept is 1
 the vertical asymptote is 𝑥 = 0, or the 𝑦-axis.

2.8.4. Transformation of logarithmic functions graph

The effect of the parameters 𝑎, 𝑏, ℎ, and 𝑘 in 𝑦 = 𝑎 log 𝑐 𝑏(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘 on the graph of the
logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑐 𝑥

49
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.9. Classification of functions

2.9.1. Injection/One-One function
Definition: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called an injection or “one-one function” if 𝑓(𝑎1 ) =
𝑓(𝑎2 ) ⟹ 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 for any 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴.

Or, If 𝑎1 ≠ 𝑎2 in 𝐴 then 𝑓(𝑎1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎2 ) for any 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴.

Example: Let 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℤ.

Then 𝑓 is an injection, since, for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⟹ 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑦 + 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦

Example: Let 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℤ.

Then 𝑓 is not an injection, since two distinct elements have the same image; for example, 1 ≠ −1
but 𝑓(1) = 12 = (– 1)2 = 𝑓(– 1).

Example: Determine if the function 𝐹 = {(−1, 1), (0, 2), (2, 1)} is one-to-one.

Solution: Here 𝐹(−1) = 1 and 𝐹(2) = 1, but since −1 ≠ 2, we have established that 𝐹 is not one-
to-one.

Horizontal Line test

Once we have determined that a graph defines a function, an easy way to determine if it is a one-
to-one function is to use the horizontal line test. Draw horizontal lines through the graph. If any
horizontal line intersects the graph more than once, then the graph does not represent a one-to-one
function.

50
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Theorem: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be functions. Then the following hold.

1. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are injections, then so is 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓

2. If 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is an injection, then 𝑓 is an injection.

2.9.2. Surjection/Onto function

Definition: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called a surjection or “onto function” if the range of 𝑓 is
equal to the co-domain B; that is, for each 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎) for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Example: Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Then for any element 𝑦 in
𝑦−1
the co-domain ℝ , we have is in the domain ℝ and
2
𝑦−1 2(𝑦−1)
𝑓( )= + 1 = 𝑦.
2 2

Therefore 𝑓 is a surjection. Note that 𝑓 is an injection also, since

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⟹ 2𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑦 + 1 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦.

51
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Example: Let ℕ be the set of all non-negative integers. Define 𝑓: ℤ → ℕ by 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| for all
𝑥 ∈ ℤ. Then 𝑓 is a surjection, since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℕ and ℕ ⊆ ℤ.

However, 𝑓 is not an injection since 𝑓(−1) = |−1| = 1 = 𝑓(1) and −1 ≠ 1.

(3) Define 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Then 𝑓 is neither an injection nor a

surjection. It is not an injection, since 𝑓(−1) = 2 = 𝑓(1) but −1 ≠ 1. 𝑓 is not a surjection, since
we cannot find an element 𝑥 in such that 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0; that is 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

(4) Define 𝑓: ℤ → ℝ by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℤ. Then 𝑓 is an injection and is not a surjection.
It is not an injection, since 𝑓(−1) = 2 = 𝑓(1) and −1 ≠ 1. 𝑓 is not a surjection, since we cannot
find an integer 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/2. Note that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 is always an integer for any integer
𝑥.

Theorem: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be functions. Then the following hold.

1. If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are surjections, then so is 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓

2. If 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is a surjections, then 𝑓 is a surjections.

It is a convention that, when 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a surjection, we often denote this by saying “𝑓 is a

function of 𝐴 onto 𝐵” or 𝑓 is a surjection of 𝐴 onto 𝐵.

2.9.3. Bijection
Definition: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be a bijection or a one-one and onto function or a one-
to-one function if 𝑓 is both injective and surjective.

Let 𝐸 be the set of all even integers and ℤ the set of all integers. Define 𝑓: 𝐸 → ℤ by

2𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 4𝑦
𝑓(𝑥) = { .
𝑦 if 𝑥 = 2𝑦 and 𝑦 is odd

Then 𝑓 is a bijection. One can verify that 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓(2) = 1, 𝑓(4) = 2, 𝑓(6) = 3, 𝑓(8) =
4, 𝑓(−2) = −1, 𝑓(−4) = −2, . . 𝑓(−𝑛) = −𝑓(𝑛).

Theorem: If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are bijections, then 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐶 is a bijection.

52
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

From the above examples of bijective function, we can observe that every element of set 𝐵 has
been related to a distinct element of set 𝐴. The non-bijective functions have some element in set 𝐵
which do not have a pre-image in set 𝐴, or some of the elements in set 𝐵 is the image for more
than one element in set 𝐴.

The bijective functions need to satisfy the following four conditions.

 Every element of set 𝐴 must be paired with an element of set 𝐵.

 The element of set 𝐴 must not be paired with more than one element of set 𝐵.
 Each element of set 𝐵 must be paired with an element of set 𝐴.
 The element of set 𝐵 must not be paired with more than one element of set 𝐴.

Note: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is injective when, for each 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴 if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .

Note: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is surjective when, if for each 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 there exists some 𝑥 in 𝑋 such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.
Note: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is bijective if 𝑓 is both one-one and onto.
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 is one–one function (Injective mapping)

53
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Solution: Since, 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑦 ⟹ −𝑥 = −𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Example: Let 𝐴 = {−1, 1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {1, 4, 9}, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is surjective.
Example: Let 𝐴 = {−1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {1, 4, 9}, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is bijective.
Diagrammatically an injective mapping is shown as follows:

Diagrammatically surjective mapping is shown as follows:

Diagrammatically into function is shown as follows:

2.10. Inverse function

If 𝑓 is a one-to-one function with domain 𝐴 and range 𝐵, we can define an inverse function 𝑓 −1
(with domain 𝐵) by the rule

𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

This is a sound definition of a function, precisely because each value of 𝑦 in the domain of 𝑓 −1
has exactly one 𝑥 in 𝐴 associated to it by the rule 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Note that the domain of 𝑓 −1 equals the range off and the range of 𝑓 −1 equals the domain of 𝑓.

Note: If 𝑓 −1 is the inverse of function 𝑓, then the following holds from the definition if 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥
then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Note: 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥.

Example: If 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 2), (𝑏, 3), (𝑐, 3)} is a function from 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} into 𝐵 = {2, 3}, find 𝑓 −1 .

Solution: 𝑓 −1 = {(2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)}, 𝑓 −1 is not a function. Notice also, 𝑓 is not injective.

54
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Note: 𝑓 −1 exists if 𝑓 is injective and surjective.

2.10.1. Steps for finding the Inverse of a One-to-one Function

1. Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

2. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.

3. Solve 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) for 𝑦 to obtain 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

2𝑥+1
Example: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , find a formula for 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
𝑥−3
3𝑥+1
Answer: 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
𝑥−2
3𝑥 + 1
3𝑥 + 1 2 ( 𝑥 − 2 ) + 1 7𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) −1 (𝑥))
= 𝑓(𝑓 = 𝑓( )= = = 𝑥.
𝑥−2 3𝑥 + 1 7
𝑥−2 −3
Example: Find inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 + 15.
Solution: Solving for 𝑦 from 𝑥 = 4𝑦 2 + 12𝑦 + 15 we obtain, (2𝑦 + 3)2 + 6 = 𝑥

√𝑥−6−3
⟹ 2𝑦 + 3 = √𝑥 − 6 . Thus, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2
.
1−2𝑥
Example: Find the inverse of the function one-to-one functions. Check your answers
5

analytically using function composition.

1−2𝑥 1−2𝑥 1−2𝑦

Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Then 𝑦 = . Then switch 𝑥 and 𝑦. 𝑥 = . Solving for y, 𝑦 =
5 5 5
1−5𝑥
. Then we have
2
1 − 5𝑥
1 − 5𝑥 1 − 2 ( 2 ) 1 − (1 − 5𝑥) 5𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( )= = = = 𝑥.
2 5 5 5
Similarly,
1 − 2𝑥
1 − 2𝑥 1 − 5( ) 1 − (1 − 2𝑥) 2𝑥
(𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 ( )= 5 = = =𝑥
5 2 2 2
Therefore, (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

Homework: Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 2𝑥+3 ii) 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 2) + 5

2.10.2. Graph of inverse function
Since the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the same as the equation 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), the graphs of both equations
are identical. To graph the equation 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), we note that this equation results from switching
the roles of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). This transformation of the equation results in a

55
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

transformation of the graph amounting to reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. Thus the graph of 𝑦 =
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is a reflection of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 and vice versa.

Note: The reflection of the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 is (𝑦1 , 𝑥1 ). Therefore if the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
is on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), we must have (𝑦1 , 𝑥1 ) on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
2𝑥+1 3𝑥+1
The graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = are shown below.
𝑥−3 𝑥−2

Example: If 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, then 𝑓 −1 (−2) ∪ 𝑓 −1 (17)

(A) {±4} (B) {±1, ±4} (C) {4} (D) {1, 4}
Solution: Here 𝑓 −1 (−2) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| 𝑓(𝑥) = −2} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| 𝑥 2 + 1 = −2} = ∅.
𝑓 −1 (17) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| 𝑓(𝑥) = 17} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| 𝑥 2 + 1 = 17} = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ| 𝑥 2 = 16} = {±4}

2.11. Polynomial functions

Definition: The function f ( x)  an x n  an1x n1  an2 x n2   a1x  a0 is a polynomial
function of degree n where n a0 , a1, a2 , , an are called the
is a nonnegative integer. The numbers
coefficients of the polynomial function. The number an is called the leading coefficient and a0 is
called the constant coefficient.
Classwork: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 : Leading coefficient___, constant___, and degree_____.

56
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.11.1. Graph of polynomial

Two-Step Process for Determining the End Behavior of a Polynomial Function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .

Step 1: Determine the sign of the leading coefficient an :

 If 𝑎𝑛 > 0 right-hand end of graph finishes in an upward direction.
 If 𝑎𝑛 < 0 right-hand end of graph finishes in an downward direction.
Step 2: Determine the degree
If the degree n is odd, the graph has opposite left-hand and right-hand end behavior, that is, the
graph “starts” and “finishes” in opposite directions.
 Odd degree polynomials have opposite left-hand and right-hand end behavior.
 Even degree polynomials have the same left-hand and right hand end behavior.
 If the degree n is even, the graph has the same left-hand and right-hand end behavior, that
is, the graph “starts” and “finishes” in the same direction.

2.11.2. End Behavior of Polynomial Functions

Odd degree Even Degree

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1

Positive
leading
coefficients

As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞

As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞

57
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1

𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1

Negative
leading
coefficients

As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞

As 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞
As 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞

Note: i) The graph of a polynomial function of degree 𝑛 has at most 𝑛 − 1 turning points and intersects
the 𝑥-axis at most 𝑛 times.
ii) The graph of every polynomial function has no sharp corners, it is a smooth and continuous curve.

Example: For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2, 𝑥 = 1 is called a zero of multiplicity two since the
factor (𝑥 − 1) occurs two times in the factorization of 𝑓.
Example: For 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)3 , 𝑥 = 1 is a zero of multiplicity 3.
The graph of a polynomial function will touch the 𝑥-axis at a real zero of even multiplicity and
will cross the x-axis at a real zero of odd multiplicity.

58
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

The Shape of the Graph of a Polynomial Function Near a Zero of multiplicity 𝒌.

Suppose 𝑐 is a real zero of a polynomial function 𝑓 of multiplicity 𝑘, that is, (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑘 is a factor of 𝑓.
Then the shape of the graph of 𝑓 near 𝑐 is as follows:

 If 𝑘 > 1 is even, then the graph touches the x-axis at c.

 If 𝑘 > 1 is odd, then the graph crosses the x-axis at c.

Classwork:

i. 𝑓(𝑥) = −5𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 7 ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 8 − 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 7 4

Degree _______ Degree _______
Leading Coefficient __________ Leading Coefficient __________
As x    then f ( x)  _____ As x    then f ( x)  _____
As x    then f ( x)  _____ As x    then f ( x)  _____
Left/right-hand end behavior? _____________ Left/right-hand end behavior? _____________

2.12. Rational Function

𝑔(𝑥)
Definition: A rational function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = where 𝑔 and ℎ are polynomial
ℎ(𝑥)
functions such that h( x)  0. If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐶 where 𝐶 is a real number, then we will consider the function
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐶
to be a polynomial.

2.12.1. Graphing Rational Functions

Vertical asymptote

Definition: The vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if at least

one of the following occurs:
i) 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑎+ ii) 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑎+
iii) 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑎− iv) 𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑎−
The figures below illustrate each of these cases.

𝑔(𝑥)
A rational function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) where 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) have no common factors will
have a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if ℎ(𝑎) = 0.

Note: It is essential to cancel any common factors before locating the vertical asymptotes.

59
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition: A horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote of a function 𝑓 if the values of 𝑓(𝑥)

approach some fixed number 𝐿 as the values of 𝑥 approach ∞ or −∞.

 In Figure 1 above on the left, the line 𝑦 = −1 is a horizontal asymptote because the values
of 𝑓(𝑥) approach 1 as 𝑥 approaches −∞.
 In Figure 2 above in the middle, the line 𝑦 = 3 is a horizontal asymptote because the values
of 𝑓(𝑥) approach 3 as 𝑥 approaches ±∞.
 In Figure 3 above on the right, the line 𝑦 = 2 is a horizontal asymptote because the values
of 𝑓(𝑥) approach 2 as 𝑥 approaches ±∞.

Finding Horizontal Asymptotes of a Rational Function

𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑎 𝑥 𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑎 𝑥+𝑎0
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑛𝑥 𝑚+𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 +⋯+𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0 where 𝑓 is written in lowest
𝑚 𝑚−1 1 𝑥+𝑏0

terms, 𝑛 is the degree of 𝑔, and 𝑚 is the degree of ℎ.

 If 𝑚 > 𝑛, then 𝑦 = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.

𝑎
 If 𝑚 = 𝑛, then the horizontal asymptote is 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑛 , the ratio of the leading coefficients.
𝑚

 If 𝑚 < 𝑛, then there are no horizontal asymptotes.

If degree(nume)=degree( denom)
𝑎
If degree(nume)<degree( then 𝑏𝑛 is the horizontal If degree(nume)>degree(
𝑛
denom) then the horizontal asymptote where 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are denominator), there is no
asymptote is 𝑦 = 0. the lead coefficients of the horizontal asymptote.
numerator and denominator.
𝑥 𝑥+3 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1 HA is 𝑦 = 0. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−1 HA is 𝑦 = 2. 𝑥 3 +3
5𝑥 2 −4 9𝑥 3 +𝑥+3 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥−1 has no HA.
𝑓(𝑥) = HA is 𝑦 = 0. 𝑓(𝑥) = HA is 𝑦 = 3.
𝑥 5 −1 3𝑥 3 −1

60
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Oblique asymptote:
3𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1
Example: Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥−1

3𝑥 2 −2𝑥+1 2
Solution: Since = 3𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥−1, the line 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 1 is a oblique/slant asymptote.
𝑥−1

4𝑥+2
Example: Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +4𝑥−5.

3𝑥 2 +2
Example: Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +4𝑥−5

61
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Notice that, while the graph of a rational function will never cross a vertical asymptote, the graph
may or may not cross a horizontal or slant asymptote. Also, although the graph of a rational
function may have many vertical asymptotes, the graph will have at most one horizontal (or
slant) asymptote. It should be noted that, if the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree
of the denominator by more than one, the end behavior of the graph will mimic the behavior of
the reduced end behavior fraction.

Examples: For the functions listed, identify the horizontal or slant asymptote.
6𝑥 3 −10𝑥 6
i) 𝑔(𝑥) = HA: 𝑦 = 2 = 3
𝟐𝒙𝟑 +𝟓𝒙𝟐

𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1
ii) ℎ(𝑥) = Oblique or Slant ∶ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 6
𝒙+𝟐

𝑥 2 +4𝑥
iii) 𝑘(𝑥) = HA: 𝑦 = 0
𝑥 3 −8

1 1
Example: The graphs of f ( x )  and f ( x )  2
x x

 Domain: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

1
 Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
1
 Range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2: (0, ∞)
𝑥
 No intercepts
 Vertical Asymptote: 𝑥 = 0
 Horizontal Asymptote: 𝑦 = 0
1 1
 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric about the origin and 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥). 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is an
even function. Its graph is symmetric about the y-axis and f ( x)  f ( x) .

2.12.2. Sketching Rational Functions Having Removable Discontinuities

g ( x)
A rational function f ( x)  may sometimes have a “hole” in its graph. In calculus, these “holes”
h( x )
are called removable discontinuities. Removable discontinuities occur when g ( x) and h( x) share a
common factor.

62
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

3𝑥 2 −16
Classwork: Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −25

x-intercept(s): _________________ y-intercept: ___________

Vert. asymptotes:________________ horiz. asymptotes: ______________
Oblique asymptote: _____________ Domain: ________________ Hole: __________

2.13. Trigonometric functions

As derived from the Greek language, the word trigonometry means “measurement of triangles.”
Initially, trigonometry dealt with relationships among the sides and angles of triangles and was
used in the development of astronomy, navigation, and surveying.
2.13.1. Angles and Degree Measure
An angle is the union of two rays having a common endpoint. The endpoint is called the vertex
of the angle, and the two rays are the sides of the angle. An angle with its vertex at the origin and its initial
side along the positive x-axis is said to be in standard position. If the terminal side of an angle lies “on” the
axes (such as 0º, 90º, 180º, 270º, 360º), it is called a quadrantal angle.

𝜃
𝜃
Vertex

If the angle is measured in a counterclockwise direction from the initial side to the terminal side,
the angle is said to be a positive angle. If the angle is measured in a clockwise direction, the angle
is said to be a negative angle.

63
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

The measure of an angle is the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side.
Probably the most familiar unit of angle measurement is the degree. A complete circular rotation
contains 360 degrees.
Angles may be specified in either degrees or radians. You need to be competent in both. This is easy.

Note: There are 360 degrees in a complete circle or 2π radians in a circle, or about 6.28 radians
because 𝜋 is approximately 3.14.

Thus we have the critical conversion formula: 360° = 2𝜋 radians or 180° = 𝜋 radians.
Relationship between Degrees and Radians:
𝜋 180°
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 × 180° 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑠 × 𝜋

Classwork: Change the degree measures to radian measures and the radian measures to degree
measures
a. 145° b.  250 c. 7 d. −3.5𝜋
15
The angle is measured by the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side. If
measured in a counterclockwise direction the measurement is positive. If measured in
a clockwise direction the measurement is negative. (A negative associated with an angle's
measure refers to its "direction" of measurement, clockwise.)
Coterminal Angles: Two angles are said to be coterminal if they have the same initial and terminal
sides. Finding coterminal angles is as simple as adding or subtracting 360° or 2𝜋
to each angle, depending on whether the given angle is in degrees or radians

Note: [Link] angle 𝜃 ± 𝑛 × 360º or 𝜃 ± 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ are coterminal angles

with 𝜃. The value of 𝒏 is a positive integer if the rotations are
counterclockwise and a negative integer if the rotations are clockwise.

2. Every angle has infinitely many coterminal angles.

Type of Angle Description

Acute Angle is less than 90°
Right Angle is 90° exactly
Obtuse Angle is greater than 90° but less than 180°
Straight Angle is 180° exactly
Reflex Angle is greater than 180°
Full Rotation is 360° exactly

64
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Example: The following are coterminal angle with 20°.

i) (20° + 360°) = 380°, (20° + 2 × 360°) = 740°, (20° − 360°) = −340°, (20° − 2 ×
360°) = −700°, ⋯ are coterminal angle with 20°.

𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 11𝜋 𝜋
ii) ( 3 + 2𝜋) = 3
, (3 + 4𝜋) = 3
, (3 − 2𝜋) = − 3
, (3 − 4𝜋) = − 3
, ⋯ are coterminal angle with 3 .

Example: Find the coterminal angle for −1297°.

1297
Solution: Using division − 360
= −3.602777778, thus −1297° = −3(360°) − 217°. Thus, the angle

is −217°. But the coterminal angle needs to be positive: 360° − 217° = 143°.

The coterminal angle is 𝜃 = 143° which lies in the second quadrant.

𝜋
Example: Find the coterminal angle with 3 .

𝜋 7𝜋 𝜋 12𝜋 𝜋
 + 2𝜋 = , 3 + 4𝜋 = , ⋯ are coterminal angles with 3 in positive
3 3 3

directions.
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 11𝜋 𝜋
 − 2𝜋 = − , 3 − 4𝜋 = − , ⋯ are coterminal angles with 3 in negative directions.
3 3 3

2.13.1. Reference angle

Reference Angle: The reference angle is the smallest possible acute angle between the terminal
arm/terminal side and the x-axis. The reference angle is always positive and measures between 0° and 90°.
Note: i) A reference angle is always positive and is always less than 90º.
ii) If the starting angle is greater than 360º, start by subtracting 360º
from the starting angle (as many times as needed) to arrive at a new
"starting" angle that lies between 0º and 360º.
(If working in radians, subtract 2𝜋 until the starting angle is
between 0 and 2π radians.)
iii) Angles in quadrant I are their own reference angles.
Example: The reference angle of 135° is drawn below:
Here, 45° is the reference angle of 135°.

65
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Reference angle=𝜽
Reference angle=𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝜽 = 𝝅 − 𝜽

Reference angle=𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅 − 𝜽
Reference angle=𝜽 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝜽 − 𝝅

Quadrant Angle, 𝜽 In degree In Radian

𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎
I 𝜽 𝜽
𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝝅/𝟐
𝟗𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟏𝟖𝟎
II 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝜽 𝝅−𝜽
𝝅/𝟐 < 𝜽 < 𝝅
𝟏𝟖𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟐𝟕𝟎
III 𝜽 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝜽−𝝅
𝝅/𝟐 < 𝜽 < 𝟑𝝅/𝟐
𝟐𝟕𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟑𝟔𝟎
IV 𝟑𝟔𝟎° − 𝜽 𝟐𝝅 − 𝜽
𝟑𝝅/𝟐 < 𝜽 < 𝟐𝝅

Steps to Find Reference Angles

Step 1: Find the coterminal angle of the given angle that lies between 0° and 360°.

Step 2: Find the reference angle of the given angle by identifying the quadrant of it.

Example: Determine the reference angle of 130°.

Answer: The reference angle becomes 180° − 130° = 50°.

Example: Determine the reference angle of −240°.

Answer: The negative angle −𝟐𝟒𝟎° is equal with the coterminal angle −𝟐𝟒𝟎° + 360° = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°,
which is in second quadrant. Thus, the reference angle becomes 180° − 120° = 60°

66
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Example: Determine the reference angle of -23°.

Answer: The Coterminal angle is −23° + 360° = 337°. And hence the reference angle of -23
degree is 360° − 337° = 23°.

Quadrantal angle: An angle in standard position whose terminal arm lies on one of the axes.
Examples are 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360°.

Opposite
2.13.2. Sine, Cosine and Tangent

Opposite
 SOH: sin(𝜃) =
Hypotenuse
Adjacent 𝜽
 CAH: cos(𝜃) =
Hypotenuse
Opposite Adjacent
 TOA: tan(𝜃) =
Adjacent

2.13.3. The functions 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 , 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 and 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙

In addition to the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine, and tangent, there are three other trigonometric
ratios called cosecant, secant, and cotangent, which are called the reciprocal identities

Opposite
1 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 ⟹ csc 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

1 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 ⟹ sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜽
1 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 ⟹ cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = 𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 Adjacent

Note: 1. Sine, Cosine and tangent functions are the basic trigonometric functions.
2. Cosecant is the reciprocal of sine, secant is the reciprocal cosine and cotangent is the reciprocal of
tangent.

67
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.13.4. Common angles

𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 𝒄𝒔𝒄 𝜽 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽

0 0 1 0 ∄ 0 ∄

𝜋 1 2 1
30° or √3 √3 √3
6 2 2 3
𝜋 1 2 2 1
45° or √2 √2
4 2 2 √2 √2
𝜋 1 2√3 2
60° or √3 √3 √3
3 2 2 3 3
𝜋 1 0 ∄ 1 ∄ 0
90° or
2

Note that from above table, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60° and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60° = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30°. That is if 𝜃 is an acute angle, sin 𝜃 =
cos(90° − 𝜃). Here we say the sine and cosine are co-functions. In general,
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90° − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90° − 𝜃)

𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡(90° − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2 − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(90° − 𝜃)
𝜋
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐(90° − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ( − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐(90° − 𝜃)
2

Note: Sine and cosine, Secant and Cosecant and tangent and cotangent are co-functions.
Note: If the sum of the measures of two acute angles is 90°, then the two angles is said to be
complementary angles.

68
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Signs of the trigonometric functions in various quadrants:

𝝅 𝟑𝝅
,−
𝟐 𝟐

𝒔𝒊𝒏 , 𝒄𝒔𝒄  > 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 , 𝒄𝒔𝒄  > 𝟎

𝑐𝑜𝑠, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝒄𝒐𝒔, 𝒔𝒆𝒄 > 𝟎
<0 𝒕𝒂𝒏, 𝒄𝒐𝒕 > 𝟎
𝝅 II I 𝝅
≤θ≤π 0≤θ≤
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅, −𝝅
𝒕𝒂𝒏, 𝒄𝒐𝒕 > 𝟎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑐𝑠𝑐 , 𝑡𝑎𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑡 <
0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 , 𝑐𝑠𝑐 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠, 𝑠𝑒𝑐 < 0 𝟎, −𝟐𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔, 𝒔𝒆𝒄 > 𝟎
𝟑𝝅 III IV
π≤θ≤
𝟐 𝟑𝝅
≤ θ ≤ 2π
𝟐

𝟑𝝅 𝝅
,−
𝟐 𝟐

Example: Determine cos 135°.

Solution: Since 135° is quadrant II, cosine is – 𝑣𝑒 and the reference angle is 180° − 135° = 45°.
√2
Thus cos 135° = − cos 45° = − 2 .
Classwork: Find the exact value of the following.
1
i) cos 120° = − cos(180° − 120°) = − cos 60° = − 2 (120° is in the II quadrant and cosine is -ve)
1
ii) sin 210° = − sin(210° − 180°) = − sin 30° = − (210° is in the III quadrant and sine is -ve)
2

13 π π 1
iii) sin( ) = sin (2π + 6 ) = sin 6 = 2
6

9   sin(− ) 1
2
iv) cot(− 2 ) = cot(−4π − 2) = cot(− 2) = cos(− ) = − 0 = ∄
2
  1
v) cos(− 3) = cos(3) = 2
vi) tan(495°) = tan(360° + 135°) = tan 135° = − tan 45° = −1 (135° is in quadrant II,
where sine is positive.)
31
vii) sec(− 6 )
−𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
viii) tan ( 3 ) Ans: There reference angle for is 3 . Since the terminal point of is in
3 3
−𝜋
quadrant IV, tan ( 3 ) is negative. Thus,
−𝜋 𝜋
tan ( ) = − tan ( ) = −√3.
3 3

69
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝜋
Note: If 𝜃 is obtuse angel ( 2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋), then

 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋 − 𝜃)
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜋 − 𝜃)

Even and Odd trigonometric functions

Cosine and secant are even Sine, cosecant, tangent and cotangent are odd functions
cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 csc(−𝑥) = − csc 𝑥
sec(−𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan(−𝑥) = − tan 𝑥 cot(−𝑥) = − cot 𝑥

2.13.5. Trigonometric Identities

 Pythagorean Identities:
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
sec 2 𝜃 = tan2 𝜃 + 1
cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = csc 2 𝜃
2.13.6. Graphs of some trigonometric functions

Graph of Sine Function and Cosine Function

Sine Function: y = sin 𝑥 Cosine Function: y = sin 𝑥

Period: 2𝜋 (Length Of One Cycle) Period: 2𝜋
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ} Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ}
Range: {𝑦| − 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1} Range: {𝑦| − 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1}

70
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Graph of Tangent Function and Cotangent Function

Tangent Function: y = tan 𝑥 Cotangent Function: y = cot 𝑥

Period: 𝜋 (Length Of One Cycle) Period: 𝜋
2(𝑛+1)𝜋 Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 2
,𝑛 ∈ ℤ}

Range: {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ} = ℝ Range: {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ} = ℝ

Graph of Cosecant Function and Secant Function

Cosecant Function: y = csc 𝑥 Secant Function: y = sec 𝑥

Period: 2𝜋 (Length Of One Cycle) Period: 2𝜋
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}
2
Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

71
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Transformation of Graph of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

Given an equation in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝐵𝑥) or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos(𝐵𝑥), here, 𝐴 is the vertical stretch
factor, and its absolute value |𝐴| is the amplitude and defined by
1
𝐴 = |𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚|
2
Note: If |𝐴| < 1, the function is compressed.
𝐶
Given an equation in the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶) + 𝐷 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶) + 𝐷, 𝐵 is the phase
shift and 𝐷 is the vertical shift.

72
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Classwork: Compare the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 with the graph of cos 2𝑥 , cos(𝑥 + 2) , cos 𝑥 + 2

2.13.7. Inverse of trigonometric functions

 Define notation for 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 and inverse sine functions of 𝑥.
1
Note: The notation of 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 is not exponential notation. Thus, 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ≠ sin 𝑥.
1 1 1
Note: (sin 𝑥)−1 = sin 𝑥, sin(𝑥 −1 ) = sin (𝑥), sin−1 𝑥 ≠ sin 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
 sin−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 for − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 .
 cos−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.
𝜋 𝜋
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 for − 2 < 𝑦 < 2 .
𝜋 𝜋
 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = csc 𝑦 for – 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 , 𝑦 ≠ 0, |𝑥| ≥ 1
𝜋
 𝑠𝑒𝑥 −1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = sex 𝑦 for 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋, 𝑦 ≠ 2 , |𝑥| ≥ 1
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 = 𝑦 iff 𝑥 = cot 𝑦 for 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋, −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
1 √3 1 1
Example: Evaluate i) cos −1 (2) ii) sin−1 (− ) iii) cos −1 (2) iv)tan−1 (− )
2 √3
1
Solution: i) We are looking for an angle in the interval [0, 𝜋] with a cosine value of 2. Let 𝜃 be
1 1
the angle. Then, cos −1 (2) = 𝜃 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = 2.
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 5𝜋 1 5𝜋 1
cos 3 = 2 , cos − 3 = 2 , cos = 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − = 2. The possible value of 𝜃 are
3 3

The angle that satisfies this is:

1 𝜋
cos −1 ( ) = .
2 3

73
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝜋 𝜋 √3
ii) We are looking for an angle in the interval [− , ] with sine value of − 2
. Let 𝜃 be the angle.
2 2
√3 √3
Then, sin−1 (− ) = 𝜃 ⟹ sin 𝜃 = − .
2 2
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 5𝜋 1 5𝜋 1
iii) Remember that cos 3 = 2 , cos − 3 = 2 , cos = 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − = 2. The possible value of 𝜃 are
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
,−3, ,− , ⋯. But range of cos 𝜃 is
3 3 3

 Relationship between functions and their inverses:

𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
 sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 sin−1 (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 if − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
−1 −1 (cos
 cos(cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 if −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
 tan(tan−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 for all real 𝑥 tan−1 (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 if − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
 Odd and even functions to inverse trigonometric functions:
 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 is odd, sin−1(−𝑥) = −sin−1 𝑥
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 is neither cos−1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos−1 𝑥
 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 is odd tan−1(−𝑥) = − tan−1 𝑥
𝜋
Note: cos−1 𝑥 + sin−1 𝑥 = 2
Note: Domain of 𝑓=Range of 𝑓 −1 and Range of 𝑓 =Range of 𝑓 −1
3 3
Example: Compute i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (cos −1 (5)) ii) tan (sin−1 (5))
3 3
Solution: i) Let 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ). Then cos 𝜃 = . Using Pythagoras’s theorem, adjacent=3,
5 5
𝑜𝑝𝑝 4
hypotenuse=5 and then opposite=4. Hence sin 𝜃 = ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 5.
3 3
ii) Let 𝜃 = sin−1 (5). Then sin 𝜃 = 5. Using Pythagoras’s theorem, adjacent=3, hypotenuse=5 and
3 ℎ𝑦𝑝 5
then opposite=4. Hence, tan (sin−1 (5)) = tan 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 3.
𝑥 𝑥 √9−𝑥 2
Homework: Simplify cos (sin−1 (3)). Answer: cos (sin−1 (3)) = .
3

2.13.8. Graph of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

sin−1 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥

Domain=[−1, 1] Domain= [−1, 1] Domain= ℝ

𝜋 𝜋 Range= [0, 𝜋] 𝜋 𝜋
Range=[− 2 , 2 ] Range= (− 2 , 2 )

74
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.13.9. Applications of trigonometric functions

Example: Show that
1 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥
i) (tan 𝑦 + cot 𝑦) sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦 = 1 ii) (𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥

sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦
Solution: i) (tan 𝑦 + cot 𝑦) sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦 = (cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦 ) sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦

sin2 𝑦+cos2 𝑦
=( ) sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦 = sin2 𝑦 + cos 2 𝑦 = 1.
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦

Pythagoras’s Theorem: is used to find the length of the sides of a right-angle triangle.

The theorem states that for a right-angle triangle with side lengths 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐:

a2 + b2 = c2
𝑎 and 𝑏 are the two shorter sides, and c is always the longest side, which is the one
opposite the right angle.
Example: Complete the following triangle
Solution: let’s get the hypotenuse (say 𝐻) first. By definition

𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) = 8/𝐻 8
1 1
We know 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30) = 2
so 2
= 8/𝐻 or 𝐻 = 8/(1/2) = 16 30
To get the horizontal side, which we call 𝐴, we know that
𝐴 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠(30) = 𝐻 = 16

𝐴 √3
=
16 2
√3
and 𝐴 = (16) = 8√3.
2

Example: If the angle that the rope makes with the level ground is 45°,
how long is the rope? What is the distance between the bottom of the
tent and the stake?
Solution: Let 𝑟 be the length of the rope and 𝑑 be the distance between
the bottom of the tent and the stake. Then,

opposite 40 √2
sin 45° = = ⟹ 𝑟 = 40 sin 45° = 40 ( ) = 20√2
hypotenuse 𝑟 2
≈ 28.28
Hence the rope is about 28.28 ft long.
Again, using the tangent function:

75
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 40
𝑡𝑎𝑛 45° = = ⟹ 𝑑 = 40 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45° = 40(1) = 40.
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑
The distance between the bottom of the tent and the stake is about 40 feet.
Homework: When rounding a curve, the acute angle 𝜃 that a runner’s body makes with the
𝑣2
vertical is called the angle of incline. It is described by the equation 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑔𝑟, where 𝒗 is
the velocity of the runner, 𝒈 is the acceleration due to gravity, and 𝒓 is the radius of the track.
The acceleration due to gravity is a constant 9.8 meters per second squared. Suppose the
radius of the track is 15.5 meters.
a. What is the runner’s velocity if the angle of incline is 15°? (𝑡𝑎𝑛 15° = 0.26795)
b Should a runner increase or decrease her velocity to increase his or her angle of incline?

2.13.10. Non-Right Triangles: Laws of Sines and Cosines

The sine law is a relationship between the sides and angles in any
triangle. Let △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be any triangle, where 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 represent the
measures of the sides opposite ∠𝐴, ∠𝐵, and ∠𝐶, respectively. Then,
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜸
or
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜸
= =
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
The law of sines is generally used to find the unknown angle or side of a triangle. This law can be
used if certain combinations of measurement of a triangle are given.

1. ASA Criteria: Given two angles and included side, to find the unknown side.
2. AAS Criteria: Given two angles and a non-included side, to find the unknown side.

Example: Find the elevation of the UFO from the beginning of the section.
Solution: To find the elevation of the UFO, we first find the
distance from one station to the UFO, such as the side in the
picture, then use right triangle relationships to find the
height of the UFO, ℎ.
𝑠𝑖𝑛 130 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35
= ⟹ 𝑎 = 14.975
20 𝑎
ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° = 14.975 ⟹ ℎ = 3.876 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠

76
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

2.13.11. Law of Cosines

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼)

The Law of Cosines is sometimes called the Generalized Pythagorean

Theorem, since it extends the Pythagorean Theorem to non-right
triangles.

The Law of Cosines is useful for finding:

 the third side of a triangle when we know two sides and the angle between them (like the
example above)
 the angles of a triangle when we know all three sides
Example: A triangle ABC has sides 𝑎 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 7𝑐𝑚 and 𝑐 = 5𝑐𝑚. Now,
find its angle ‘𝑥’.
𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 –𝑎2 72 +52 –102
cos 𝑥 = = = −0.37
2𝑏𝑐 2×7×5
𝑥 = cos −1 −0.37° = 68.3°

Angles of elevation and angles of depression

 An angle of elevation is the angle between a horizontal line and the line of sight from an
observer to an object at a higher level.
 An angle of depression is the angle between a horizontal line and the line of sight from the
observer to an object at a lower level.
 The angle of elevation and the angle of depression are equal in measure because they are
alternate interior angles.

77
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

Example: To find the height of a tree, a person walks to a point 30 feet from
the base of the tree, and measures the angle from the ground to the top of the
tree to be 57 degrees. Find the height of the tree.
Solution: We can introduce a variable, ℎ, to represent the height of the tree.
The two sides of the triangle that are most important to us are the side opposite
the angle, the height of the tree we are looking for, and the adjacent side, the
side we are told is 30 feet long.
The trigonometric function which relates the side opposite of the angle and the
side adjacent to the angle is the tangent.
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 ℎ
tan(57) = =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 30
ℎ = 30 tan 57 = 46.2 𝑓𝑡
Example: A person standing on the roof of a 100 foot building is looking towards a skyscraper
a few blocks away, wondering how tall it is. She measures the angle of declination from the roof
of the building to the base of the skyscraper to be 20 degrees and the angle of inclination to the
top of the skyscraper to be 42 degrees.
Solution: To approach this problem, it would be good to start with
a picture. Although we are interested in the height, ℎ, of the
skyscraper, it can be helpful to also label other unknown quantities
in the picture –
in this case the horizontal distance 𝑥 between the buildings and ,
the height of the skyscraper above the person.
To start solving this problem, notice we have two right triangles.
In the top triangle, we know one angle is 42 degrees, but we don’t
know any of the sides of the triangle, so we don’t yet know enough
to work with this triangle.
In the lower right triangle, we know one angle is 20 degrees, and we know the vertical height measurement
of 100 ft. Since we know these two pieces of information, we can solve for the unknown distance 𝑥.

100 100
tan(20°) = ⟹𝑥= = 274.75
𝑥 tan(20°)
𝑎 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 20° 100 𝑡𝑎𝑛(42°)
𝑡𝑎𝑛(42°) = = ⟹𝑎= =
𝑥 100 𝑡𝑎𝑛(20°)

78
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

ESSLCE Exam
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 1 where 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(1) have opposite signs so that 𝑓 has a root in (0, 1), then
which one of the following number is a possible value 𝑝? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. −2 B. −3 C. 3 D. 2

2. Let 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 2 + 1 and 𝑦 ≤ 5} be a relation. Then which one of the following defines
the inverse of 𝑅? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 2 + 1 and 𝑥 ≥ 5} B. {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 2 + 1 and 𝑥 ≤ 5}

C. {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 2 − 1 and 𝑥 ≤ 5} D. {(𝑥, 𝑦)| 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 2 + 1 and 𝑥 ≥ 5}

3. The Radian measure of an angle of 120° is equal to: (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
A. B. C. D.
2 8 3 4

4𝑥 4 −64
4. Which one of the following is the simplified form of 2−𝑥
for 𝑥 ≠ 2. (NOVEMBER 2022,
NATURAL)
A. −4(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 4) B. −4(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 4)

C. 4(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 4) D. 4(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 − 4)

5. Which one of the following is an onto function from ℝ on to [0, ∞)? (NOVEMBER 2022,
NATURAL)

A. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| + 2 B. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1

6. Which one of the following trigonometric value is correct? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
√3
A. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−120°) = −1 B. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−60°) =
2

C. sin(−120°) = 0.5 D. cos(−120°) = −0.5

7. Which of the following is true about the trigonometric values of the given pairs of angles?
(NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(75°) = cos 105° B. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(75°) = tan 105°
C. sin(120°) = sin 60° D. cos(120°) = cos 60°

8. The solution set of the equation given by log(𝑥 2 − 3) = 2 log(𝑥 − 1) is (NOVEMBER 2022,
NATURAL)
1
A. {4} B. ∅ C. {2} D. {2}
9. Which one of the following is true? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. The range of arctangent function is [−𝜋, 𝜋]
B. The range of arcsine function is (−∞, ∞)
C. The domain of arccosine function is [−1, 1]
D. The domain of arcsine function is [0, 𝜋]

79
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

10. If 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 16 = 0, which one of the following is true?
(NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
5 16 1 1 9
A. 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 3 B. 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 = − 3 C. A. 𝑟1 𝑟2 = − 3
D. 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 16
1 2

|𝑥|
11. Which one of the following is NOT true about the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 𝑥+1? (NOVEMBER 2022,
NATURAL)
A. 𝑦 = 6 is its horizontal asymptote of 𝑓.
B. 𝑦 = 5 + 𝑥 is its oblique asymptote of 𝑓.
C. 𝑥 = −1 is its vertical asymptote of 𝑓.
D. 𝑦 = 4 is its horizontal asymptote.

Solved Problems
1. If 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 ≤ 8} is a relation on the set of integers ℤ, then the
domain of 𝑅 −1 is:

(A) {−2, −1, 1, 2} (B) {0, 1} (C) {−2, −1,0, 1, 2} (D) {−1,0, 1 }

Solution: Since 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 ≤ 8}. Therefore

𝑅 = (1, 1), (2, 1), (1, −1), (0, 1), (1, 0). Which implies, 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑅 −1 ) = {−1,0, 1 }.

2. Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions given by 𝑓 = {(2, 4), (5, 6), (8, – 1), (10, – 3)} and 𝑔 =
{(2, 5), (7, 1), (8, 4), (10, 13), (11, – 5)} then 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 {𝑓 + 𝑔} is __________

Solution: Since Domain of f = Df = {2, 5, 8, 10} and Domain of g = Dg = {2, 7, 8, 10, 11},
therefore the domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 } = {2, 8, 10}.

1
3. The domain of the function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = is
√𝑥−|𝑥|

1 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
Solution: Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = , where 𝑥 − |𝑥| = { ,
√𝑥−|𝑥| 𝑥 − (−𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

1
Thus 𝑓(𝑥) = is not defined for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Hence 𝑓 is not defined for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
√𝑥−|𝑥|

|𝑥−4|
4. Find the domain and range of the function 𝑓 given by 𝑓(𝑥) = and √16 − 𝑥 2 .
𝑥−4

80
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

𝑥−4
|𝑥−4|
= 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑥−4
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = = {−(𝑥−4)
𝑥−4
= −1, 𝑥 < 1
𝑥−4

|𝑥−4|
Thus range of is [−1, 1].
𝑥−4

Again the domain of 𝑓 where 𝑓(𝑥) = √16 − 𝑥 2 is given by [−4, 4].

For the range, let 𝑦 = √16 − 𝑥 2 . Then 𝑦 2 = 16 − 𝑥 2 , or 𝑥 2 = 16 − 𝑦 2

Since 𝑥 ∈ [−4, 4], thus 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = [0, 4].

𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 ≤ −1
5. If 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1. Then value of 𝑓(−1.75) + 𝑓(0.5) + 𝑓(1.5) is
2 − 𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 1

A. 0 B. 2 C. 1 D. -1

Answer: C
1
6. The domain of the function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 + is equal to
√𝑥 2 −1

(A) (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, 4) (B) (−∞, −1] ∪ (1, 4]

(C) (−∞, −1) ∪ [1, 4] (D) (−∞, −1) ∪ [1, 4)

7. Which graph represents a function?

8. A relation is graphed as shown. What is the domain of this relation?

(A) {1, 3, 4, 6} (B) {2, 3, 5, 6} (C) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

81
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

1
9. In order to calculate the volume of a prism, we use the formula 𝑉 = 3 𝐵ℎ. What is the dependent

variable?

(A) ℎ (B) 1/3 (C) 𝑉 (D) 𝐵

𝑦 𝑦
10. Graph the following relation in a Cartesian plane: 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ| − 3 > 2 + 6} and

determine its domain and range.

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {𝑦 ∈ ℝ: 𝑦 < −4} = [−4, ∞]

3
11. Domain of definition of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4−𝑥 2 + log10 (𝑥 3 − 𝑥), is

(a) (−1, 0) ∪ (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) (b) (𝑎, 2)

(c) (−1, 0) ∪ (𝑎, 2) (d) (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).

3
Solution: 𝑓(𝑥) = 4−𝑥 2 + log10 (𝑥 3 − 𝑥)

4 − 𝑥 2 ≠ 0; 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 > 0; 𝑥 ≠ ±√4 and −1 < 𝑥 < 0 or

1 < 𝑥 < ∞.

∴ 𝐷 = (−1, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) − {√4}

𝐷 = (−1, 0) ∪ (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

12. If 1 − 𝑝 is a root of quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + (1 − 𝑝) = 0 then its root are

(a) -1, 2 (b) -1, 1 (c) 0, -1 (d) 0, 1

Solution: Let the second root be 𝛼. Then 𝛼 + (1 − 𝑝) = −𝑝 ⟹ 𝛼 = −1. Also 𝛼(1 − 𝑝) = 1 − 𝑝

82
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 2: Relation and Functions

⟹ (𝛼 − 1)(1 − 𝑝) = 0 ⟹ 𝑝 = 1[∵ 𝛼 = −1]

Therefore roots are 𝛼 = −1 and 𝑝 − 1 = 0

13. If one root of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 12 = 0 is 4, while the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 has equal
roots, then the value of ‘𝑞’ is

(a) 4 (b) 12 (c) 3 (d) 49/4

Solution: 4 is a root of 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 12 = 0 implies 16 + 4𝑝 + 12 = 0 ⟹ 𝑝 = −7.

Now, the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 has equal roots

𝑝2 49
∴ 𝑝2 − 4𝑞 = 0 ⟹ 𝑞 = =
4 4

3
14. Which of the following is the solution set of log (1 − ) + 2 log 𝑥 = 1? (ESSLCE, December 2014)
𝑥

A. {−2, 5} B. {−5, −2} C. {−2} D. {5}

15. Which of the following is equal to 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−570°)? (ESSLCE, December 2014)
1 1 √3 √3
A. B. − C. − D.
2 2 2 2

16. If 𝜃 is a fourth quadrant angle, which of the following is NOT a correct relationship? (ESSLCE,
December 2014)
A. sin(180° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 B. sin(𝜃 − 180°) = − sin 𝜃
C. sin(𝜃 − 180°) = cos 𝜃 D. tan(180° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

83
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Chapter 3
Geometry and Measurement

3.1. Polygon
A polygon is a simple closed curve line segments, no two of which in succession are collinear.
The line segments are called the sides of the polygon and the end points of the vertices.

Side The polygon have 11 sides and

11 vertices.

Vertex
Example: The following are example of polygons and Non-polygons.

Polygons Non-polygons

3.1.1. Regular Polygon

A regular polygon is a convex polygon in which the lengths of all of its sides are equal and the
measures of all of its angles are equal. If any one of the conditions is not met, it becomes an
irregular polygon.
Regular Polygon Irregular Polygon

Irregular quadrilateral Irregular octagon

Both sides and angles at each vertices are equal.
Angles or sides may be equal, but not both.

84
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.1.2. Regular Polygons vs. Irregular Polygons

Let’s now compare and contrast regular and irregular polygons.
1. All sides of a regular polygon are congruent.
Irregular polygons generally don’t have equal sides.
Rhombus is an example of an irregular polygon; it has equal sides, but unequal angles.
2. Regular polygons have equal interior/exterior angles.
In irregular polygons, the measure of all interior/ exterior angles is not equal.
A rectangle is an example of an irregular polygon where all the angles are equal but all
sides are not of equal length.
3. Regular polygons have equal sides and equal angles. Conversely, irregular polygons can
either have equal sides or equal angles or none.

3.1.3. Interior and exterior angles of a polygon

 Collinear points are the points that lying on a single line.
Interior angle: Is an angle in the interior of a polygon at a vertex. Interior angles are angles
between a polygon’s two adjacent sides.
Exterior angle: If the side of a polygon is extended, the angle formed outside the polygon is the
exterior angle. An angle at a vertex of a polygon that is supplementary to the interior angle at that
vertex is called exterior angle.
Central angle:

The interior angle-sum formula for an irregular polygon is the same as the sum of interior angle
in a regular polygon.
Example: In the polygon ABCD ∠𝐷𝐶𝐵 is an interior angle, ∠𝐵𝐶𝐸 and ∠𝐷𝐶𝐹
are exterior angles of the polygon at the vertex 𝐶.
Note: There are two possible exterior angles at any vertex, which are equal.

85
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Example: Find the measure of the exterior angle of a decagon when its corresponding interior
angle is 144°.

Solution: Exterior angle= 180° −Adjacent interior angle

= 180°– 144°
= 36°

3.1.4. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a Polygon

Consider a polygon of 3 sides, i.e., triangle, let 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 be the measures of the interior angles of
the given triangle, and let 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 and 𝑒3 be the measures of the exterior angles. Then,
𝑖1 + 𝑒1 = 180°
𝑖2 + 𝑒2 = 180°
𝑖3 + 𝑒3 = 180°
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 180°
Then, from the above three equation
(𝑖1 + 𝑒1 ) + (𝑖2 + 𝑒2 ) + (𝑖3 + 𝑒3 ) = 180° + 180° + 180°
(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 ) + (𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 ) = 3(180°)
180° + 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 = 3(180°)
𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 = 360°
Thus, the sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a triangle, taking one angle at each vertex
is 360°.
1. The sum of the measures of the three interior angles of any triangle is 180°.
2. If the number of sides of a polygon is 𝑛, then the sum of the measures of all its interior
angles is equal to (𝑛 − 2)180°.
3. For any polygon, regular or non-regular, the sum of its exterior angles is 360 degrees.

86
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

𝑆
Note that the measure of an interior angle of an 𝑛 −sided regular polygon is 𝑛, where 𝑆 =
(𝑛 − 2) × 180° is the sum of the measures of all of its interior angles. Hence, we have the
following
(𝑛−2)180°
The measure of each interior angle of a regular n-sided polygon is .
𝑛
(𝑛−2)180°
 Measure of each interiro angle= 𝑛
360°
 Measure of each exteriror angle= 𝑛
360°
 Measure of each central angle= 𝑛

Example: Find the measure of each interior angle, exterior angle and each central angle of a
regular polygon with 3 sides.
Solution: Since the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°, each interior angle is
180
= 60°
3
The measure of each central angle of an equilateral triangle is
360°
= 120°
3
Recall that a 3-sided regular polygon is an equilateral triangle.
Homework: If each interior angle is equal to 144°, then how many sides does a regular polygon
have? Answer: The polygon has 10 sides.

Example: Find the measure of the unknown interior angle in an irregular hexagon with angles
130°, 90°, 140°, 150°, and 90°.
Solution: As we know,
Sum of interior angles= (𝑛 − 2) × 180°, here n=6
= (6 − 2) × 180°
= 720°
Let the unknown angle be 𝑥°
Now,
130° + 90° + 140° + 150° + 90° + 𝑥 = 720°
𝑥 = 720° − 600°
𝑥 = 120°
Example: How many exterior angles are there in an irregular octagon?

87
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Solution: An irregular octagon has eight sides and eight interior angles. Therefore, it has eight
exterior angles because the number of interior angles of a polygon is equal to its exterior angles.
Example: If the sum of the interior angles of an irregular polygon with “𝑛” sides is 1800 degrees,
what is 𝑛?
Solution: Given the sum of the interior angles= 1800°
(𝑛 − 2) × 180° = 1800°
𝑛 − 2 = 10
So, 𝑛 = 12. Therefore, the polygon has 12 sides.

Sum of Each interior

Number Name of Number of Sum of interior
Regular Irregular exterior angle of regular
of sides polygon interior angles angles
angles polygon

3 Triangle 3 180° 360° 60°

4 Quadrilateral 4 360° 360° 90°

5 Pentagon 5 540° 360° 108°

6 Hexagon 6 720° 360° 120°

7 Heptagon 7 900° 360° 128.57°

8 Octagon 8 1080° 360° 135°

9 Nonagon 9 1260° 360° 140°

10 Decagon 10 1440° 360° 144°

Note: The number of vertices, angles and sides of a polygon are the same.
Note: In a regular polygon, all the interior angles are of the same measure.

88
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.1.5. Properties of Regular Polygons

A figure has a line of symmetry, if it can be folded so that one half of the figure coincides with the
other half.

Equilateral triangle Regular Square

3 line of symmetry 4 line of symmetry

A regular n-sided polygon always has n lines of symmetry.

Note: There are six special quadrilaterals (Square, Rectangle, Parallelogram, Rhombus,
Trapezium and Kite) with different symmetrical properties.

A square has four lines of symmetry. A rhombus has two lines of symmetry.

A rectangle has two lines of symmetry. Isosceles trapeziums has one line of symmetry.

A parallelogram has no lines of symmetry. A kite has one line of symmetry.

3.1.6. Inscribed and subscribed Polygon

An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose sides

contain chords of the circle. An arc that lies between two lines, rays, or
segments is called an intercepted arc. A polygon is an inscribed polygon
when all its vertices lie on a circle.
A polygon is said to be inscribed in a circle if all of its vertices lie on the
circle.

89
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

A polygon is an inscribed polygon when all its vertices lie on a circle. The circle that
contains the vertices is a circumscribed circle.
For any regular 𝑛 −sided polygon: A circle can always be inscribed in or
circumscribed about any given regular polygon.

3.1.7. Apothem and Radius of regular polygon

Apothem: The apothem (sometimes abbreviated as apo) of a regular polygon is a line

segment from the center to the midpoint of one of its sides. In other words, a straight
line from a midpoint of the regular polygon perpendicular to any of its sides is
known as apothem.
An apothem is a perpendicular segment from the center of a regular polygon to
one of the sides.
Radius: The radius of a regular polygon is the distance from the center to any
vertex. It will be the same for any vertex. The radius is also the radius of the
polygon's circumcircle, which is the circle that passes through every
vertex. The radius of the polygon is the radius of the circumcircle.
Note: All apothems and radii are congruent.
Example: Find the measure of the apothem of a square

𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛 45° = ⟹ 𝑎 = 5𝑡𝑎𝑛 45° = 5.
5
Example: Find the area of a hexagon

1 1
𝐴= 𝑎𝑃 = (4.129)(30) = 61.935
2 2

90
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Theorem: Formulae for the length of side s, apothem a, perimeter P and area A of a regular
polygon with n sides and radius 𝑟 are
180° 180°
𝑠 = 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑃 = 2𝑛𝑟 sin
𝑛 𝑛
180° 1
𝑎 = 𝑟 cos 𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑃
𝑛
1 (𝑛−2)180° 𝑎 (𝑛−2) 𝑎
Proof: sin (2 )= ⟹ sin (90° )=
𝑛 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟
180° 𝑎
⟹ sin (90° − )=
𝑛 𝑟
180° 𝑎
⟹ cos =
𝑛 𝑟

Example:
a) Find the length of the side of an equilateral triangle if its radius is √12 𝑐𝑚.
b) Find the area of a regular hexagon whose radius is 5 𝑐𝑚.
c) Find the apothem of a square whose radius is √8 𝑐𝑚.
Solution: a) Since 𝑟 = √12 and 𝑛 = 3 is give,
180° 180°
Length of the side, 𝑠 = 2𝑟 sin = 2√12 sin = √36 = 6.
𝑛 3

Therefore, the length of the side of the equilateral triangle is 6 𝑐𝑚.

b) Here 𝑎 is the apothem and 𝑃 is the perimeter of regular hexagon 𝑛 = 6
180° 180° 5√3
𝑎 = 𝑟 cos = 5 cos =
𝑛 6 2
180° 180° 1
𝑃 = 2𝑛𝑟 sin = 2 × 6 × 5 sin = 2 × 6 × 5 × 2 = 30
𝑛 6
1 1 5√3 75√3
𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑃 = 2 ( 2
) (30) = 2

c) 𝑟 = √8 𝑐𝑚, 𝑛 = 4
180° 180° √2
𝑎 = 𝑟 cos = √8 cos = √8 cos 45° = √8 = 2𝑐𝑚
𝑛 4 2

3.2. Different Types of Quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral is a polygon which has the following properties

 4 vertices and 4 sides enclosing 4 angles and number of diagonals are two

 The sum of all interior angles and sum of all exterior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°

91
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

A quadrilateral, in general, has sides of different lengths and angles of different measures.
However, squares, rectangles, etc. are special types of quadrilaterals with some of their sides and
angles being equal.

There are six basic types of quadrilaterals. They are:

1. Trapezium 2. Parallelogram 3. Rectangle
4. Rhombus [Link] 6. Kite

3.2.1. Rectangle
It is a quadrilateral with all the 4 angles of equal measure, that is, each
of them is 90°. Both the pairs of opposite sides are parallel and equal
in length.
 The opposite sides are parallel and equal
 Each interior angle is a right angle
 The diagonals bisect each other and have the same length
 Area = Length × Breadth
 Perimeter = 2(Length + Breadth)
3.2.2. Rhombus
It is a quadrilateral with all four sides having equal lengths. The
Opposite sides of a rhombus are parallel and opposite angles are equal.

 All sides of the rhombus are congruent, and the opposite sides
are parallel
 Opposite angles of a rhombus are congruent
 Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
 Diagonals bisect the interior angles of a rhombus
 The sum of two adjacent angles is equal to 180 degrees
1 1
 Area = 2 (𝑑1 𝑑2 ) = 2 (Product of the length of diagonals)

 Perimeter = 4(side length)

Question: Is a rhombus a square?

No, rhombus is not a square but a square is a rhombus. In rhombus all the interior angles are not
equal (only the opposite angles are equal) even though they have equal sides. However, the interior
angles of a rhombus add up to 360 degrees.

92
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.2.3. Square
It is a quadrilateral in which all the sides and angles are equal. Every angle
is a right angle (i.e. 90° each). The pairs of opposite sides are parallel to
each other.

 All four sides of the square are equal, and the opposite sides of the
square are parallel to each other
 The measure of each interior angle is 90 degrees
 The diagonals of the square are equal to each other and bisect each other at right angles.
 Area = (side)²
 Perimeter = 4(side)

3.2.4. Trapezium

It is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite parallel sides. In the trapezium,

̅̅̅̅ is parallel to side 𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅. Diagonals intersect each other.

The length of the mid-segment is equal to half the sum of the parallel
bases

1 1
 Area of trapezium= 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ = 2(Sum of two parallel sides) × Height

 Perimeter = Sum of all the sides

3.2.5. Parallelogram
It is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides. The opposite sides
are parallel and equal in length. The opposite angles are equal in
̅̅̅̅ is parallel to side 𝐶𝐷
measure. In the parallelogram, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, side 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
and side ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ .
𝐴𝐷 is parallel to side 𝐵𝐶

Also, the two diagonals formed to intersect each other at the midpoints. As in the figure given
below, 𝐸 is the point where both the diagonals meet. So

Length ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ , & Length 𝐵𝐸

𝐴𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐷 .

 The opposite sides are parallel and equal

 The opposite angles are equal

93
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

 The sum of two consecutive angles is 180 degrees

 If any one of the angles is a right angle, then all the other angles will be right angles
 Diagonals bisect each other
 Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles
 Area = Base × Height
 Perimeter = Sum of all the side

3.2.6. Kite
It is a quadrilateral that has 2 pairs of equal-length sides and these sides are adjacent to each other.

Some points about quadrilaterals to be kept in mind are:

 Square, rectangle, and rhombus are types of parallelograms.

 A square is a rectangle as well as a rhombus.

 The rectangle and rhombus are not a square.

 A parallelogram is a trapezium.

 A trapezium is not a parallelogram.

 Kite is not a parallelogram.

1 1
 Area = 2 (𝐷1 + 𝐷2 ) = 2 (Product of the length of diagonals)

 Perimeter = Sum of all the sides

Example: If the perimeter of a square is 72 cm, then find its area.

Solution: Let 𝑎 be the side of a square. Then Perimeter of a square 𝑃 = 4𝑎
72
4𝑎 = 72 𝑐𝑚 ⟹ 𝑎 = = 18
4
Thus, side of the square = 18 𝑐𝑚
Area of the square = 𝑎2 = (18)² = 324 𝑐𝑚²

94
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Quadrilateral Image Sides Angles Diagonals Symmetry

All equal
Two pairs of
angles (90°) Bisect each other
equal sides Two lines of
Rectangle Two adjacent with the same
Opposing sides symmetry
angels are length
are parallel
supplementary
All equal
Four equal sides angles (90°) Bisect each other
with the same Four lines
Square Opposing sides Two adjacent length at meet at of symmetry
are parallel angels are 90°
supplementary
Two opposing
Two pairs of pairs of equal
equal sides angles No line of
Parallelogram Bisect each other
Opposing sides Two adjacent symmetry
are parallel angels are
supplementary
Two opposing
pairs of equal Bisect each other
Four equal sides
angles with the same Two lines of
Rhombus Opposing sides
Two adjacent length at meet at symmetry
are parallel 90°
angels are
supplementary
One opposing
pair of equal
Two pairs of angles One line of
Kite Meet at 90°
equal sides Two adjacent symmetry
angels are
supplementary

One pair of No equal No special No lines of

Trapezium
parallel sides angles properties symmetry

One pair of equal Bisect each other

Isosceles Two pairs of One line of
sides, one pair of with the same
trapezium equal angles symmetry
parallel sides length

95
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Example: The area of a trapezium is 180 cm², and its height is 9 cm. If one of the parallel sides is
longer than the other by 6 cm, find the two parallel sides.
Solution: Let 𝑥 be the length of the shorter parallel side. So, the length of the longer side = (𝑥 + 6) 𝑐𝑚
Height of a trapezium (distance between two parallel sides) ℎ = 9 𝑐𝑚
As we know,
1
Area of trapezium = 2 × (sum of parallel sides) × Height
1
Thus, 180 = 2 (𝑥 + 𝑥 + 6) × 9 ⟹ 2𝑥 + 6 = 40 ⟹ 𝑥 = 17𝑐𝑚

Now, 𝑥 + 6 = 17 + 6 = 23 𝑐𝑚
Therefore, the length of the two parallel sides will be 17 cm and 23 cm.

3.3. Congruency and Similarity

Two plane figures are congruent if they are exact copies of each other.

3.3.1. Congruent Polygons

Two polygons that have the exact same shape and the exact same size, meaning that all
corresponding sides have the same length, and all corresponding angles have the same measure
are called congruent polygon.

Here are some pairs of congruent figures.

Not congruent

Note: Congruent polygons are polygons with the same shape and size, although they can be
rotations, translations, or mirror images of each other.
In order to prove that two polygons are congruent, we need to show that
i) all corresponding sides are congruent, which means they have the same length;
ii) all corresponding interior angles are congruent, which means they have the same measure.

Notation: The symbol ≅ means that the two objects are congruent.

For polygons 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝑋𝑌𝑍,the notation 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝑋𝑌𝑍 implies that the interior angle at vertex 𝐴 is
congruent to the one at vertex 𝑋,the interior angle at vertex 𝐵 is congruent to the one at

96
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

vertex 𝑌,and the interior angle at vertex 𝐶is congruent to the one at vertex 𝑍. Furthermore,
side 𝐴𝐵 is congruent to side 𝑋𝑌,side 𝐵𝐶 is congruent to side 𝑌𝑍,and side 𝐶𝐴 is congruent
to side 𝑍𝑋. S
C
B
These two parallelograms 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 ≅ 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 if
Q

 ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝑃, ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑄, ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝑅, ∠𝐷 ≅ ∠𝑆 and A D P

 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑄𝑅
𝑃𝑄 , 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ , ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑅𝑆 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑃.

Example: Triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is congruent with triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅. If angle 𝐵 = 54°, what is the measure
of angle 𝑄?
Solution: Since angle 𝐵 is congruent to angle 𝑄, ∠𝑄 = 54°.

Example: What is the measure of ∠𝑀?

Solution: First, identify the angle that corresponds with angle 𝑳.
∠𝐿 = ∠𝐸 = 95°
Next, understand that the sum of three interior angles is 180o and write an
equation.
95 + 35 + 𝒙 = 180°
Then, solve for the missing angle measure.
130 + 𝒙 = 180°
The answer is that the measure of angle 𝑀 is 50°.

3.3.2. Congruency of Triangles

Congruence of triangles: Two triangles are said to be congruent if all three corresponding sides
are equal and all the three corresponding angles are equal in measure.
If two triangles, ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹 are congruent like those given below, then we denote this as
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹.
The notation “≅” means “is congruent to”.
Congruent angles: ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷; ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸; ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹
Congruent sides: ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ≅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ; 𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐹 ; ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹
Classwork: Which triangle is not congruent to the other three?

97
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Solution: Triangles 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 all have exactly the same angles: 45°, 60° and 75°. (Remember the
angles of a triangle always add to 180°)
 Triangle 𝐴 has some different angles 35°, 60° and 85°.
 Triangle 𝐴, therefore, is not congruent to the other three.
Example: Given that ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹. Find the value of x, if ∠𝐵 = 𝑥° + 30° and ∠𝐸 = 3𝑥°.
Solution: Since ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹, ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸.that is 𝑥° + 30° = 3𝑥°. Hence 𝑥 = 15°.
Example: The two triangles are congruent. What is the perimeter of triangle XYZ?

The triangle has been flipped and rotated, but the size and shape is exactly the same.
Since triangle 𝑈𝑉𝑊 has a 36° angle and triangle 𝑋𝑌𝑍 has two 72° angles, the two triangles must
be isosceles.
36° + 72° + 72° = 180°
So
𝑋𝑌 = 5.7 𝑐𝑚, 𝑋𝑍 = 5.7 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑌𝑍 = 3.7 𝑐𝑚
Thus the perimeter of triangle △ 𝑋𝑌𝑍 = 5.7𝑐𝑚 + 5.7𝑐𝑚 + 3.7𝑐𝑚 = 15.1 𝑐𝑚.

98
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Congruent triangles
Three sides are Two angles and the Two sides and the Two angles and the A right angle,
congruent. included side are included angles are included side are hypotenuse and a side
congruent. congruent. congruent. are congruent.
SSS(Side-Side-Side)
SAS(Side-Angle-Side)
ASA (Angle-Side- Angle) AAS(Angle-Angle-Side) RHS

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑄, 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃𝑅
∠𝐵 = ∠𝑄, ∠𝐶 = ∠𝑅 and ∠𝐴 = ∠𝑃. Hence, ∠𝐵 = ∠𝐸, ∠𝐶 = ∠𝐹
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑄, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑄𝑅
and sides between 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝛥 𝑃𝑄𝑅
and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃𝑅. and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐷𝐹. Hence,
∠𝐵 and ∠𝐶, ∠𝑄 and
Hence 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑅 𝑋𝑍 = 𝑅𝑇 and side
∠𝑅 are equal to each 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹
𝑌𝑍 = 𝑆𝑇.
other i.e. 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑄𝑅.
Hence, 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑅. Hence ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍 ≅ ∆𝑅𝑆𝑇

In short, if 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ 𝛥𝑃𝑄𝑅, then

 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑄, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑄𝑅 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑅 (SSS)
 ∠𝐵 = ∠𝑄, ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑄𝑅 and ∠𝐶 = ∠𝑅 (ASA)
 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝑄, ∠𝐴 = ∠𝑃 and ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑅 (SAS)
 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑃𝑅
∠𝐵 = ∠𝑄, ∠𝐶 = ∠𝑅 and 𝐴𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ (AAS)
̅̅̅̅ and 𝑆𝑅
Example: If 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is a square. A and B are points on 𝑄𝑅 ̅̅̅̅, such that 𝑄𝐴
̅̅̅̅ ≅ 𝑆𝐵
̅̅̅̅.
Prove that ∠𝑃𝐴𝑄 ≅ ∠𝑃𝐵𝑆.
Solution: Since 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is a square, ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑆 and it is given ̅̅̅̅
𝑄𝐴 ≅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝐵.Since ∠𝑄 =
∠𝑆 = 90°, hence ∠𝑄 ≅ ∠𝑆. Therefore by SAS △ 𝑃𝑄𝐴 ≅△ 𝑃𝑆𝐵. Hence ∠𝑃𝐴𝑄 ≅
∠𝑃𝐵𝑆.

99
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.3.3. Similar Polygons

Two polygons are similar if their corresponding angles are congruent and their corresponding
sides are in proportion. Two polygons that have the same shape, but their sizes may vary.

 We can use the similarity statement to identify corresponding sides and angles, and we
must ensure that the letter ordering is correct when writing a similarity relationship between
polygons.
Let’s consider the two quadrilaterals 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 and 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 below

If we are given that 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 ∼ 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 (𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is similar to 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆), we have 𝑚∠𝐴 = 𝑚∠𝑃, 𝑚∠𝐵 =
𝑚∠𝑄, 𝑚∠𝐶 = 𝑚∠𝑅, 𝑚∠𝐷 = 𝑚∠𝑆.

We can also observe the corresponding sides are in the same proportion, and we can write

̅̅̅̅ 𝑄𝑅
𝑃𝑄 ̅̅̅̅ 𝑅𝑆
̅̅̅̅ 𝑆𝑃
̅̅̅̅
= = = .
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐴

100
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

̅̅̅̅̅.
Example: Given that 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 ∼ 𝑬𝑭𝑮𝑯, determine the length of 𝑮𝑯
F 96 cm G

B 32 cm C

A D
E H
Solution: We are given that the two polygons 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 and 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 are similar. This means that their
corresponding angles are congruent, and their corresponding sides are in proportion. We can use
the proportionality of the sides to help us find the unknown side length, ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑮𝑯. We can write that
𝐹𝐺 𝐺𝐻
=
𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷
Substituting the given lengths, we have
96 𝐺𝐻
=
32 35
̅̅̅̅ = 105.
Hence, 𝐺𝐻
Note: All regular polygons are similar to other regular polygons with the same number of sides.
Example: If 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷~𝐻𝐼𝐽𝐾𝐿, then find the lengths of
̅
i) 𝐼𝐽 ii) ̅̅̅̅
𝐶𝐷 iii) ̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝐿

Solution: Since 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷~𝐻𝐼𝐽𝐾𝐿

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝐸 𝐴𝐸
= = = = 𝐻𝐿
𝐻𝐼 𝐼𝐽 𝐽𝐾 𝐾𝐿
̅ , we use
i) Thus, to find the length of 𝐼𝐽
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
𝐻𝐼
= 𝐼𝐽
5 7 28
= ⟹ 𝑥 = = 5.6
4 𝑥 5
̅ = 5.6.
Therefore, the length of side 𝐼𝐽
𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐷
ii) In the same way, =
𝐻𝐼 𝐽𝐾

5 𝐶𝐷
=
4 8
̅̅̅̅ = 10.
Therefore, the length of side 𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐸
ii) In the same way, = 𝐻𝐿
𝐻𝐼

5 12
=
4 𝐻𝐿
̅̅̅̅ = 9.6
Therefore, the length of side 𝐻𝐿

101
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.3.4. Similarity of Triangles

If two triangles, ∆ABC and ∆DEF are similar, then we denote this as
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∼ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹.
The notation “∼” means “is similar to”. Thus if ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∼ ∆𝐷𝐸𝐹
1. Corresponding angles are congruent:
∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷; ∠𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐸; ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹
2. Corresponding sides are proportional (have equal ratio):
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
= =
̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ 𝐷𝐹
̅̅̅̅
Classwork: Which triangle is NOT similar to the other three?

Example: Triangles 𝑃𝑄𝑅 and 𝑋𝑌𝑍 are similar. What is the length of ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑍?

The lengths 𝑄𝑅 and 𝑌𝑍 both face the angle marked with one arc. So we can match 4 with 3, and
so the ratio of sides in triangle ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 to sides in triangle ∆𝑋𝑌𝑍 is 4: 3
̅̅̅̅ and 𝑃𝑅
The lengths 𝑋𝑍 ̅̅̅̅ both face the angle marked with two arcs.
3 21
Therefore the length of XZ = 3/4 × the length of 𝑃𝑅 = 4 × 7 = = 5.25
4

102
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

̅̅̅̅ is parallel to 𝐶𝐷
Example: If 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅, then what is the length of 𝐵𝐸
̅̅̅̅ ?
Solution: Since triangles 𝐴𝐵𝐸 and 𝐷𝐶𝐸 are similar.
𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐸
=
𝐶𝐸 𝐷𝐸
𝐵𝐸 5 5 15
⇒ = ⇒ 𝐵𝐸 = 3 × = = 7.5.
3 2 2 2
̅̅̅̅
Example: BC is parallel to DE. What is the length of 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ?
and 𝐶𝐸
So triangles ABC and ADE are similar. And we can work
out the length by comparing sides we know.
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵
So 𝐷𝐸 = 𝐴𝐷

𝐵𝐶 3 𝐵𝐶 3 3
⇒ = ⇒ ̅̅̅̅ = 10 × ( ) = 6
= ⇒ 𝐵𝐶
10 3+2 10 5 5
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐷
Similarly 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵

𝐴𝐸 3 + 2 𝐴𝐸 5 5
⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ 𝐴𝐸 = 4.5 × = 7.5
4.5 3 4.5 3 3
̅̅̅̅ = 𝐴𝐸 − 𝐴𝐶 = 7.5 − 4.5 = 3.
Therefore 𝐶𝐸

3.4. Theorems on Similarity of Triangles

SSS Similarity SAS Similarity AA Similarity

The three sides of one Two pairs of corresponding sides of Two angles of one triangle
triangle are proportional to the two triangles are proportional are congruent to two
the three corresponding and the included angles b/n these corresponding angles of
sides of another triangle sides are congruent. another triangle

𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶~𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹 if 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶~𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹 if 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶~𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹 if

̅̅̅̅ 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐶
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹
= = ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅ and ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷
𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐹
̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 ̅̅̅̅𝐸𝐹 ̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐹

In short, if 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶~𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹, then

̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
 ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅ (SSS)
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐷𝐹
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶
 ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅ and ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 (SAS)
𝐷𝐸 𝐷𝐹

 ∠𝐴 ≅ ∠𝐷 and ∠𝐶 ≅ ∠𝐹 (AA)

103
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Theorem: If the lengths of the corresponding sides of two similar triangles is k, then
i) the ratio of their perimeters is 𝑘
ii) the ratio of their areas is 𝑘 2 .
That is, if 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶~𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹, then
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 Perimeter of 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶
 ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅ = 𝑘, and hence Perimeter of 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘.
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐷𝐹
1
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 area of 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑏ℎ 𝑏 ℎ
 ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅
= 𝑘 and hence area of 𝛥𝐷𝐸𝐹 == 2
1 ′ ′ = 𝑏′ ℎ′ = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 𝑘 2 .
𝐷𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐷𝐹 𝑏 ℎ
2

Properties and types of triangles.

Classify Triangles by Sides
 Isosceles Triangle: Two congruent sides
 Equilateral Triangle: All congruent sides
 Scalene Triangle: No congruent sides
Classify Triangles by Angles
 Acute Triangle: 3 acute angles
 Right Triangle: 1 right angle
 Equiangular Triangle: All congruent angles
 Obtuse Triangle: 1 obtuse angle

3.5. Areas of Triangle and parallelogram

The area represents the amount of planar surface being covered by a closed geometric figure.

3.5.1. Area of a Parallelogram

Area of a parallelogram= 𝑏 × ℎ
where ‘𝑏′ is the base and ‘ℎ′ is the corresponding altitude (Height).

104
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.5.2. Area of a Triangle

1
Area of a triangle = 2
𝑏ℎ

where “𝑏” is the base and “ℎ” is the corresponding altitude.

3.5.3. Application
When Ali planted a tree 5m away from point A, the tree just blocked the view of a building 50m
away. If the building was 20m tall, how tall was the tree?

Solution: Label the figure as shown. Let 𝑥 be the height of the tree. We have

𝐵𝐸 𝐴𝐸
=
𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐷

𝑥 5
=
20 50

5
𝑥 = 20 × = 2𝑚
50

The height of the tree was 2𝑚.

3.6. Circles
A circle is defined as the set of points in a given plane, each of which is at fixed point of the plane.
The fixed point is called the center of the circle, and the distance is the radius of the circle.
A line segment through the center of a circle with end points on the circle is called a diameter.

Chord: A chord is a straight line segment that has endpoints on the circumference of the circle.
 A circle is 360° all the way around. 𝐷
𝐴
Central angles are angles formed by any two radii in a circle whose vertex is at
𝑋
the center. In Figure below ∠𝐀𝐎𝐁 is a central angle. In this case, we say that
𝑂
∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 is subtended by the arc AXB (or by the chord 𝐴𝐵). Here, we may also 𝐵
̂.
say that the angle ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 intercepts the arc 𝐴𝑋𝐵
𝐶
Arc: A part of a circle between any two points on the circle, say between 𝐴 and
̂.
𝐵, is called an arc and is denoted by 𝐴𝐵
 𝐴𝐵
̂ indicates the arc AB, and m𝐴𝐵
̂ indicates the degree measure of arc AB.
Semicircle: an arc whose endpoints are the endpoints of a diameter. An arc whose measure equals
180 degrees is called a semicircle

105
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Minor arc: an arc that is less than a semicircle. An arc whose measure is less than 180 degrees is
called a minor arc.
Major arc: an arc that is more than a semicircle. An arc whose measure is greater than 180
degrees is called a major arc.
̅̅̅̅, 𝑂𝐵
In the above figure, 𝑂𝐴 ̅̅̅̅ are radius, 𝐷𝐶
̅̅̅̅ is a diameter, 𝐷𝐵𝐶
̂ is semicircle, 𝐵𝐶
̂ is a minor arc
̂ is major arc of the circle.
and 𝐵𝐷𝐶

 Degree measure of a semicircle: This is 180°. Its unit length is half of the circumference
of the circle.
 Degree measure of a minor arc: The same as the measure of its corresponding central
angle. Its unit length is a portion of the circumference. Its length is always less than half of
the circumference.
 Degree measure of a major arc: This is 360° minus the degree measure of the minor arc
that has the same endpoints as the major arc. Its unit length is a portion of the circumference
and is always more than half of the circumference.
3.5.1. Secant and Tangent line
 Secant: Any line that contains a chord is a secant.
 Tangent: Any line in the same plane as a circle and intersecting the circle at exactly one
point is a tangent.
 Point of tangency: The point where a tangent line intersects a circle is the point of
tangency.
𝐵

𝐸
𝐶 𝐷
 ⃡𝐴𝐵 is a secant line, ⃡𝐶𝐸 is a tangent line, and 𝐷 is the point of tangency for ⃡𝐶𝐸 .

 Inscribed angle: Observe that the vertex of an inscribed angle ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 is on the arc 𝐴𝐶𝐵.
This arc, 𝐴𝐶𝐵, can be a semicircle, a major arc or a minor arc. Here also, the inscribed
̂ (or by the chord 𝐴𝐵).
angle ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 is said to be subtended by the arc 𝐴𝑋𝐵
 Intercepted arc: Corresponding to an angle, this is the portion of the circle that lies in
the interior of the angle together with the endpoints of the arc.

106
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

̂ is its intercepted
For example, in Figure beside, ∠ ABC is an inscribed angle and 𝐴𝐶
arc. Here also, the inscribed angle ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 is said to be subtended by the arc 𝐴𝐶 ̂.
Observe that the vertex of an inscribed angle ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 is on the arc 𝐴𝐶𝐵. This arc,
𝐴𝐶𝐵, can be a semicircle, a major arc or a minor arc.

3.5.2. Angle formed by chord

Note: The measure of a central angle equals the angle measure of the arc it intercepts.
̂)
𝑚∠(𝑃𝑂𝑄) = 𝑚(𝑃𝑋𝑄
̂.
Example: If 𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 50°, find 𝑚𝐴𝐷𝐵
Solution: 𝑚𝐴𝐷𝐵̂ = 360° − 𝑚𝐴𝐵 ̂ = 360° − 50° = 310°.
Theorem (Perpendicular Chord Bisector Theorem): If a diameter of a circle is perpendicular
to a chord, then the diameter bisects the chord and its arc.

If ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐺 is a diameter and ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐺 ⊥ ̅̅̅̅ ̂ ≅ 𝐺𝐹
𝐷𝐹 , then 𝐻𝐷 ≅ 𝐻𝐹 and 𝐺𝐷 ̂.

Example: Find i) ̅̅̅̅

𝐻𝐾 ̂
ii) 𝑚𝐻𝐾
Solution: i) Diameter 𝐽𝐿 ̅ is perpendicular to ̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝐾 . So, by the perpendicular chord
̅ ̅̅̅̅
bisection theorem, 𝐽𝐿bisects 𝐻𝐾 , and 𝐻𝑁 = 𝑁𝐾.
So, 𝐻𝐾 = 2(𝑁𝐾) = 2(7) = 14.
ii) Diameter 𝐽𝐿̅ is perpendicular to 𝐻𝐾
̅̅̅̅. So, by perpendicular chord
̅ bisects 𝐻𝐾
bisector theorem, 𝐽𝐿 ̂ , and 𝑚𝐻𝐽 ̂ = 𝑚𝐽𝐾 ̂.
𝑚𝐻𝐽 ̂ = 𝑚𝐽𝐾 ̂
11𝑥° = (70 + 𝑥)°
10𝑥 = 70
𝑥=7
So, 𝑚𝐻𝐽̂ = 𝑚𝐽𝐾 ̂ = (70 + 𝑥) = 77° and 𝑚𝐻𝐾
° ̂ = 2(𝑚𝐻𝐽 ̂ ) = 2(77)° = 154°
Theorem (Measure of an Inscribed Angle): The measure of an inscribed angle is one-half the
measure of its intercepted arc. 𝐴
1
𝑚∠(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(𝐴𝐶 ̂)
2
𝐵

𝐶
Corollary: Angles inscribed in the same arc of a circle (i.e., subtended by
the same arc) are equal.
Example: Find i) 𝑚∠𝑇 ii) 𝑚(𝑄𝑅 ̂)
1
Solution: i) 𝑚∠𝑇 = 𝑚(𝑅𝑆 ̂ ) = 1 (48°) = 24°
2 2
̂ ) = 2𝑚∠𝑅 = 2 × 50° = 110°.
ii) 𝑚(𝑇𝑄
̂ is a semicircle, 𝑚(𝑄𝑅
Since 𝑇𝑄𝑅 ̂ ) = 180° − 𝑚(𝑇𝑄
̂ ) = 180° − 100° = 80°

107
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

̅̅̅̅ is a diameter, find the measure

Example: If 𝑃 is the center and 𝑅𝑇
̂
i) 𝑅𝑇𝑆 ̂
ii) 𝑅𝑆𝑇
̂ is minor arc, so 𝑚(𝑅𝑆
Solution: i) Since 𝑅𝑆 ̂ ) = 𝑚∠𝑅𝑃𝑆 = 110°.
̂ ) = 360° − 𝑚(𝑅𝑆
Hence, 𝑚(𝑅𝑇𝑆 ̂ ) = 360° − 110° = 250°.
̂ is a semicircle, and 𝑚(𝑅𝑆𝑇
̅̅̅̅ is a diameter, so 𝑅𝑆𝑇
ii) Since 𝑅𝑇 ̂ ) = 180°
Example: Find the measure of each arc:
̂
i) 𝐺𝐸 ̂
ii) 𝐺𝐸𝐹 ̂
iii) 𝐺𝐹
̂ ) = 𝑚(𝐺𝐻
Solution: i) 𝑚(𝐺𝐸 ̂ ) + 𝑚(𝐻𝐸 ̂ ) = 40° + 80° = 120°
̂ ) = 𝑚(𝐺𝐸
ii) 𝑚(𝐺𝐸𝐹 ̂ ) + 𝑚(𝐸𝐹 ̂ ) = 120° + 110° = 230°
̂ ) = 360° − 𝑚(𝐺𝐸𝐹
iii) 𝑚(𝐺𝐹 ̂ ) = 360° − 230° = 130°
Homework: Find i) 𝑚(∠𝑨𝑩𝑪) ii) the measure of the angles 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Example: Solve for 𝑥.

Solution: The full circle is 360°. If we can find the measure of arc 𝐷𝐵, we can
̂ + 𝑚𝐴𝐷
̂ + 𝑚𝐵𝐴
set up an equation to solve for 𝒙, because 𝑚𝐷𝐵 ̂ = 360°, and
̂ = 30𝑥 and 𝑚𝐴𝐷
we know that 𝑚𝐵𝐴 ̂ = 50.
From the diagram we can see that 𝑚∠𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 110°. The intercepted arc that belongs to this angle
̂ . The intercepted arc has a measure of twice the inscribed angle
is arc 𝐷𝐵
̂ = 2∠𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 110° = 2(110°) = 220°
𝑚𝐷𝐵

Now we can use the equation we wrote earlier to solve for 𝑥.

̂ + 𝑚𝐴𝐷
̂ + 𝑚𝐵𝐴
𝑚𝐷𝐵 ̂ = 360°
220° + 30𝑥 + 50° = 360°
270° + 30𝑥 = 360°
30𝑥 = 90°
𝑥 = 3°
Corollary: Points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝑆 all lie on a circle. They are called concyclic points.
Joining the points 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝑆 produces a cyclic quadrilateral. The opposite angles
of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary, i.e.,
𝑚(∠𝑃) + 𝑚(∠𝑅) = 180° and 𝑚(∠𝑆) + 𝑚(∠𝑄) = 180°

108
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Homework: Calculate the lettered angles in each of the following:

Theorem (Angles inside the Circle Theorem)

The measure of an angle formed by two chords intersecting inside a circle is half
𝐵
the sum of the measures of the arc subtending the angle and its vertically opposite 𝐶
angle. 𝑃
1
𝑚(∠𝐵𝑃𝐷) = (𝑚(𝐴𝐶 ̂ ) + 𝑚(𝐵𝐷 ̂ )) 𝐷
2

Theorem: If two chords intersect inside a circle, then the product of the segments 𝐴
of one chord equals the product of the segments of the other chord. Then

̅̅̅̅)(𝑃𝐷
(𝐶𝑃 ̅̅̅̅)(𝑃𝐵
̅̅̅̅) = (𝐴𝑃 ̅̅̅̅ ).

Example: Find the value of 𝑥

̅ and ̅̅̅̅̅
Solution: Since the chords 𝐽𝐿 𝐾𝑀 intersect inside the circle,
1 1
𝑥 = (𝑚(𝐽𝑀 ̂ ) + 𝑚(𝐿𝐾̂ )) = (130° + 156°) = 143°
2 2

Theorem: In a circle, two chords are equal in measure if and only if they are
equidistant from the center.

AB = CD if and only if OX = OY.

Corollary: i) The angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.

ii) An angle inscribed in an arc greater than a semi-circle is acute.
iii) An angle inscribed in an arc less than a semi-circle is obtuse.

𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 90° 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) > 90° 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) < 90°

109
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Theorem (Inscribed angles of a circle): If two inscribed angles of a circle intercept the
same arc, then the angles are congruent.
∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵

3.7. Angles and Arcs Determined by Lines Intersecting Outside a Circle

3.7.1. Angle formed by tangent
Theorem: An angle formed by a tangent and a chord drawn from the point of
tangency is measured by half the arc it intercepts.
1
𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑚(𝐴𝑋𝐵 ̂)
2
Theorem: If two tangent segments are drawn to a circle from an external
point, then,
i the tangents are equal in length, and
ii the line segment joining the center to the external point bisects the angle
between the tangents.
If 𝑇𝑃 is a tangent to a circle at 𝑃 whose centre is 𝑂 and 𝑇𝑄 is another tangent
to this circle at 𝑄, then,
i 𝑇𝑃 = 𝑇𝑄 ii 𝑚(∠𝑂𝑇𝑃) = 𝑚(∠𝑂𝑇𝑄)
Theorem: If two secant segments intersect outside a circle, then the product of the secant segment with its
external portion equals the product of the other secant segment with its external portion.

Then, (𝐸𝐵)(𝐸𝐴) = (𝐸𝐷)(𝐸𝐶).

Theorem (Angles outside the Circle Theorem): If a tangent and a secant, two tangents, or two
secants intersect outside a circle, then the measure of the angle formed is one-half the difference
of the measures of the intercepted arcs.

Theorem: If two tangent segments intersect outside a circle, then the tangent segments have equal
measures.
Example: Find the value of 𝑥.

Solution: The tangent CD and the secant CB intersect outside the circle, hence
1 1
𝑚∠𝐵𝐶𝐷 = (𝑚𝐴𝐷 ̂ − 𝑚𝐵𝐷 ̂ ) = (178° − 76°) = 51
2 2

110
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Example: Find the value of 𝑦

1
Solution: (a) 48° = 2 (𝑦 + (2𝑦 + 3)) ⟹ 96° = 3𝑦 + 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 31°.
1
(b) 110° = 2 (4𝑦) ⟹ 𝑦 = 55°
1
(c) 𝑦 = 2 ((𝑦 + 114) − (𝑦 + 50)) ⟹ 2𝑦 = 𝑦 + 114 − 𝑦 − 50 ⟹ 2𝑦 = 64° ⟹ 𝑦 = 32°.
Theorem: (Circumscribed Angle Theorem)
The measure of a circumscribed angle is equal to 180° minus the measure of the central angle
that intercepts the same arc.

𝑚∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = 180° − 𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐵

Example: Find the value of 𝑥.

Solution: a) 𝑥 = 𝑚∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = 180° − 𝑚∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 180° − 135° = 45°

1
̂ = 1 𝑚∠𝐸𝐺𝐹 = 1 (180° − 𝑚 < 𝐸𝐻𝐹) = 1 (180° − 30°) = 75°
b) 𝑥 = 𝑚∠𝐸𝐽𝐹 = 2 𝑚𝐸𝐹 2 2 2
Theorem: If a secant and a tangent are drawn from a point outside a circle, then the square of
the length of the tangent is equal to the product of the lengths of line segments given by

(𝑃𝐴)2 = (𝑃𝐴)(𝑃𝐶)
3.7.2. Arc lengths, perimeters and areas of segments and sectors
 Circumference of a circle= 2𝜋𝑟 or 𝜋𝑑.
 Area of a circle= 𝜋𝑟 2
 Part of the circumference of a circle is called an arc.
 A segment of a circle is a region bounded by a chord and an arc.
 A sector of a circle is bounded by two radii and an arc.

111
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Arc length
 The length 𝑙 of an arc of a circle of radius 𝑟 that subtends an angle of 𝜃
at the center is given by
𝜃 𝜋𝑟𝜃
𝑙= 2𝜋𝑟 =
360° 180°
The area and perimeter of a sector
 The area 𝐴 of a sector of radius r and central angle θ is given by
𝜃 2
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟 =
360° 360°
 The perimeter 𝑃 of the sector is the sum of the radii and the arc that
bound it.
𝜋𝑟𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑟 +
180°
The area and perimeter of a segment
The area A and perimeter P of a segment of a circle of radius r, cut off by a
chord subtending an angle θ at the center of a circle are given by
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜃 1
𝐴= − 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)
360°
𝜃 𝜋𝑟𝜃
𝑃 = 2𝑟 sin + (𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ + 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
2 180°
Homework: Calculate the perimeter and area of each of the following
figures. All curves are semicircles or quadrants.

112
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.8. Areas of Triangles and Parallelograms

3.8.1. Area of Triangle
The area 𝐴 of a right angle triangle with perpendicular sides of length a and b is given by
1
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2

The area A of any triangle with sides a and b units long and angle C (∠C)
included between these sides is
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∠𝐶
2

Heron's formula, which is often used to find the area of a triangle when its
three sides are given.
Theorem: Heron’s formula
1
The area A of a triangle with sides a, b and c units long and semi- perimeter 𝑠 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) is
2
given by
𝐴 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)
Example: Given ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. If 𝐴𝐵 = 15 units, 𝐵𝐶 = 14 units and 𝐴𝐶 = 13 units, find
a) the area of ∆ABC.
b) the length of the altitude from the vertex A.
c) the measure of ∠B.
Solution: Since 𝑎 = 14 ⟹ 𝑠 − 𝑎 = 7
Since 𝑏 = 13 ⟹ 𝑠 − 𝑏 = 8
Since 𝑐 = 15 ⟹ 𝑠 − 𝑐 = 6
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 42 ⟹ (𝑠 − 𝑎) + (𝑠 − 𝑏) + (𝑠 − 𝑐) = 21
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 42
Therefore, 𝑠 = = = 21
2 2
Thus, area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) = √21(7)(8)(6) = 84

113
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

b. Let the altitude from the vertex 𝐴 to the corresponding vase 𝐵𝐶 be ℎ,

1
meeting 𝐵𝐶 at 𝐷 as shown. Then area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 𝐵𝐶 × ℎ
1
84 = 2 14ℎ = 7ℎ
84
ℎ= = 12 units.
7
Therefore, the altitude of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 from the vertex 𝐴 is 12 units long.
c. In the right angle triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐷 we see that
𝐴𝐷 ℎ 12
sin(∠𝐵) = = = = 0.8
𝐴𝐵 𝑐 15
Then, ∠𝐵 = sin−1 0.8 = 53°.

3.8.2. Area of parallelograms

Theorem: The area A of a parallelogram with base 𝑏 and perpendicular
height ℎ is
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ

3.9. Surface area and volume of solid figures (Prism, Cylinder, Cone
and Sphere)
Solid shapes are three-dimensional (3D) geometric shapes that occupy some space and have
length, breadth, and height. Solid shapes are classified into various
Example of solid figures include cone, cube, cylinder, pyramid, rectangular prism, and sphere.
Example of non-solid figures include Circle, triangle, Square (these are some 2 dimensional shapes
and hence not solids).

 Faces: A face is a single flat surface of a solid shape, and there can be more than one face
of a shape.
 Vertices: A vertex is a point where two or more lines meet, forming a corner. It is also
the point of intersection of edges.
 Edges: An edge is a line segment at the boundary of a solid shape that joins one vertex to
another. The edges serve as the junction of two faces.

114
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

 Volume: The volume helps in calculating how much matter can be stored or how much a a solid
shape can hold inside it.
 Surface area: The amount of external space that covers a three-dimensional shape is
called it’s surface area. The surface area of a solid shape is categorized into three types,
namely lateral surface area, curved surface area, total surface area.
 Lateral Surface Area: The lateral surface area is known as the area of all the faces
except the bottom and top faces or bases.
 Curved Surface Area: The curved surface area is known as the area of all the curved
regions of the solid.
 Total Surface Area: The total surface area is the area of all the faces (including top
and bottom faces) of the solid object.
3.9.1. Sphere
A sphere is round in shape, like the moon or a ball. Every point on a sphere is located
such that it is at an equal distance from a central point on the sphere.
A sphere does not have any vertices or edges. So, it has only one surface.
The following are formulas related to the sphere shape:
Total Surface Area (𝐴) and the volume (𝑉) of a sphere of radius 𝑟
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
A sphere is a solid figure with a round shape. It has a curved surface, defined in three-
dimensional space. Every point on the surface of a cube is equidistant from the center.
Properties of a Sphere
1. A sphere has no edges or vertices (corners).
2. It has one surface, i.e., curved.
3. It is shaped like a ball and is perfectly symmetrical.
4. All points on the surface of the cube are the same distance (r) from the center.
Example: Find the volume and surface area of a spherical football with a diameter of 10 𝑚.
10
Solution: Since 𝑑 = 2𝑟, 𝑟 = = 5𝑚.
2

Surface area: 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋52 = 100𝜋𝑚2

4 4 500
Volume: 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 = 3 𝜋53 = 𝜋𝑚3.
3

115
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.9.2. Prisms
 A prism is a solid figure formed by two congruent polygonal regions in parallel planes,
along with three or more parallelograms, joining the two polygons. The polygons in
parallel planes are called bases.
 A prism is named by its base. Thus, a prism is called triangular, rectangular, pentagonal,
etc., if its base is a triangle, a rectangle, a pentagon, etc., respectively.
 In a prism, the lateral edges are equal and parallel, and the lateral faces are
parallelograms.
 A right prism is a prism in which the base is perpendicular to a lateral edge.
 Otherwise it is an oblique prism.

Right Prism Oblique Prism

 In a right prism
 All the lateral edges are perpendicular to both bases.
 The lateral faces are rectangles.
 The altitude is equal to the length of each lateral edge.
 A regular prism is a right prism whose base is a regular polygon.
 The area 𝐴 of a regular 𝑛 −sided polygon with radius 𝑟 is
1 360°
𝐴 = 𝑛𝑟 2 sin
2 𝑛
Surface area and volume of prisms
 The lateral surface area (𝐴𝐿 ) of a prism is the sum of the areas of its lateral faces.
𝐴𝐿 = 𝑃ℎ, 𝑃 is perimeter of the base
 The total surface area (𝐴𝑇 ) of a prism is the sum of the lateral areas and the area of the
bases (𝐴𝐵 ).
𝐴𝑇 = 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐿
 The volume (𝑉) of any prism is equal to the product of its base area (𝐴𝐵 ) and its altitude
(ℎ).
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵 ℎ
Example: Fin the total surface area and volume of hexagonal prism whose base edge is 6cm and
height 8cm.
Solution: Lateral surface area (𝐴𝐿 ) of a hexagonal prism:
𝐴𝐿 = 𝑃ℎ = 6 × 6 × 8 = 288 𝑐𝑚2
Area of hexagon with edge 6cm (𝑟 = 6 𝑐𝑚) is,

116
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

1 360° 1
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑛𝑟 2 sin = 6(62 ) sin 60° = 54√3 𝑐𝑚2
2 𝑛 2
Total surface area (𝐴𝑇 ) of a hexagonal prism:
𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝐿 + 2𝐴𝐵 = 288 𝑐𝑚2 + 54√3 𝑐𝑚2
Volume (𝑉) of a hexagonal prism:
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵 ℎ = (54√3 𝑐𝑚2 )(8 𝑐𝑚) = 432√3 𝑐𝑚2

3.9.3. Cylinder
Cylinders are the same as prisms except the bases are circles.

A cylinder is a solid shape that holds two parallel bases that are circular in shape and are joined
by a curved surface (like a tube), at a fixed distance.

Right circular cylinder: The line segment joining the centers of the bases is perpendicular to the
bases.

Oblique cylinder
Right circular cylinder
A cylinder is a solid shape with a curved surface joining its top and bottom circular bases. Think
of it as a can of toffees.

The following are formulas related to the cylinder shape:

Surface Area: 𝐴𝐿 = ℎ𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ, where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and ℎ is the height and 𝐶 is
the circumference of its base.

Total Surface Area: 𝐴𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝜋𝑟(ℎ + 𝑟), where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and ℎ
is the height.

Volume: 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ, where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and ℎ is the height.

117
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Properties of a Cylinder
1. A cylinder has two flat surfaces, i.e., base and top.
2. It has one curved surface.
3. The bases of the cylinder are always congruent and parallel.
4. It has two identical ends that are either circular or oval in shape.
Example: A circular hole of radius 2 units is drilled through the center of a right circular cylinder
whose base has radius 3 units and whose altitude is 4 units. Find the total surface area of the
resulting figure.
Solution: Let R be the radius of the bigger cylinder and r be the radius of the smaller cylinder then
i Area of the resulting base = 2(𝜋𝑅 2 – 𝜋𝑟 2 )
= 2(𝜋 × 32 – 𝜋 × 22 ) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
= 10𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
ii Lateral surface area of the resulting figure
= lateral surface area of the bigger cylinder + lateral surface area of inner
(smaller) cylinder
= (2𝜋𝑅ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ)𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
= [ 2𝜋(3)4 + 2𝜋(2)4]𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
= 40𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2
Therefore, total surface area of the resulting figure= (10𝜋 + 40𝜋) =
50𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 2 .

118
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3.9.4. Pyramids
A pyramid is a solid that has the following characteristics.
 It has one base, which is a polygon.
 The vertices of the base are each joined to a point, not in the plane of the base. This point
is called the vertex of the pyramid.
 The triangular sides, all of which meet at the vertex, are
its lateral faces. The faces of the pyramid except the base
are called lateral faces.
 The segments where the lateral faces intersect are lateral
edges.
 The perpendicular segment from the vertex to the plane of the
base is the altitude of the pyramid.
 Apex is the vertex that is opposite to the base and gives the shape to the pyramid.

A pyramid is a polyhedron with a polygon base and all its lateral faces are triangular in shape.
Pyramids are typically categorized by the shape of their bases.

A pyramid with:
1. A triangular base is known as a tetrahedron.
2. A quadrilateral base is known as a square pyramid.
3. A pentagon base is known as a pentagonal pyramid.
4. A regular hexagon base is known as a hexagonal pyramid.
Properties of a Pyramid
1. A pyramid is a polyhedron with a polygon base and a vertex with straight lines.
2. It has one curved surface and one flat surface.
3. A cone is a rotated triangle.

119
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Surface Area of a Pyramid

𝐴𝐵 = base area, 𝑃 = perimeter, 𝐴 = altitude, and 𝑙 = slant height
Lateral surface area of a regular pyramid:
1
𝐴𝐿 = 𝑃𝑙
2
Total Surface Area:
1
𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑃𝑙 + 𝐴𝐵
2
Volume of a pyramid
1
𝑉 = 3 𝐴𝐵 ℎ cubic units

3.7.4. Cone
A cone is a distinctive three-dimensional geometric figure with a flat and curved surface pointed
toward the top. A cone has 3 dimensions—its radius, height, and slant height.
A cone is a solid shape that has a flat surface and a curved surface, pointing towards the top. It is
formed by a set of line segments connected from the circular base to a common point, which is
known as the apex or vertex.
A birthday cap and a funnel are some examples of the cone shape.

The following are formulas related to the cone shape:

Surface Area: 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙, where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and 𝑙 is the slant height. Using
pytagorus theorem, 𝑙 = √ℎ2 + 𝑟 2 .
Total Surface Area: 𝐴𝑇 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑙 + 𝑟), where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and 𝑙 is the slant height.
1
Volume: 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ, where 𝑟 is the radius of the base and ℎ is the height.

Properties of a Cone
1. It has a circular or oval base with an apex or a vertex.
2. It has one curved surface and one flat surface.

120
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

3. A cone is a rotated triangle.

Example: A cone and a cylinder have the same volume of 180 cm³, and the same height,
ℎ = 15 𝑐𝑚. Which of these two solids has the larger surface area?
Solution: Given 𝑉𝑐𝑦 = 180 𝑐𝑚3 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ, height of the cylinderℎ = 15 𝑐𝑚
180
Hence, radius of the cylinder 𝑟 = √ 𝜋ℎ = 1.95 𝑐𝑚.
22 22
Thus the surface area of a cylinder= 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ = 2 ( 7 ) × 1.95 + 2 ( 7 ) × 1.95 × 15 =
207.76 𝑐𝑚2 .
1
The volume of the cone 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 180 𝑐𝑚3 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.
3×180
Hence, radius of the cylinder 𝑟 = √ = 3.38 𝑐𝑚.
𝜋ℎ
To get the slant height, 𝑠, use the pythagoras’ theorem:𝑠 = √3.382 + 152 = 15.38 𝑐𝑚
22 22
Then, The surface area of a cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜋𝑟𝑠 = 7 × 3.382 + 7 × 3.38 × 15.38 𝑐𝑚 =

199.28 𝑐𝑚2.

3.10. Frustum of pyramids and cones

Definition: If a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the intersection of the
plane and the pyramid (or the cone) is called a horizontal crosssection of the pyramid (or the cone).

121
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Frustum of a pyramid
Definition: A frustum of a pyramid is a part of the pyramid included between the base and a
plane parallel to the base.
The base of the pyramid and the cross-section made by the plane parallel to it are called the bases
of the frustum. The other faces are called lateral faces. The total surface of a frustum is the sum of
the lateral surface and the bases.

The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance between the bases.

Note:
i. The lateral faces of a frustum of a pyramid are trapeziums.
ii. The lateral faces of a frustum of a regular pyramid are congruent isosceles trapeziums.
iii. The slant height of a frustum of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any one
of the lateral faces.
Iv. The lateral surface area of a frustum of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of the lateral faces.

122
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Later
Volu al
Surface
me Surfac
Name Figure Area
Form e Area
Formula
ula Form
ula

Sphere does 4 3 4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋𝑟 2

not 𝜋𝑟
3
have
any
vertic
es or
edges

Cone 1 flat 1 1 2 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ) 𝜋𝑟𝑙

face corne 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
3
r

Pyramid 1 1
𝐴 ℎ 𝐵 + 𝑃𝑠
3 𝐵 2

Cylinder has 2 has 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ) 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

flat no
faces corne
rs
1
curve
d face

123
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Frustum 1 𝜋𝑙(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
𝜋ℎ(𝑟12
of a cone 3 + 𝜋𝑟12 + 𝜋𝑟22
2
+ 𝑟2
+ 𝑟1 𝑟2 ) where 𝑙 =
√ℎ2 + (𝑟1 − 𝑟2 )2

Rectangu 𝑙𝑤ℎ 2(𝑙𝑤 + 𝑙ℎ

lar prism + 𝑤ℎ)

Triangula 𝐵ℎ 2𝐵 + 𝑃ℎ
r prism

124
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

ESSLCE Exam
1. In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,if 𝐴𝐵 = 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 𝐵𝐶 = 14 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 and 𝐴𝐶 = 8 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, then the area of the triangle is
(NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)

A. 16√6 square unit B. 16√2 square unit

C. 10√6 square unit D. 16√3 square unit

2. Which of the following is the measure of an exterior angle of a 10 sided regular polygons?
(NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. 180° B. 36° C. 72° D. 144°
3. What is the surface area of a sphere with radius 6 𝑐𝑚? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)

A. 36𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 B. 24𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 C. 144𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 D. 48𝜋 𝑐𝑚2

4. If the volume of a right circular cone is 64𝜋 𝑐𝑚3 and the diameter of its base is 8 𝑐𝑚, what is the
height of the cone? (NOVEMBER 2022, NATURAL)
A. 12 𝑐𝑚 B. 4 𝑐𝑚 C. 3 𝑐𝑚 D. 8 𝑐𝑚
5. If the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon is 157.5°, what is the number of sides of the
polygon?
A. 14 B. 15 C. 16 D. 18
6. A hemispherical container with negligible thickness has a circular edge of perimeter 4𝜋 units. What is
the outer surface area of this container?

A. 4𝜋 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 B. 8𝜋 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 C. 8√2𝜋 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 D. 16𝜋 𝑠𝑞. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

125
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 3: Geometry and Measurement

Worksheet
1. The figure shows a rectangular box without a top formed
by cutting out squares x units on each side from a
rectangular piece of length L and width W. Select the
formula for calculating the surface area SA of the box.
A. 𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑊 − 4𝑥 2
B. 𝑆𝐴 = 𝐿𝑊 − 𝑥 2
C. 𝑆𝐴 = (𝐿 − 2𝑥)𝑊 − 2𝑥) − 4𝑥 2
D. 𝑆𝐴 = (𝐿 − 2𝑥)(𝑊 − 2𝑥)
2. Study the figure showing a regular pentagon. Then select the formula for
computing the total area 𝐴 of the pentagon.
5
A. 𝐴 = 2 ℎ𝑏 B. 𝐴 = 5(ℎ + 𝑏)

C. 𝐴 = 5ℎ + 𝑏 D. 𝐴 = 5ℎ𝑏
3. Calculate the area A of a regular hexagon with a side equal to 8.
A. 96√3 B. 72√3 C. 48√3 D. 36√3
4. Use the relationships between congruent figures to find the measure of ∠𝑇. Show your work.

5. Triangles 𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝐷𝐸𝐹 are congruent. Does this mean that their angle measures are the
same? Why?
6. How many triangles congruent to triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐸 (including itself) are there in the following
diagram?

126
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 4
Coordinate Geometry

4.1. Introduction
Coordinate geometry is that branch of geometry in which two real numbers, called
coordinates, are used to indicate the position of a point in a plane.

In a two-dimensional figure a point in plane has two coordinates. Generally, the first
coordinate is read on the 𝑥 −axis and the second coordinate on the 𝑦 −axis. The horizontal distance
of the point from the 𝑦 −axis is called the 𝑥 −coordinate or the abscissa and the vertical distance
of the point from the 𝑥 − axis is called the 𝑦 −coordinate or the ordinate.

Locate the points (2, 3), (−2, 3), (2, −3) and (−2, −3).

4.1. Distance between two points

Suppose 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are two distinct points on the xy-coordinate plane. We can find
the distance between the two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 by considering three cases.

Case i: When 𝑃 and 𝑄 are on a line parallel to the x-axis (that is, 𝑃𝑄 is a horizontal segment) as
in Figure. Since the two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 have the same y-coordinate
(ordinate), the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄 is 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦1 )
𝑃𝑄 = |𝑥2 – 𝑥1 |

127
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Case ii: When 𝑃 and 𝑄 are on a line parallel to the y-axis (that is,
𝑄(𝑥1 , 𝑦2 )
𝑃𝑄 is a vertical segment) as in Figure.
Since the two points have the same x-coordinate (abscissa), the
distance
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝑃𝑄 = |𝑦2 – 𝑦1 |
Case iii: When 𝑃𝑄 is neither vertical nor horizontal (the 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
general case).
To find the distance between the points 𝑃 and 𝑄, draw a line passing
through 𝑃 parallel to the x-axis and draw a line passing through 𝑄 𝑅(𝑥2 , 𝑦1 )
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
parallel to the y-axis.
The horizontal line and the vertical line intersect at 𝑅(𝑥2 , 𝑦1 ).
Using case i and case ii, we have
𝑃𝑅 = |𝑥2 – 𝑥1 | and 𝑅𝑄 = |𝑦2 – 𝑦1 |.
Since ∆PRQ is a right angled triangle at 𝑅, you can use Pythagoras' Theorem to find the distance
between points 𝑃 and 𝑄 as follows:
𝑃𝑄 2 = 𝑃𝑅 2 + 𝑅𝑄 2 = |𝑥2 − 𝑥1 |2 + |𝑦2 − 𝑦1 |2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Therefore, 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 .
In general, the distance d between any two points 𝑷(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and 𝑸(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ) is given by

𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐
This is called the distance formula.
Example: Find the distance between the points 𝑃(5, −4) and 𝑄(−1, 10).
Solution: Let 𝑃(5, −4) be denoted by 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(−1, 10) be denoted by 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ).
Therefore the required distance is, 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 =
2
√(−1 − 5)2 + (10 − (−4)) = √36 + 196 = √232 = 2√58

Solved Problems
1. Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (−2, −11) are collinear.
Solution: Let 𝐴 = (1, 5), 𝐵 = (2, 3) and 𝐶 = (−2, −11).

Therefore, 𝐴𝐵 = √(1 − 2)2 + (5 − 3)2 = √5

2 2
𝐵𝐶 = √(2 − (−2)) + (3 − (−11)) = √42 + 142 = √212

128
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

2 2
𝐶𝐴 = √(1 − (−2)) + (5 − (−11)) = √265

Since 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 ≠ 𝐶𝐴. Therefore, the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (−2, −11) are not collinear.
2. Check whether (5, −2), (6, 4) and (7, −2) are representing the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 of the
triangle respectively.
Solution: Let the points (5, −2), (6, 4) and (7, −2) are representing the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 of
the given triangle respectively.
𝐴𝐵 = √(5 − 6)2 + (−2 − 4)2 = √1 + 36 = √37
2
𝐵𝐶 = √(6 − 7)2 + (4 − (−2)) = √1 + 36 = √37

2
𝐶𝐴 = √(5 − 7)2 + (−2 − (−2)) = √4 + 0 = 2

Therefore, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶. As two sides are equal in lenth, therefore, 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an isosceles triangle.
3. Name the type of quadrillateral formed, if any, by the following points, and give reasons
for your answer: (−1, −2), (1, 0), (−1, 2), (−3, 0).
Solution: Let the points (−1, −2), (1, 0), (−1, 2), (−3, 0) be represetning the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶,
and 𝐷 of the given quadrillateral reapectively. Thus,

𝐴𝐵 = √(−1 − 1)2 + (−2 − 0)2 = √8 = 2√2

2
𝐵𝐶 = √(1 − (−1)) + (0 − 2)2 = √8 = 2√2

2
𝐶𝐷 = √(−1 − (−3)) + (2 − 0)2 = √8 = 2√2

2
𝐴𝐷 = √(−1 − (−3)) + (−2 − 0)2 = √8 = 2√2

2
Diagonal 𝐴𝐶 = √(−1 − (−1)) + (−2 − 2)2 = √16 = 4

2
Diagonal 𝐵𝐷 = √(1 − (−3)) + (0 − 0)2 = √16 = 4

It can be observed that all sides of this quadrillateral are of the same length and also, the
diagonals are of the same length. Thefrfore, the given points are the vertices of a square.
4. Find the point on the 𝑥 −axis which is equidistant from (2, −5) and (−2, 9).
Solution: We have to find a point on 𝑥 −axis. Therefore, its 𝑦 −coordinate will be 0. Let the
point on 𝑥 −axis be (𝑥, 0).

129
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

2
Distance between (𝑥, 0) and (2, −5) is √(𝑥 − 2)2 + (0 − (−5)) = √(𝑥 − 2)2 + (5)2

2 2
Distance between (𝑥, 0) and (−2, 9) is √(𝑥 − (−2)) + (0 − (−9)) = √(𝑥 + 2)2 + (9)2

By the given condition, these distances are equal in measure.

√(𝑥 − 2)2 + (5)2 = √(𝑥 + 2)2 + (9)2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (5)2 = (𝑥 + 2)2 + (9)2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 29 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 85
8𝑥 = −56
𝑥 = −7
Therefore, the point is (−7, 0).

4.2. Division of a line segment

Note: A line segment passing through two points A and B is
horizontal if the two points have the same y-coordinate. i.e., a line
segment whose end-points are 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦) is a horizontal 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦1 )

line segment as shown in Figure.

The coordinates of a point 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) dividing a line in the ratio of 𝑚: 𝑛
connecting the points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). The coordinates of
the point 𝑅 using the following formula:
𝑛𝑥1 +𝑚𝑥2 𝑛𝑦1 +𝑚𝑦2
𝑥= and 𝑦 = .
𝑛+𝑚 𝑛+𝑚

This is called the section formula.

Example: Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (−1, 7) and (4, −3) in the
ratio 2: 3.

130
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Solution: Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be the required point. Using the section

formula, we obtain
2 × 4 + 3 × (−1) 8 − 3 5
𝑥= = = =1
2+3 5 5
2 × (−3) + 3 × 7 −6 + 21 15
𝑦= = = = 3.
2+3 5 5
Therefore, the point (1, 3).

Midpoint of two given points

A point that divides a line segment into two equal parts is the mid-
𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
point of the segment.
Midpoint of line segment 𝐴𝐵 which join 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , )
2 2
Example: Find the midpoint of (−4, 6) and (−2, 10). 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
Solution:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 −4 + (−2) 6 + 10
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , )=( , ) = (−3, 8)
2 2 2 2
Example: A line segment has one end-point at 𝐴(4, 3). If its mid-point is
at 𝑀(1, −1), where is the other end-point?
Solution: Let 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be the end point. Then the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 is

4 + 𝑥2 3 + 𝑦2
( , ) = (1, −1)
2 2
4+𝑥2 3+𝑦2
Thus, = 1 and = −1. Thus, 𝑥2 = −2 and 𝑦2 = −5.
2 2

Hence, the end-point is (−2, −5).

131
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Let 𝐴(– 2, – 1), 𝐵(6, – 1), 𝐶(6, 3) and 𝐷(– 2, 3) be vertices of a rectangle. Suppose
𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝑆 are mid-points of the sides of the rectangle.
i. What is the area of rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷?
ii. What is the area of quadrilateral 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆?
iii. Give the ratio of the areas in i and ii.
Solution: For the rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

𝑑𝐴𝐵 = √(6 + 2)2 + (−1 + 1)2 = 8

𝑑𝐶𝐷 = |6 − (−2)| = 8
𝑑𝐴𝐷 = √(−2 + 2)2 + (−1 − 3)2 = 4
𝑑𝐵𝐶 = |−1 − 3| = |−4| = 4
Therefore, the area of rectangle 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 = 𝒅𝑨𝑩 𝒅𝑩𝑪 = 𝟖(𝟒) = 𝟑𝟐.
Since 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝑆 are mid-points of the sides of the rectangle
6+(−2) 3+3 6+6 3+(−1)
𝑃=( , ) = (2, 3) 𝑄=( , ) = (6, 1)
2 2 2 2
6+(−2) −1+(−1) −2+(−2) −1+3
𝑅=( , ) = (2, −1) 𝑆=( , ) = (−2, 1)
2 2 2 2

For the quadrilateral 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆

𝑑𝑃𝑄 = √(6 − 2)2 + (1 − 3)2 = √16 + 4 = 2√5
𝑑𝑄𝑅 = √(2 − 6)2 + (−1 − 1)2 = √16 + 4 = 2√5
2
𝑑𝑅𝑆 = √(−2 − 2)2 + (1 − (−1)) = √16 + 4 = 2√5
2
𝑑𝑆𝑃 = √(2 − (−2)) + (3 − 1)2 = √16 + 4 = 2√5
Therefore, the area of quadrilateral 𝑷𝑸𝑹𝑺 = 𝒅𝑷𝑸 𝒅𝑹𝑺 = 𝟐√𝟓(𝟐√𝟓) = 𝟐𝟎.
Ratio of the areas:
area of rectangle 32 8
𝑘= = =
area of quadrilateral 20 5
Ratio: 8: 5
Homework: 1) The points 𝑅 and 𝑆 have coordinates (−5, 1) and (7, −3) respectively. Point 𝑃
lies on the line segment 𝑅𝑆 such that 𝑅𝑃 = 3𝑃𝑆. Find the coordinates of point 𝑃.
Answer: 𝑃(4, −2)
2) Find the value of 𝑘 if the points 𝐴(−3, 3𝑘), 𝐵(0, 𝑘) and 𝐶(3, −2) are collinear.
Answer: 𝑘 = 2

132
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Determine the ratio in which the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = 0 divides the line segment joining
the points 𝐴(2, − 2) and 𝐵(3, 7)
Solution: Let the given line divide the line segment joining the points 𝐴(2, −2) and 𝐵(3, 7) in a
ratio 𝑘: 1.
3𝑘+2 7𝑘−2
Coordinates of the point of division= ( 𝑘+1 , )
𝑘+1

This point also lies on 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = 0. Thus,

3𝑘 + 2 7𝑘 − 2
2( )+ −4=0
𝑘+1 𝑘+1
9𝑘 − 2 = 0
2
𝑘=
9
Therefore, the ratio in which the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = 0 divides the line segment joining the points
𝐴(2, −2) and 𝐵(3, 7) is 2: 9.

4.3. Equation of a straight line

Slope (Gradient) of a line

The number that describes the steepness of a hill is called the gradient
(slope) of the hill. We measure the gradient of a hill by the ratio of the
vertical rise to the horizontal run.
Definition: If (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are points on a line with 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ,
then the gradient of the line, denoted by m, is given by
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Note: 1. If 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , that is for a vertical line the gradient is not defined.
2. If the segment is vertical, the horizontal run is zero and the gradient of 𝐵
the segment is not defined. This is shown by segment 𝐴𝐵.
𝑃 𝑄
Example: Given three points 𝑃(−1, −5), 𝑄(1, −2) and 𝑅(5, 4), find the 𝐴
gradient of 𝑃𝑄 and 𝑄𝑅. What do you conclude from your result? Gradient of 𝑃𝑄 is zero.
−2 − (−5) −2 + 5 3 Gradient of 𝐴𝐵 is not defined.
𝑚𝑃𝑄 = = =
1 − (−1) 1+1 2
4 − (−2) 4 + 2 6 3
𝑚𝑄𝑅 = = = =
5−1 4 4 2
Hence, 𝑚𝑃𝑄 = 𝑚𝑄𝑅 . Hence the line formed by the point 𝑃𝑄 and 𝑄𝑅 are parallel.

133
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

2
Example: A line passes through the point (5, 7) and has gradient 3. Find the 𝑥‑coordinate of a

point on the line when 𝑦 = 13.

Solution: Let (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥, 13) be a second point. Thus,
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 13 − 7
𝑚= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥−5
6 2
Hence, 𝑥−5 = 3. Solving for 𝑥

2(𝑥 − 5) = 6(3)
𝑥 = 14.

Slope of a Line in Terms of Angle of Inclination

The angle measured from the positive x-axis to a line, in anticlockwise direction, is called the
inclination of the line or the angle of inclination of the line. This angle is always less than 180°.
The slope of a line may be expressed in terms of the coordinates of two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) on the line as follows:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example: Find the slope of a line, if its inclination is 135°.
Solution: 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = tan 135° = − tan 45° = −1.
Example: Find the angle of inclination of the line containing the points (2, 4) and (0, 3).
𝑦 −𝑦 3−4 1
Solution: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 0−2 = 2,
2 1

1
Then the angle of inclination 𝜃 = tan−1 (2) =

Note: Let m be the slope of a non-vertical line.

i. If m > 0, then the line rises from left to right.
ii. If m < 0, then the line falls from left to right.
iii. If m = 0, then the line is horizontal.

Negative gradient Gradient= 0 Undefined gradient

Positive gradient

134
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Equations of the Straight Line

Slope-intercept form: The equation of the line with slope 𝑚 and 𝑦 −intercept 𝑏 is given by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Two-intercept form: Let a straight line intersect the coordinate axes making intercepts of 𝑎 and
𝑏 on 𝑥 −axis and 𝑦 −axis respectively, then the required equation of the line is;

𝑎
𝑦= 𝑥+𝑏
𝑏

Slope-point form: The equation of a straight line having a slope 𝑚 and passing through the
point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

Two-point form: If a straight line is passing through two points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), then
the equation of the straight line is,

𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
=
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥1 − 𝑥2

The most general equation of a straight line is

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.

𝐴
If 𝐴 = 0 then the line is horizontal, and if 𝐵 = 0 then the line is vertical. Slope, 𝑚 = − 𝐵 and y-
𝐶
intercept 𝑏 = − 𝐵.

Note: 1) The graph of every first degree (linear) equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ 0 is a

straight line and every straight line is a graph of a first degree equation.
2) The graph of the equation 𝑥 = 𝑐 is the vertical line through 𝑃(𝑐, 0) and has no slope.
3) The graph of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑑 is the horizontal line through 𝑃(0, 𝑐) and has slope 0.

Example: Find the slope of the line whose equation is 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7 = 0

Solution: The equation 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7 = 0 can be written as 3𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 7. Therefore 𝑦 =

2 7
− 3 𝑥 + 3.

2
Hence the required slope is − 3.

135
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Homework: Find the slope of the line passing through the point (−2, 1) and the origin.

Example: Given the points 𝑃(5, 7), 𝑄(8, 0) and 𝑅(−4, 8), find the equation of a straight line
that passes through 𝑃 and the midpoint of 𝑄𝑅.

Answer: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.

Intercepts

The 𝑥 −intercept of a line is the point at which it crosses the 𝑥 −axis.

The 𝑦 −intercept of a line is the point at which it crosses the 𝑦 −axis.
In the diagram the 𝑦 −intercept is at 𝐴 and the 𝑥 −intercept at 𝐵.

Example: Consider the straight line with equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1. This equation is in a

slightly different form from those we have seen earlier. To draw a sketch
of the line, we must calculate some values.

𝑥 𝑦
0 1
1 3
2 5
Notice that when 𝑥 = 0 the value of 𝑦 is 1. So this line cuts the 𝑦 −axis at 𝑦 = 1.

Homework: 1) Find the gradient and 𝑦 −intercept for the straight lines

i) 2𝑦 − 10𝑥 = 8 ii) −2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 = 0

2) Find the equation of the lines with gradient ¼ passing through (0, 5).

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines
If two lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are parallel then corresponding angles are
equal. Conversely, if corresponding angles are equal then the
lines are parallel. i.e., if 𝑙1 ∥ 𝑙2 , then tan 𝜃1 = tan 𝜃2 .
Theorem: Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient
and conversely, two lines with the same gradient are parallel.

136
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the line 𝑦 =– 2𝑥 + 6 and passing
through the point 𝐴(1, 10).
Solution: The gradient of the line 𝑦 =– 2𝑥 + 6 is –2.
Therefore the line through the point 𝐴(1, 10) parallel to 𝑦 =– 2𝑥 + 6 has equation:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 10 = −2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 12
Perpendicular lines
If two non ‑vertical lines are perpendicular then the product of their gradients is –1. Conversely
if the product of the gradients of two lines is –1 then they are perpendicular.
Theorem: Two non-vertical lines having slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are perpendicular, if and only if
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.
1
Example: The lines 𝑙1 : 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑙2 : 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 + 2 are perpendicular.
1 1
Solution: Slope of 𝑙1 is 𝑚1 = 2, and slope of 𝑙2 is 𝑚2 = − 2. Moreover, 𝑚1 𝑚2 = 2 (− 2) = −1.

Homework: Find the equation of the line through (1, – 3) which is perpendicular to the line
𝑥– 3𝑦 + 4 = 0.

Point of intersection of two lines

Solve two simultaneous equations to get point of intersection.
1
Example: Find the point of the straight lines 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 + 6.
𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 1
Solution: {
2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 12

137
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Solving the system of equation we obtain (−2, 5) as point of intersection.

Homework: A straight line 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 = 10 is perpendicular to the straight line 𝑦– 4𝑥 = 28. Find
a) The value of 𝑘. Answer: 𝑘 = 4
b) The point of intersection of the two lines. Answer: (−6, 4).

Angle between two intersecting lines

The angle between tow intersecting lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 is defined to be the angle 𝛽 measured counter-
clockwise from 𝑙1 to 𝑙2 . If 𝑚1 is the slope of 𝑙1 and 𝑚2 is the slope of 𝑙2 , then the tangent of the
angle between two lines 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 measured counter-clockwise from 𝑙1 to 𝑙2 is given by
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = , 𝑚 𝑚 ≠ −1
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 2
Example: Given points 𝑃(2, 3), 𝑄(−4, 1), 𝐶(2, 4) and 𝐷(6, 5), find the tangent of the angle
between the line that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄 and the line that passes through 𝐶 and 𝐷 when
measured from the line that passes through 𝑃 and 𝑄 to the line that passes through 𝐶 and 𝐷
counter-clockwise.
Solution: Let 𝑚1 be the slope of the line through 𝑃 and 𝑄 and 𝑚2 be the slope of the line
through 𝐶 and 𝐷. Then
1−3 1 5−4 1
𝑚1 = = and 𝑚2 = =
−4−2 3 6−2 4

Thus, the tangent of the angle 𝛽

1/4 − 1/3 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 = =−
1 + (1/3)(1/4) 13
4.4. Distance between a point and a line and between two lines.

4.4.1. Distance between a Point and a Line

Definition: Suppose a line 𝑙: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 and a point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
are given. If 𝑃 does not lie on 𝑙, then we define the distance 𝑑 from
𝑃 to 𝑙 as

|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶|
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

Note: If 𝑃 is on 𝑙, the distance is taken to be zero.

Example: Find the distance of the point (−3, 5) from the line 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 26 = 0.

138
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Solution: Given equation of a line is: 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 26 = 0.

Point: (−3, 5)

Comparing these with the standard forms: 𝐴 = 4, 𝐵 = −3, 𝐶 = −26

𝑥1 = −3, 𝑦1 = 5

We know that the perpendicular distance (d) of a line Ax + By+ C = 0 from a point (x1, y1) is
given by
|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶|
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
Substituting the values,
|4(−3) + (−3)(5) + (−26)| 53
𝑑= =
√16 + 9 5
53
Hence, the required distance is units.
5

4.4.2. Distance between Two Parallel Lines

The shortest distance between the two parallel lines can be determined using the length of the
perpendicular segment between the lines. It does not matter which perpendicular line you are
choosing, as long as two points are on the line.
Thus, we can now easily calculate the distance between two parallel lines and the distance between
a point and a line.

If we consider the general form of the equation of straight line, and the lines are given by:

𝐿1: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶1 = 0

𝐿2: 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶2 = 0

Then, the distance between them is given by:

| 𝐶1 − 𝐶 2 |
𝑑= .
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2

Example: Find the distance between two lines 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 9 and 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 15.

Solution: Given equations of lines are:
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 9
15
6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 15 or 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2

139
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Let us check whether the given lines are parallel or not.

3 9
𝑦=− 𝑥+
4 4
And
3 15
𝑦=− 𝑥+
4 2
Thus, the slope of the given lines is equal so they are parallel to each other. Now, by comparing
with the standard form of parallel lines equations, we get:
15
𝐴 = 3, 𝐵 = 4, 𝐶1 = −9, 𝐶2 = − 2
15
|−9 − (− 2 )| 3
| 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 |
𝑑= = =
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 √32 + 42 10
3
Therefore, the distance between the given lines is 10 units.
5
Example: The distance between two parallel lines 5𝑥– 12𝑦 + 2 = 0 and 5𝑥– 12𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0 is given by
13

units. Find the value of 𝑘.

5 2 5 𝑘
Solution: The given lines can be rewritten 𝑦 = 12 𝑥 + 12 and 𝑦 = 12 𝑥 + 12.

5 5
Here, the slope of the lines are 𝑚1 = 12 and 𝑚2 = 12.

Thus, the slope of the given lines is equal so they are parallel to each other. Now, by comparing
with the standard form of parallel lines equations, we get:

𝐴 = 5, 𝐵 = −12, 𝐶1 = 2, 𝐶2 = 𝑘

| 𝐶1 − 𝐶 2 |
𝑑=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
5 |2 − 𝑘|
=
3 √52 + (−12)2

5 |2 − 𝑘|
=
3 13

|2 − 𝑘| = 5

𝑘 = −3, 7.

140
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

4.5. Conic Sections

A conic section (or simply conic) is the intersection of a plane and a double-napped cone.

 If a horizontal plane intersects through one of the cones, the section formed is a circle.
 If a slanted plane intersects through one of the cones, then the section formed is either an ellipse of a
parabola.
 If a vertical plane intersects through the pair of cones, then the section formed is a hyperbola.

4.5.1. Circles

Definition: A circle is the locus of a point that moves in a plane with a fixed distance from a fixed point.
The fixed distance is called the radius of the circle and the fixed point is called the center of the circle.

For any point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) on a circle with center 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑟 we have

√(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟

Thus, the standard form of the equation of a circle with center 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑟

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2

141
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Write the standard from of the equation of the circle with center at
𝐶(2, 4) and that passes through the point 𝑃(−2, 1).

Solution: Let 𝑟 be the radius of the circle. Then the equation of the circle is

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 𝑟 2

Since the point 𝑃(−2, 1) pass through the circle,

(−2 − 2)2 + (1 − 4)2 = 𝑟 2 ⟹ 25 = 𝑟 2 ⟹ 𝑟 = 5.
Therefore, the equation of the circle is
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 25.
Homework: Write the standard form of the equation of the circle with center (7, 1) that also
contains the point (−1, −5).

Example: Give the center and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 0.

Solution: By completing the square method,

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 16 = 9 + 16 ⟹ (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 52

Therefore, the center of the circle is 𝐶(−3, 4) and the radius of the circle is 𝑟 = 5.

Example: Find the center and radius of the circle 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 27

Solution: The given equation can be rewritten as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9. i.e., (𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 32 .

Thus, the center of the circle is at origin (0, 0) and radius 𝑟 = 3.

Homework: Find the center and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑦 + 11 = 0. Answer: 𝐶(0, 6) and 𝑟 = 5.

Intersect of a circle with line

 If the perpendicular distance from the center of a circle to a line is less than the radius of
the circle, then the line intersects the circle at two points. Such a line is called a secant
line to the circle.
 If the perpendicular distance from the center of a circle to a line is equal to the radius of
the circle, then the line intersects the circle at only one point. Such a line is called a tangent
line to the circle and the point of intersection is called the point of tangency.
 If the perpendicular distance from the center of a circle to a line is greater than the radius
of the circle, then the line does not intersect the circle.

142
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

A line with equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 intersects a circle with equation (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 =

𝑟 2 , if and only if,

|𝐴ℎ + 𝐵𝑘 + 𝐶|
≤𝑟
√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2

How to find point of intersection: If a line with equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 intersects a circle with
𝐶
equation (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 is a quadratic equation in 𝑥. If 𝐵 = 0, then 𝑥 = − 𝐴 is a

vertical line.

𝐶 2 𝐶+ℎ𝐴 2
(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 − (− − ℎ) = 𝑟 2 − ( ) , which is a quadratic in 𝑦. Solving this equation you can get
𝐴 𝐴

points of intersection of the line and the circle.

Example: Find the intersection of the circle with equation (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 25 with the line
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 7 = 0.

4𝑥−7
Solution: From 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 7 = 0, we have 𝑦 = 3
. Replacing it into the equation of the circle we obtain

2
4𝑥 − 7
(𝑥 − 1)2 + ( + 1) = 25
3

25𝑥 2 − 50𝑥 − 200 = 0

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0

𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 4 = 0

𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 = 4.

3
Example: For the circle (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 13, show that 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 4 is a tangent line.

Solution: The distance from 𝐶(−1, 1) to the line −3𝑥 + 2𝑦 +

8 = 0 is

|−3(−1) + 2(1) + 8| |13|

𝑑= = = √13 = 𝑟
√(−3)2 + 22 √13

3
Hence, 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 − 4 is a tangent line to the circle (𝑥 − 1)2 +
(𝑦 + 1)2 = 25.

143
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Note: If a line 𝑙 is tangent to a circle (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 at a point 𝑇(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), then the equation of 𝑙
is given by

𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑥0 − ℎ
=− .
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦0 − 𝑘

4.5.2. Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two distinct fixed
points (foci) is constant.

 The line through the foci intersects the ellipse at two points called vertices.
 The chord joining the vertices is the major axis, and its midpoint is the center of the ellipse.
 The chord perpendicular to the major axis at the center is the minor axis of the ellipse.
 𝐹 and 𝐹 ′ are foci.
 𝑉, 𝑉 ′ , 𝐵 and 𝐵′ are called vertices of the ellipse.
 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉 ′ 𝑉 is called the major axis and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵′ 𝐵 is called the minor axis.
 𝐶, which is the intersection point of the major and minor axes is
called the center of the ellipse.

Standard Equation of an Ellipse

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse, with center (ℎ, 𝑘) and major and minor axes of lengths 2𝑎
and 2𝑏 respectively, where 0 < 𝑏 < 𝑎, is

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
𝑎2
+ 𝑏2
=1 (𝑎 > 𝑏 major axis is horizontal)

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
𝑎2
+ 𝑏2
=1 (𝑏 > 𝑎 major axis is vertical)

The foci lie on the major axis, 𝑐 units from the center, with 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 .

144
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Standard form of the equation of ellipse: 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2
=1

𝑎>𝑏 𝑏>𝑎
Major axis Horizontal Vertical
Center (ℎ, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘)
Length of major 2𝑎 2𝑏
axis
Length of minor 2𝑏 2𝑎
axis
Vertex (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏)
Focus (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑐), 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2

Graph

(𝒙+𝟐)𝟐 (𝒚−𝟑)𝟐 (𝒙−𝟐)𝟐 (𝒚+𝟑)𝟐

Example: Graph of + = 𝟐 and + = 𝟐.
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

145
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Find the center, vertices and foci of the ellipse 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8 = 0.

Solution: By completing the square,

4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 8 = 0 ⟹ 4(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 16

(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑦 + 2)2
⟹ + =1
4 16

Thus the major axis is vertical with length 2𝑏 = 32

Center: (1, −2) Vertices: (1, −6) Foci: (1, −2 ± 2√3)

Homework: Find the center, vertices and foci of the ellipse 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 20𝑦 − 2 = 0.

4.5.3. Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed line
and a fixed point that is not on the line. The fixed point is called the focus, and
the fixed line is called the directrix of the parabola.

Vertical parabolas

Standard form: (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘)

Orientation If 𝑝 > 0 opens upward If 𝑝 < 0 opens down

Axis of 𝑥=ℎ
𝑥=ℎ
symmetry
Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘)
Focus (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝), where 𝑝 is the focal length (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑝)
Directrix 𝑦 = 𝑘−𝑝 𝑦 =𝑘+𝑝

Graph

146
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Horizontal parabolas
Standard form: (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ)

Orientation If 𝑝 > 0 opens right If 𝑝 < 0 opens left

Axis of
𝑦=𝑘 𝑦=𝑘
symmetry
Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘)
Focus (ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘) (ℎ − 𝑝, 𝑘)
Directrix 𝑥 = ℎ−𝑝 𝑥 =ℎ+𝑝

Graph

Example: Find the focus and directrix of the parabola given by 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥. Then graph the parabola.

Solution: The given equation, 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 is in the standard form 𝑦 2 = 4𝑝𝑥,

so 4𝑝 = 12 ⟹ 𝑝 = 3. Hence 𝑝 = 3 is the focal length.
Because 𝑝 is positive, the parabola, with its symmetry, opens to
the right. The focus is 3 units to the right of the vertex, (0, 0).
Focus: (𝑝, 0) = (3, 0)
Directrix: 𝑥 = −𝑝 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3.
Example: Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola given by
𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 12𝑥 − 23 = 0.

Solution: We convert the given equation to standard form by completing the square on the variable y.

𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 12𝑥 − 23 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = −12𝑥 + 23 + 1 ⟹ (𝑦 + 1)2 = −12(𝑥 − 2).

We see that ℎ = 2 and 𝑘 = −1. Thus, the vertex of the parabola is (ℎ, 𝑘) = (2, −1). Because 4𝑝 =
−12 ⇒ 𝑝 = −3. Based on the standard form of the equation, the axis of symmetry is horizontal. With a
negative value for 𝑝 and a horizontal axis of symmetry, the parabola opens to the left. Because 𝑝 = −3
the focus is located 3 units to the left of the vertex (2, −1), Likewise, the directrix is located 3 units to the
right of the vertex.
Focus: (ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘) = (−1, 1)
Directrix: 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑥 = 5.

147
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Homework: Find the vertex, focus, and the directrix and graph each of
i) 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0 ii) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4

4.5.3. Hyperbolas

Definition:

Standard form of the equation of hyperbola

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2
− =1 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑏2
Center (ℎ, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘)
Length of major 2𝑎 2𝑏
axis
Length of minor 2𝑏 2𝑎
axis
Vertex (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏)
Focus (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑐), 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Major axis Horizontal Vertical
Asymptotes 𝑏 𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) 𝑦 − 𝑘 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑎 𝑏
Graph

(𝑦+3)2 (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−1)2 (𝑦+3)2

Example: The graph of hyperbolas i) 25
− 9
=2 ii) 9
− 25
= 13.

148
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Solved Problems
1. 1. Write the equation of tangent line to the circle (𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 + (𝒚 + 𝟐)𝟐 = 𝟔𝟏 at the point
(−𝟐, −𝟖).

Solution: Since we only have one point on the tangent line

(−2, −8) , we’ll have to get the slope of the line to get its
equation.

We can get the slope of the line that connects the center of the
circle (3, −2) and the point on the tangent line (−2, −8), and
then take the negative or opposite reciprocal to get the slope of
the tangent line.

The slope of the line that contains (3, −2) and (−2, −8) is

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 −8 − (−2) −6 6
𝑚𝑃𝐶 = = = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 −2 − 3 −5 5

1 5
Then 𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑃𝐶 = −1 ⟹ 𝑚𝑙 = − 𝑚 = − 6.
𝑃𝐶

5
Thus using slope of the line 𝑚𝑙 = − and point on the line 𝑃(−2, −8)
6

5 29
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) ⟹ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 − .
6 3

2. 2. Write the equation of a circle if the points (−𝟔, 𝟖) and (𝟎, 𝟏𝟖) are on the circle.

Solution: Since the center of a circle is midpoint between any two points of the diameter, we can
use the Midpoint Theorem

149
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 0 + (−6) 18 + 8
(ℎ, 𝑘) = ( , )=( , ) = (−3, 13)
2 2 2 2

To get the radius of the circle, we can use the Distance Formula √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 to get
the distance between the center and one of the points; let’s pick (0, 18):

√(0 − (−3)) 2 + (18 − 13)2 = √34

Thus, the equation of circle is (𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 13)2 = 34.

3. 3. Write the equation of a parabola with a vertex of (−𝟐, 𝟒) and focus point (𝟎, 𝟒).

Solution: It’s best to first plot the points, so we can see the direction of the parabola. We can see
that it’s a horizontal parabola.

Since the focal length (length from the vertex to the

focus) is 2, and the vertex is (−2, 4), we have

(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑝(𝑥 − ℎ)

⟹ (𝑦 − 4)2 = (2)4(𝑥 − (−2))

⟹ (𝑦 − 4)2 = 8(𝑥 + 2)

4. Write the equation of a parabola with a focus of (−𝟐, 𝟒) and directrix 𝒚 = 𝟗.

Solution: To know the direction of the parabola, let first plot the points. Since the directrix is
horizontal and the focus is below it, we can see that it’s
a vertical parabola that opens down.

We know that the parabola is in the form of (𝑥 − ℎ)2 =

4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘).

The length from focus to directrix is |9 − 4| = 5, the

5
focal length is 2𝑝 = 5 ⇒ 𝑝 = 2 = 2.5. hence, the vertex

is (−2, 4 + 𝑝) = (−2, 6.5).

150
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Thus, the equation is:

5
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 = −4𝑝(𝑦 − 𝑘) ⟹ (𝑥 + 2)2 = −4 ( ) (𝑦 − 6.5)
2

⟹ 10(𝑦 − 6.5) = −(𝑥 + 2)2 .

4. Find the center and vertices of the hyperbola 𝟏𝟏𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒚 − 𝟖𝟖𝟗 = 𝟎.
Answer: Center: (−1, 5), vertices (−6, 5), ( 4, 5)

ESSLCE Questions
1. Consider the lines 𝑙1 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑙2 : 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0 in the xy-plane. Let 𝛽 be the angle between
𝑙1 and 𝑙2 measured from 𝑙1 to 𝑙2 . What is the value of tan 𝛽?
1 1
A. 3 B. -3 C. D. −
3 3

2. An ellipse has center (ℎ, 𝑘) and its foci are on the line 𝑥 = ℎ. What is the standard form of equation
of the ellipse if the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes are 3 and 2 units, respectively?
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
A. 9
+ 4
=1 B. 4
+ 4
=1 C. 9
+ 4
=1 D. 9
+ 4
=1

3. Consider the following statement: A plane curve is the locus of points in the plane such that the
difference between the distances from two fixed points is a constant. Which one of the following
is defined by the statement?
A. Circle B. Parabola C. Hyperbola D. Ellipse
4. What is the equation of the circle with center (−2, 3) and radius 2 units?
A. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 9 = 0 B. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 9 = 0
C. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0 D. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 9 = 0
5. Which one of the following is the equation of a line through (2, 1) and perpendicular to the line
with equation 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3?
A. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0 B. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5 = 0 C. 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 3 = 0 D. 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 6 = 0
6. A line in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane has inclination of 150° with the positive x-axis. What is the slope of the
line?
√3 √3
A. −√3 B. − 3
C. 3
D. −1

7. Consider the equation of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0. What are its center

and radius respectively?

A. (1, −1, 2) and 1 B. (1, 1, 2) and 1 C. (−1, 1, 2) and √5 D. (−1, 1, 2) and √5

151
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Worksheet
1. Plot the points with the following coordinates: 𝑃(−5, −4), 𝑄(−4, 5), 𝑅(2, 4), 𝑆(1, −5).
2. In which quadrant does (−3, 4) lie?
3. The points (4, 2) and (−3, −5) form with another point (𝑥, 𝑦) an equilateral triangle. Find 𝑥
and 𝑦.
4. Find the point of 𝑥 −axis which is equidistant from the points 𝑃(7, 6) and 𝑄(−3, 4).
5. Find the area of a the triangle whose vertices are (−2, 4), (4, 6) and (3, 2).
6. Find the value of 𝑥 if the distance between the points (𝑥, 3) and (−4, −1) is 5. Answer: 𝑥 =
−1, −7.
7. The distance between point 𝐴(−𝑘, 1) and the origin is the same as the distance between point
𝐵(𝑘, 1) and point 𝐶(3, 5). Find the value of 𝑘. Answer: 𝑘 = 4.
8. The coordinates of points 𝑅 and 𝑆 are (−4, 3) and (𝑥, 𝑦) respectively. Point 𝑃(−1, 2) is the
midpoint of 𝑅𝑆. Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦. Answer: (2, 1).
9. A line segment has end-points P (-1, 5) and Q (5, 2). Find the coordinates of the points that
trisect the segment.
10. Find the equation of the line making intercepts 2 and –3 on the x-axis and y-axis
respectively.
11. Find the equation of a line passing through the origin and parallel to the line 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 =
0.
12. Find the length of perpendicular from the point (4, 1) to the line 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 12 = 0
13. Find the equation of a straight line passing through the point of intersection of the lines 𝑥 −
2𝑦 + 3 = 0, 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4 = 0 and parallel to the line joining the points (1, 1) and (0, −1).
14. Write the standard form of the equation of the circle with the given center with point on the
circle. i) Center (−5, 6) with point (−2, 3) ii) Center (4, 4) with point (2, 2)
15. Find the center and radius of i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 0 ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 14𝑥 + 13 = 0

152
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 5

Vectors and Transformation of the Plane

5.1. Introduction to vectors and scalars (Grade 9, Page 291)
In general, there are two types of physical measurements; those involving only magnitude and no
direction, called scalars and others involving magnitude and a definite direction, called vectors.
A vector has both magnitude (length) and direction, and both these properties must be given in
order to specify it. A quantity with magnitude (length) but no direction is called a scalar.

Example: The velocity of a car is 80 km/h in the direction of north. This is a vector.
Example: Force, velocity, acceleration, and momentum are example of vector.

Note: Speed ≠ velocity (Since speed=magnitude of velocity).

Distance ≠ displacement (Since distance = magnitude of displacement).

Classwork: What are these quantities, vectors or scalars?

a) 𝐴 temperature of 100∘ C

b) An acceleration of 9.8142 m/s towards earth

c) The weight of a 2 kg mass

e) A North easterly wind of 20 knots

153
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

5.2. Representation of vectors

𝑃(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 )
Note: ℝ2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}. 𝑏1
Points 𝑃 in the plane are described by pairs (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) of real numbers, where 𝑎1
and 𝑏1 stand for the 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates of the point 𝑃. This means, when we
project 𝑃 perpendicularly on the 𝑥-axis, then we get 𝑎1 and when we project 𝑃
on the 𝑦-axis, then we get 𝑏1 , see Figure. 𝑎1

A vector can be represented either algebraically or geometrically.

A vector quantity can be represented diagrammatically by a directed
Terminal Point
𝑄
straight line segment 𝑃𝑄 from a point 𝑃 to a point 𝑄 in space (with an
Initial Point
arrow head) whose length of the segment is equal to the magnitude of 𝑃
the vector, and whose direction represents the direction of the vector.
Here, 𝑃 is called the initial point and 𝑄 is called the terminal point. The direction is indicated by
an arrow joining the initial and terminal points of the line regiment.

Analytically, the vector is represented by either 𝑃𝑄 and the magnitude which is the length of the
line 𝑃𝑄 denoted by |𝑃𝑄 | or ∥ 𝑃𝑄 ∥. Another name for length is norm.

Notation: To distinguish them from scalars, vectors will be denoted by lowercase symbols; i.e.,
the vector 𝑣 is represented by either of the symbols 𝑣, or 𝑣. But it is inconvenient in handwriting.
In writing, we normally put an arrow on top of, or sometimes underneath, the letter: 𝑣 or 𝑣.

To distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, various ways are used. These include:
i. bold print 𝒂, 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘,
ii. two capital letters with an arrow above them to denote the sense of direction, e.g. 𝑃𝑄 ,
where 𝑃 is the starting point and 𝑄 the end point of the vector
iii. a line over the top(or underline) of letters, e.g. ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 or 𝑎‾, 𝑎

iv. letters with an arrow above, e.g. 𝑎, 𝐴

Sometimes the notation 𝑃𝑄 is used to represent the vector 𝑎. Then the vector 𝑄𝑃 is represented by −𝑎.

154
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

5.3. Components of a Vector

𝑄(𝑎2 , 𝑏2 )
The vector 𝑎 from 𝑃(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ) to 𝑄(𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ) can be written as 𝑏2

𝑎 = 𝑃𝑄 = ⟨𝑎2 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑏1 ⟩ 𝑎

Its tail is 𝑃 and its tip is 𝑄. 𝑏1

𝑃(𝑎1 , 𝑏1 )
𝑥 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 , 𝑦 = 𝑏2 − 𝑏1
𝑎1 𝑎2
are called the components of vector 𝒂 with respect to Cartesian coordinate
system, and we write simply 𝑎 = ⟨𝑥, 𝑦⟩. The element 𝑥 is called the first component, 𝑦 the second
component of 𝑎.

i.e., 𝑎 = 𝑃𝑄 = ⟨𝑎2 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑏1 ⟩

Example: The vector 𝑎 with initial point 𝑃: (4,0) and terminal point 𝑄: (6, −1) has the
components 𝑥 = 6 − 4 = 2, 𝑦 = −1 − 0 = −1; Hence 𝑎 = ⟨2, −1⟩.

Class work: 1. If we choose (−1,5) as the initial point of 𝑎 = ⟨2, −1⟩, then, find the corresponding
terminal point. Answer: (1,4)

2. If we choose the origin (0,0) as the initial point of 𝑎, find the corresponding terminal
point. Answer: (2, −1); its coordinates equal the components of 𝑎. This suggests that we
can determine each point in space by a vector called the position vector of
the point, as follows. 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦
Sometimes vectors are referred to a fixed point, an origin. Such a vector is called a 𝑟
Position vector. In the given Cartesian coordinate system, the position vector 𝑟 of a
point 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦) is the vector with the origin (0,0) as the initial point and 𝐴 as the
𝑥
terminal point. Thus 𝑟 = ⟨𝑥, 𝑦⟩.

155
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

We note that we have developed two approaches to vectors: geometric, in which vectors are
represented by arrows or directed line segments, and analytic, in which vectors are represented by
pairs or triples of numbers called components. 𝑎 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2

5.4. Magnitude of a vector

The length (magnitude) ∥ 𝑎 ∥ of a vector 𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩, illustrated in Figure is 𝑎2

∥ 𝑎 ∥= √𝑎12 + 𝑎22
𝑎1
It is the Euclidean distance between the points (0,0) and (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ), or the length of
the line segment that joins these two points.
Example: The length of the vector 𝑎 = ⟨2,3⟩ is ∥ 𝑎 ∥= √22 + 32 = √13.

Example: The length of the vector from 𝑄 = (1,2) to 𝑃 = (5,3) is

∥ 𝑄𝑃 ∥=∥ (4,1) ∥= √42 + 12 = √17

5.5. Types of Vectors

Unit vector: Any vector whose magnitude (length) is equal to one is called a unit vector. A vector
𝑣 whose magnitude is 1 is called a "unit vector" and the symbol 𝑣ˆ denotes a unit vector in the same
direction as 𝑣.
Zero vector: Any vector whose magnitude is equal to zero is called a zero or null vector and is
denoted by 𝟎, or 𝟎. A zero vector is one whose magnitude is zero, but no definite direction
associated with it, for example, if 𝑃 is a point, 𝑃𝑃 is a zero vector. It has indeterminate direction.

← . If the direction of
Negative vector: If 𝐴𝐵 is a vector, then the negative vector of 𝑃𝑄 is 𝑄𝑃 or 𝑃𝑄
a vector changed, we can get the negative vector i.e 𝑄𝑃 = −𝑃𝑄

Equal Vectors: Consider two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 where the direction of the vector is measured with
respect to a fixed axis of a given coordinate system which we'll take to be the 𝑥𝑦 − plane. Let 𝜃1
and 𝜃2 be the angle between the vector and the 𝑥-axis, respectively.

Then 𝑎 = 𝑏 ⇔ 1) ∥ 𝑎 ∥=∥ 𝑏 ∥ (same magnitude)

2) 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 (same direction)
Two vectors are equal if they have the same
magnitude, the same direction (i.e. they are parallel). Thus, we will not change a vector when
we move it to a new position provided we preserve its magnitude and direction. We can move

156
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

vectors anywhere on the plane or equate any two vectors who's tails are at the points 𝑃 and 𝑄,
respectively, and will get that the vectors are treated as if they're the same.

Example: Consider the sketch below.

Each of the directed line segments in the sketch represents the same vector. In each case the
vector starts at a specific point then moves 2 units to the left and 5 units up. The notation that we’ll
use for this vector is, 𝑣 = −2, 5 .

Note: Two vectors 𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ and 𝑏 = ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ are equal, written 𝑎 = 𝑏 , iff 𝑎1 = 𝑏1, and 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 .
Class work: Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if the two vectors 𝑎 = ⟨𝑥 + 2,3⟩ and 𝑏 = ⟨𝑦, 𝑥⟩ are equal.

Home work: Diagram beside shows a parallelogram. Which of the following equations is the
correct one?

a) 𝐷𝐴 = 𝐵𝐶 b) 𝐴𝐷 = −𝐶𝐵 c) 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐶𝐵 d) 𝐷𝐴 = −𝐶𝐵

157
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

5.6. Vectors in 𝒊𝒋𝒌 Notation

Another representation of a vector is

𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗
where 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 are unit vectors in the positive directions of the axes of a Cartesian
coordinate system. In three dimensional space ℝ3 we have three coordinate axes,
often called the 𝑥𝑦 −axis.

In the plane ℝ2 it is common to set 𝑖 = ⟨1,0⟩ and 𝑗 = ⟨0,1⟩.

Example: ⟨2, −3⟩ = 2i − 3j.

It is common to refer to 𝑖 and 𝑗 as standard basis vectors (unit vector form) of ℝ2 .

Class work: Express the component form ⟨9,5⟩ in terms of the standard basis vectors.

5.7. Vector Arithmetic

5.7.1. Addition and subtraction of vectors

We shall start by adding (subtracting) two vectors together. Once we have done that, we can add
any number of vectors together by adding the first two, then adding the result to the third, and so
on. If 𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ and 𝑏 = ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ are vectors, their sum (or the resultant, as it is sometimes
called), written 𝑎 + 𝑏, is defined as the vector obtained by adding corresponding components of 𝑎
and 𝑏 to give
𝒂 + 𝒃 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ + ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ = ⟨𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ⟩

Note: 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 (triangle law) 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷 (parallelogram law).

Example: If 𝐴𝐶 = ⟨2, −1⟩ and 𝐵𝐴 = ⟨−1,3⟩ find 𝐵𝐶 .

Computationally, subtraction is very similar. If 𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ and 𝑏 = ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ are vectors, their
difference, written 𝒂 − 𝒃, is defined as the vector obtained by subtracting corresponding
components of 𝒂 and 𝒃 to give
𝒂 − 𝒃 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ − ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ = ⟨𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 ⟩

158
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Geometrically interpretation: To determine the resultant of vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏, begin by placing

the tail of one vector at the tip (arrow end) of the other. The resultant is then obtained by drawing
a line from the tail end of the first vector to the tip of the second.

Graphical addition of vectors Graphical subtraction of vectors

To add two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 graphically (see To subtract two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 graphically (see
figure) figure)
 Draw the first vector 𝑏
 Draw the first vector 𝑎,
 Move the second vector 𝑏 (without rotating it)
 Move the second vector 𝑏 (without
 Move the second vector 𝑎 (without rotating it)
rotating it) so its tail as located at the tip of
so its tail as located at the tip of the first vector.
the first vector.
 Draw a new vector from the tip of vector 𝑎 to
 Draw a new vector from the tail of vector
the tip of vector 𝑏
𝑎 to 𝑏.

If the end point of first vector and the initial point of the second vector are same, the addition of
two vectors can be found as the vector joining the initial point of the first vectors and the end point
of the second vector.

Note: 1 ⋅ 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐶𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶

2 ⋅ 𝐴𝐶 − 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐷𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐴𝐷

Note: 1. We can add two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 by making 𝑏 start where 𝑎 finishes, and completing the
triangle. Alternatively, we can make 𝑎 an 𝑏 start at the same place, and take the diagonal of the
parallelogram.

2 We can't add or subtract two vectors unless they a have the same number of components.

159
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Properties of vectors addition

1) vector addition is commutative i.e 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.

2) vector addition is associative i.e (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 ).

Adding a vector to itself: What happens when you add a vector

to itself, perhaps several times? We write, for example, 𝑎 + 𝑎 +
𝑎 = 3𝑎.

In the same way, we would write 𝑛𝑎 = ⏟

𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑎
𝑛−𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

Note: A vector 𝑛𝑎 is in the same direction as the vector 𝑎, but 𝑛 times as long.

5.7.2. Scalar multiplication

Given the vector 𝑎 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ⟩ and any number 𝑐 the scalar multiplication is, 𝑐𝑎 =
⟨𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑎2 , 𝑐𝑎3 ⟩. so, we multiply all the components by the constant
𝑐. A scalar is simply a real number, and is called such when we
want to draw attention to its differences from vectors. Scalars can
be positive, negative, or zero. We can see that if 𝑐 is positive all
scalar multiplication will do is stretch (if > 1 ) or shrink (if 𝑐 < 1
) the original vector, but it won't change the direction.
Properties of vector scalar multiplication: For any scalars 𝑘 and
𝑙, and any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 the following rules hold:

 𝑘(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏
 (𝑘 + 𝑙)𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 + 𝑙𝑎
 𝑘(𝑙)𝑎 = (𝑘𝑙)𝑎

1
Example: Let 𝑢 = ⟨−1,3⟩ and 𝑣 = ⟨4,7⟩, find a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 b) 𝑢 − 𝑣 c) 2 ∥ 𝑢 ∥

Solution: a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 = ⟨−2,6⟩ + ⟨12,21⟩ = ⟨10,27⟩

b) 𝑢 − 𝑣 = ⟨−5, −4⟩

∥ 𝑢 ∥= ∥∥∥⟨− 2 , 2⟩∥∥∥ = 2
1 1 3 √11
c) 2

Example: 3𝑎 + 7𝑎 can be simplified to (3 + 7)𝑎 = 10𝑎

160
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Class work: If 𝑎 = ⟨−1,2⟩ and 𝑏 = ⟨2, −2⟩ find 𝑥 if 2𝑏 − 2𝑥 = −𝑎

Note: 1. for 𝛼 ∈ ℝ if |𝛼| < 1, 𝛼𝑎 contracts 𝑎 and if |𝛼| > 1, 𝛼𝑎 expands 𝑎.

2 If 𝛼 > 0, 𝛼𝑎 points in the same direction of 𝑎. If 𝛼 < 0, 𝛼𝑎 points in the opposite

direction of 𝑎

Collinear vectors: If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are such that they have the same or opposite directions, they are said
to be collinear (parallel) vectors and one is a numerical multiple of the other, i.e 𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎 or 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏
for some 𝑘. Furthermore, if 𝑘 > 0 they are actually in the same direction.

Class work: Determine if the sets of vectors are parallel or not.

(a) 𝑎 = ⟨2, −4⟩, 𝑏 = ⟨−6,12⟩ (b) 𝑢 = ⟨−3, −4⟩, 𝑣 = ⟨−6, −7⟩

Example: Show that the points whose position vectors 2𝑖 + 3𝑗, 3𝑖 + 𝑗 and 6𝑖 − 5𝑗 are collinear.

Solution: Let 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗, 𝑂𝐵 = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 and 𝑂𝐶 = 6𝑖 − 5𝑗

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 = 3𝑖 − 6𝑗 = 3(𝑖 − 2𝑗) = 3𝐴𝐵
i.e, 𝐵𝐶 = 3𝐴𝐵
therefore 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 are parallel vectors and B is the common point of these two vectors Therefore
the given points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.

Example: If the vectors 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 and 𝑏 = −6𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗 are collinear, find the value of 𝑚.

Solution: Given 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 and 𝑏 = −6𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗 are collinear, Therefore, 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑏. i.e.

2𝑖 − 3𝑗 = 𝑡(−6𝑖 + 𝑚𝑗) = −6𝑘𝑖 + 𝑚𝑡𝑗

Comparing coefficients of 𝑖 ⟹ 2 = −6𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 = −1/3

3
Comparing coefficients of 𝑗, ⟹ −3 = 𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚 = − 2 = 9 = 𝑚 = 0

1 𝑎
Note: If 𝑎 has magnitude 3, then a unit vector in the direction of 𝑎 is 3 𝑎. (That means ∥𝑎∥ is unit vector)

161
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example (Finding a Vector's Direction): Find a unit vector 𝑢ˆ in the direction of the vector 𝑢 from
𝑃(1,0) to 𝑄(3,2).

Solution: Here the vector is 𝑢 = 𝑃𝑄 = 2𝑖 + 2𝑗. What we're asking for is a new parallel vector
(points in the same direction) that happens to be a unit. Here's what we'll do. First let's determine
𝑢
the magnitude of 𝑢. i.e. ∥ 𝑢 ∥= √4 + 4 = √8. Now, let's form the following new vector, 𝑢ˆ = ∥𝑢∥ =
2 2
i+ j
√8 √8

𝑢 2 2 2 2 4 4
Let check if it is unit vector: ∥ 𝑢ˆ ∥= = √( ) + ( ) = √ + = 1
∥𝑢∥ √8 √8 8 8

This vector also points in the same direction as 𝑢 since it is only a scalar multiple of 𝑢( i.e. 𝑢 = 3𝑢ˆ )

𝑎
Note: Given a vector 𝑎, 𝑎ˆ = ∥𝑎∥ will be a unit vector that points in the same direction as 𝑎.

1 2
Class work: Find 𝑘 for the unit vectors 1. 𝑢 = ⟨− 2 , 𝑘⟩ 2. 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 + 3 𝑗

Class work: Find the unit vector in the direction of 1) 2𝑖 2) −2𝑖 − 5𝑗

Class work: Find a vector 𝑏 if it has opposite direction to −𝑖 − 2𝑗 and has length 5 units.

𝑘 𝑘
Note: Vector 𝑏 of length 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 in the same (opposite) direction as 𝑎 is 𝑏 = ∥𝑎∥ 𝑎 (𝑏 = − ∥𝑎∥ 𝑎 )

5.7.3. Scalar product (Dot Product)

The scalar product of two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 is defined by

𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = ⟨𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ⟩ ⋅ ⟨𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ⟩ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 .

Example: Compute the scalar product of 𝑎) 𝑢 = ⟨3, −8⟩, 𝑣 = ⟨6,1⟩ 𝑏)𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 3𝑗, 𝑏 = 𝑖
Solution: 𝑎) 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 18 − 8 = 10 b) 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 2 + 0 = 2

Note: A) 𝑖 ⋅ 𝑖 = 𝑗 ⋅ 𝑗 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑘 = 1

B) 𝑖 ⋅ 𝑗 = 𝑗 ⋅ 𝑘 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑗 = 𝑖 ⋅ 𝑘 = 0

162
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Properties of dot product

 𝑎⋅𝑏 =𝑏⋅𝑎
 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐

 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 =∥ 𝑎 ∥2 If 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎 = 0 then 𝑎 = 0.
Geometric interpretation to the scalar (dot) product: First suppose that 𝜃 is the angle between
𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 as shown in the image beside. We can then have the following
theorem.

Theorem: 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 =∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥ cos 𝜃

Proof: The three vectors above form the triangle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 and note that the length of each side is
nothing more than the magnitude of the vector forming that side. The
Law of Cosines tells us that,

∥ 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∥2 =∥ 𝑎 ∥2 +∥ 𝑏 ∥2 − 2 ∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥ cos 𝜃

Also using the properties of dot products we can write the left side as,

∥ 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∥2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏 ) ⋅ (𝑎 − 𝑏) =∥ 𝑎 ∥2 − 2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 +∥ 𝑏 ∥2

Then, ∥ 𝑎 ∥2 − 2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏+∥ 𝑏 ∥2 =∥ 𝑎 ∥2 +∥ 𝑏 ∥2 − 2 ∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥ cos 𝜃

⇒ −2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = −2 ∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥ cos 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 =∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥ cos 𝜃

With the notation of the dot product, the angle between two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 can be written as

𝑎⋅𝑏
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥

Now, if two vectors are orthogonal then we know that the angle between them is 90 degrees. From
(2) this tells us that if two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 0,

Once again using (2) this would mean that one of the following would have to be true.

 if 𝜃 = 0, then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 =∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥

163
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

 if 𝜃 = 180 then 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = ±∥ 𝑎 ∥∥ 𝑏 ∥

If two vectors are parallel then the angle between them is either 0 degrees
(pointing in the same direction) or 180 degrees (pointing in the opposite
direction).

Example: 𝑢 = 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 and 𝑣 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 are orthogonal because

𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 = 6 − 6 = 0.

Class work: Find 𝑡 such that 𝑎 = −𝑡𝑖 + (𝑡 + 2)𝑗 and 𝑏 = ⟨3, −4⟩ are perpendicular.

5.8. Equation of lines

In this section we need to take a look at the equation of a line in ℝ2 . Suppose that we know a point
that is on the line, 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and 𝑣 = ⟨𝑎, 𝑏⟩ is some vector that is parallel to the line. The vector
𝑣 not need to be on the line, but parallel to the line. Let 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the line. Let 𝑟𝑛
and 𝑟 be the position vectors for 𝑃0 and 𝑃. Let define 𝑎 to be the vector with representation 𝑃0 𝑃.

From the graph we can write since the vector 𝑎 and 𝑣 are parallel, there is a scalar 𝑡, such that

𝑎 = 𝑡𝑣
Then we get 𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝑡𝑣 = ⟨𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ⟩ + 𝑡⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩

which is called vector form of the equation of a line. Rewriting this equation we get

⟨𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧⟩ = ⟨𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎, 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏, 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐⟩

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐
This set of equations is called the parametric form of the equation of a line

If we solve each of the equations in the parametric form of the line for 𝑡 we get

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= =
t t 𝑡

This is called the symmetric equations of the line.

164
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Write down the equation of the line that passes through the point (2, −1) and (1,4, )

Solution: To do this we need the parallel vector 𝑣. let 𝑣 be the vector that starts at the second point
and ends at the first point. Since these two points are one the line the vector between them will
also lie on the line and will hence be parallel to the line. So,

𝑣 = ⟨1, −5⟩

To use the vector form we'll need a point on the line. We have got two and so we can use either
one.

𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝑡𝑣 = ⟨2, −1⟩ + 𝑡⟨1, −5⟩ = ⟨2 + 𝑡, −1 − 5𝑡⟩

which is the vector form.

The parametric equations of the line becomes

𝑥 =2+𝑡
𝑦 = −1 − 5𝑡

and here is the symmetric form

𝑥−2 𝑦+1 𝑧−3

= =
1 −5 6

Note: Two lines are said to be parallel if their direction vectors are multiples of each other. They
are said to be perpendicular if their direction vectors are perpendicular to each other. More
generally, the angle between two intersecting lines is the angle between their directions vectors.

5.9. Transformation of the plane (Reflection, Translation, Rotation)

A transformation changes a figure into another figure. The new figure is called the image.

A translation is a transformation in which a figure slides but does not turn. Every point of the figure
moves the same distance and in the same direction.

165
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

A rotation, or turn, is a transformation in which a figure is rotated about a point called the center
of rotation. The number of degrees a figure rotates is the angle of rotation .In a rotation, the original
figure and its image are congruent.

5.9.1. Reflections
A reflection is a transformation that uses a line like a mirror to reflect a figure.
𝑙
The mirror line is called the line of reflection.

The reflection of point 𝑃 about a line 𝑙 is 𝑃′ such that 𝑙 is perpendicular bisector

𝑃 𝑃′
of 𝑃𝑃′ . i.e, 𝑙 ⊥ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑃′ .

Notation: The reflection of point P about the line 𝑙 is denoted by 𝑀(𝑃). Thus, 𝑃′ = 𝑀(𝑃).

Example: The reflection of ̅̅̅̅

𝐹𝐺 in the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 is ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐹′𝐺 ′.

Example: Below it is shown the reflection of ∆𝑨𝑩𝑪 in the 𝑦 −axis

is also a triangle ∆𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐶 ′ .

Reflection in the line 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙, 𝒎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 , 𝜽 is an angle with the positive-axis.

If 𝑏 = 0, then the line of reflection is 𝑙: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, and the image of 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ), where
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝑦 ′ = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
 If (𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in the 𝑥 −axis (𝜃 = 0), then its image is the point 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎, −𝑏).

166
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

𝜋
 If (𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in the 𝑦 −axis (𝜃 = 2 ) , then its image is the point 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (−𝑎, 𝑏).
𝜋
 If (𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 (𝜃 = 4 ), then its image is the point 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑏, 𝑎).
𝜋
 If (𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 (𝜃 = − 4 ), then its image is the point 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (−𝑏, −𝑎).

 If (𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in origin, then its image is the point 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (−𝑎, −𝑏).

√2
Example: Find the image of the point 𝑃(−1, 2) when reflected about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
2

√2
Solution: Since 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = 45°. Thus,
2

𝑥 ′ = −1𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 = 2
𝑦 ′ = −1𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 90 = −2
√2
Hence, the reflection of 𝑃(−1, 2) about 𝑦 = 𝑥 is (2, −2).
2

Example: Find the image of the point 𝑃(−1, 2) when reflected about the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥.

𝑂𝑝𝑝 2 2 1
Solution: Since 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = 2 ⟹ = 1. Thus, sin 𝜃 = and cos 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑑𝑗 √5 √5

2 1 4 1 4 3
sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2 ( ) ( ) = 5 and cos 2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 5 − 5 = − 5.
√5 √5

Thus,

3 4 11
𝑥 ′ = −1𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = −1 (− ) + 2 ( ) =
5 5 5
3 4 3
𝑦 ′ = −1𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = −1 (− ) − 2 ( ) =
5 5 5
11 3
Hence, the reflection of 𝑃(−1, 2) about 𝑦 = 2𝑥 is ( 5 , 5).

Example: Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if the point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) is reflected in the 𝑥 −axis to 𝑃′ (4, −3).
Solution: We know that in the 𝑥 −axis, 𝑀(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎, −𝑏) = (4, −3) ⟹ 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑏 = 3.

Example: Find a reflection of a point 𝑃(−1,2) in the line 𝑥 = 2.

Solution: The reflection is parallel to 𝑦 −axis which is at a distance of 2 units.

167
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Hence 𝑀(−1, 2) = (5, 2)

Reflection of a parallel line
If 𝑙 ′ is a line parallel to the line of reflection 𝑙, to find the image of 𝑙 ′ when reflected about 𝑙 we
follow the following steps:
Step 1: Choose any point 𝑃 on 𝑙′.
Step 2: Find the image of P, 𝑀(𝑃) = 𝑃′ .
Step 3: Find the equation of 𝑙 ′ , which is the line passing through 𝑃′ with the slope equal to the
slope of 𝑙.
Reflection in the line 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃
To find the image of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) when reflected about a line 𝑙, we follow the following four
steps:

168
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

169
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

5.9.2. Rotations
A rotation 𝑅 about a point O through an angle 𝜃 is a transformation of the plane onto itself which maps
every point 𝑃 of the plane into the point 𝑃′ of the plane such that 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃′ and 𝑚∠(𝑃𝑂𝑃′ ) = 𝜃

If 𝑅𝜃 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ), then 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃.

170
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

171
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

172
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

ESSLCE Questions
1. Let 𝐴𝐵 be a vector of length 2cm to the west and 𝐵𝐶 be a vector of length 2 cm to the
south. Which one of the following describes the sum of the two vectors? A. 2√2 cm in
the direction East 30° South B. 2√2 cm in the direction West 30° South C. 4 cm in
the direction West 45° South D. 4 cm in the direction West 60° South
2. Which one of the following is a vector quantity?
A. Size of a plantation farm. B. Velocity of a moving car.
C. Volume of a normal size bottle. D. Amount of fat in one liter of milk.
3. Let 𝑢 = (−1, 4) and 𝑣 = (1, −3) be vectors in the plane. Which one of the following
equal to 𝑢 − 𝑣? A. (−2, 1) B. (0, 1) C. (−2, 7) D. (0, 7)
4. Let 𝑢 = (3, −5) and 𝑣 = (−1, −1). What is 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣?
A. −8 B. 2 C. −4 D. 4
5. Let 𝑎 = (1, 3, −1) and 𝑏 = (2, −1, 1) be vectors in space. Which one of the following is
true?
A. 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (−1, 4, −2) B. 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (3, 4, 0)
C. 3𝑎 = (3, 9, 3) D. 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = (5, −1, 1)
6. What is the image of a line 𝑙: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 when reflected about the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 2?
A. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 5 C. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5
B. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 5 D. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 − 5

173
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Chapter 6
Matrices and Determinant
6.1. Definition of Matrices and types of matrices ….(Grade 11, Page 219)

6.1.1. Definition of Matrices

Consider the stock position of different bulbs of red, blue and green colors of 25, 40, 60 and 100
watts, available in an electrical store and displayed in a tabular form as given below.
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
25 𝑊 21 49 37
40 𝑊 80 95 106
[ ]
60 𝑊 16 30 25
100 𝑊 11 23 31
The table consists of four rows and three columns. The second row informs that there are 80 red,
95 blue and 106 green bulbs of 40 W each available in the store. Such an arrangement of numbers
in array of rows and columns is called a matrix.
A rectangular array of ordered elements (numbers, functions or just symbols) is known as a matrix.
The entries in a matrix are usually enclosed in two curved lines or square brackets.
Definition: A set of 𝑚 × 𝑛 numbers or functions, arranged in a rectangular array of 𝑚 rows and 𝑛
columns is called 𝑚 × 𝑛 (read “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛.
 A matrix A of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 is given below
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋮ ]
⃡𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠

⋮ ⋱ 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛

Notice here the dimensions of the matrix is 𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 coulumns. The row index will
always be stated first. We use boldface type to represent a matrix, and we enclose the array
itself in square brackets. The horizontal lines are called rows and the vertical lines are called
columns.
 The individual values in the matrix are called entries or elements.
 We often use capital letters to represent matrices and enclose the array of numbers with
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
brackets or parenthesis; e.g.,𝐴 = [𝑎 ] or 𝐴 = ( 𝑎21 𝑎22 ). 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is a shorthand
21 𝑎22

notation.

174
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

 For the entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , the suffixed 𝑖 specify the row and the suffices 𝑗 the column in which the entry
appears. Thus 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the entry of the matrix located in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ column of the matrix.
For example 𝑎21 is the element in row 2, column 1 of the matrix 𝐴).
 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix contains 𝑚𝑛 elements.
4 8
4 −7 5
Example: Suppose 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [−7 1], find 𝑎22 , 𝑎13 , 𝑏13and 𝑏31 .
8 1 6
5 6
Classwork: Form a 𝟑 × 𝟒 matrix 𝑩, such that 𝒃𝒊𝒋 = (−𝟏)𝒊+𝒋 .

6.1.2. Algebra of matrices

1. Addition of matrix

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 + 𝐵,
is the matrix obtained by adding corresponding entries of 𝐴 and 𝐵.
1+3=4
1 2 3 0 4 2
[ ]+[ ]=[ ].
3 4 −2 3 1 7
Thus if 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 and 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 .

In general if
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏11 𝑏12 ⋯ 𝑏1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏 𝑏22 ⋯ 𝑏2𝑛
𝐴=[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] and 𝐵 = [ 21 ] then
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑏𝑚1 𝑏𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑏𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛
𝑎11 + 𝑏11 𝑎12 + 𝑏12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 + 𝑏1𝑛
𝑎 + 𝑏21 𝑎22 + 𝑏22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 + 𝑏2𝑛
𝐴 + 𝐵 = [ 21 ] .
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 + 𝑏𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 + 𝑏𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 + 𝑏𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛
1 2 3 7 8 9
Classwork: If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] then find 𝐴 + 𝐵.
4 5 6 10 11 12
Note: If the two matrices are of different dimensionality then corresponding elements cannot be
found, in which case addition is not defined. Matrix addition is defined only when 𝐵 and 𝐴 have
the same numbers of rows and columns, respectively. When this is the case, the matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵
are said to be “conformable in addition.”
Note: We can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order.
Negative of a matrix: If 𝐴 is any matrix, the negative of 𝐴, denoted by – 𝐴, is the matrix obtained
by replacing each entry in 𝐴 by its negative.

175
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

1 2 −1 −2
For example if 𝐴 = [ ], then 𝐴 = [ ].
3 4 −3 −4
1 −1 2 1 0 0 1
Classwork: Find i) [−3] + [ 3 ] ii) [4 0 −1] + [3 −1]
2 −2 3 −2 2 2 4
2. Subtraction of Matrices

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two matrices of the same order. Then by 𝐴 − 𝐵, we mean 𝐴 + (−𝐵). i.e., 𝐴 − 𝐵 =
𝐴 + (−𝐵).
1 2 3 7 8 9
Classwork: If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] then find 𝐴 − 𝐵.
4 5 6 10 11 12
Properties of addition and subtraction of matrices
Matrix addition is commutative: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices of the same order, then 𝐴 + 𝐵 =
𝐵 + 𝐴.
Matrix addition is associative: If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are three matrices of the same order, then (𝐴 + 𝐵) +
𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶).
Existence of additive identity: If 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as that of the matrix 𝐴,
then 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴 = 0 + 𝐴.
Existence of additive inverse: If 𝐴 is any matrix then 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 0 = (−𝐴) + 𝐴.
Additive Inverse of Matrix: If two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are such that their sum (𝐴 + 𝐵) is zero
matrix, then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called additive inverses of each other.
5 2 −1 −5 −2 1 0 0 0
Example: Since [ ]+[ ]=[ ],
1 4 5 −1 −4 −5 0 0 0
5 2 −1 −5 −2 1
hence [ ] is the additive inverse of [ ].
1 4 5 −1 −4 −5
𝑎 𝑑
Classwork: Find the additive inverse of 𝐴 = [𝑏 𝑒 ].
𝑐 𝑓
3. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

If 𝑘 is a scalar (a number) and 𝐴 is a matrix, then the product 𝑘𝐴 is a matrix, each element of which
is 𝑘 −times the corresponding entry of 𝐴. This operation is called scalar multiplication. The result
is a matrix of the same size.
𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵 ⟹ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘𝑏𝑖𝑗 for 𝑖 = 1, ⋯ , 𝑚 ; 𝑗 = 1, ⋯ , 𝑛.

176
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

3 5 −2
Example: If A = [4 2 4 ] find 3𝐴?
3 −4 3
3 × 3 3 × 5 3 × −2 9 15 −6
Solution: 3A = [3 × 4 3 × 2 3 × 4 ] = [12 6 12 ]
3 × 3 3 × −4 3 × 3 9 −12 9
Properties of scalar multiplication
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices of the same order and if 𝑘, 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are scalar, then
 𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵
 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝐴 = 𝑘1 𝐴 + 𝑘2 𝐴
 (𝑘1 𝑘2 )𝐴 = 𝑘1 (𝑘2 𝐴) = 𝑘2 (𝑘1 𝐴)
Classwork: Let matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 be of orders 3 × 2 and 2 × 2 respectively. Then
a) Is it possible that 𝐴 = 𝐵? b) Is 𝐴 − 𝐵 defined? c) For a scalar 𝑘, is 𝑘𝐴
defined?
1 −2 −3 4
Classwork: Find 3𝐴 − 2𝐵, where 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [ ].
0 3 2 1
−2 −1
Homework: 1. Solve for 𝑋 in the equation, 2𝑋 − 3𝐴 = 2𝐵, for matrices 𝐴 = [ 1 0 ] and
3 −4
0 3
𝐵=[ 2 0 ].
−4 −1
𝟓 𝟐 𝟑 𝟔
2. Find matrix 𝑿 and 𝒀 if 𝑿 + 𝒀 = [ ] and 𝑿 − 𝒀 = [ ].
𝟎 𝟗 𝟎 −𝟏
4. Multiplication of Matrices

The product of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 and an 𝑛 × 𝑝 matrix 𝐵 produces an 𝑚 × 𝑝 matrix 𝐶, i.e.

𝐴
⏟ 𝐵
⏟ 𝐶
⏟
𝑚×𝑛 𝑛×𝑝
= 𝑚×𝑝.

Note: Matrix multiplication 𝐴𝐵 of the matrix 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined if the number of columns in 𝐴 is
equal to the numbers of rows in 𝐵.
Example: Consider the following matrices:
2 1
2 −1 3 1 2 3 2
1 5 −2
A= [ ] , B = [4 5 9] , C = [ 5 −7 6 −2 ] ,D = [5 6]
3 0 7 2×3 9 −2
4 −3 6 3×3 −9 0 −1 7 3×4 3 7 4×2

177
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Notice here the multiplication of 𝐴 and 𝐵, 𝐴𝐵 is a matrix of order 2 × 3. Similarly the matrix 𝐴𝐶
is of order 2 × 4. 𝐵𝐶 is a matrix of order 3 × 4. But, it is not possible to form the multiplication
of matric 𝐵 with 𝐴, 𝐵𝐴. (Why?)
The product matrix of two matrices is obtained by taking dot products of the rows of the left matrix
with the columns of the right matrix.

Below we consider the multiplication of matrix 𝐴 by matrix 𝐵, i.e. 𝐴 × 𝐵.

Dimensions Dimensions Dimensions of resultant
Is 𝐴 × 𝐵 possible?
of matrix 𝐴 of matrix 𝐵 matrix

Yes, number of columns in 𝐴 (2 × 2) => 2 rows and 2

(2 × 2) (2 × 2)
equals the number of rows in 𝐵 columns

Yes, number of columns in 𝐴 (2 × 3)=> 2 rows and 3

(2 × 2) (2 × 3)
equals the number of rows in 𝐵
columns

Yes, number of columns in 𝐴 (1 × 1) => a scalar

(1 × 4) (4 × 1)
equals the number of rows in 𝐵

No, number of columns in 𝐴 is not Not Applicable

(2 × 3) (3 × 2)
equal to the number of rows in 𝐵

No, number of columns in 𝐴 is not Not Applicable

(1 × 4) (1 × 4)
equal to the number of rows in 𝐵

Properties of matrices multiplication.

Let A, B and C be any matrices, and if I is an identity matrix, then
i. 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 distributive law
ii. 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) = (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 Associative law
iii. 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴 iv. 𝐴0 = 0𝐴 = 0.
Definition: Let 𝑨 = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ] 𝐛𝐞 𝒎 × 𝒏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑩 = [𝒃𝒊𝒋 ] be 𝒏 × 𝒑 matrices, then
𝒏

𝑨𝑩 = ∑ 𝒂𝒊𝒌 𝒃𝒌𝒋 .
𝒌=𝟏

Note: [Link] multiplication is not commutative (𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨).

178
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 8 12
Example: Let 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then 𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
3 4 3 5 3 4 3 5 18 26
2 2 1 2 8 12
and 𝐵𝐴 = [ ][ ]=[ ]. Hence 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴, but not always.
3 5 3 4 18 26
1 2 2 2
Example: Consider A = [ ] ,B = [ ]
4 1 3 1
1×2+2×3 1×2+2×1 8 4
AB = [ ] = [ ]
4×2+1×3 4×2+1×1 11 9
2×1+2×4 2×2+2×1 10 6
BA = [ ]= [ ]. Hence 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.
3×1+1×4 3×2+1×1 7 7
2. 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎 does not necessary imply 𝑨 = 𝟎, 𝑩 = 𝟎.
1 1 −1 1
Example: 𝐴 = [ ] ,𝐵 = [ ]
2 2 1 −1
1 × (−1) + 1 × 1 1 × 1 + 1 × (−1) 0 0
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]= [ ].
2 × (−1) + 2 × 1 2 × 1 + 2 × (−1) 0 0
−1 1 1 1 (−1) × 1 + 1 × 2 (−1) × 1 + 1 × 2 1 1
𝐵𝐴 = [ ] .[ ]=[ ]=[ ].
1 −1 2 2 1 × 1 + (−1) × 2 1 × 1 + (−1) × 2 −1 −1
3. 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑨𝑪 does not necessarily imply 𝑩 = 𝑪.
1 1 2 1 3 0
Example: 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝐵=[ ] , 𝐶=[ ]
2 2 2 2 1 3
1 1 2 1 1×2+1×2 1×1+1×2 4 3
𝐴𝐵 = [ ].[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 2 2 2 2×2+2×2 2×1+2×2 8 6
1 1 3 0 1×3+1×1 1×0+1×3 4 3
𝐴𝐶 = [ ] .[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 2 1 3 2×3+2×1 2×0+2×3 8 6
Classwork: Matrix 𝐹 is multiplied by matrix 𝐵 so that the multiplication 𝐸𝐵 produces a 5 × 4
matrix. What are the dimensions of matrix 𝐹?
Note: A matrix 𝐴 can be multiplied by itself if and only if it is a square matrix. Then if 𝐴 is a
square matrix, then the product of 𝑛 𝐴𝑠 exist and are given the nth power of 𝐴 (which is of the
same order as the order of 𝐴):
𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⋯ 𝐴 (𝑛-factors)=𝐴𝑛 .
It also follows that 𝐴𝑝 𝐴𝑞 = 𝐴𝑝+𝑞 .
Note: If A is square matrix, 𝐴2 = 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴, ingeneral 𝐴𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐴 =
𝐴𝐴 ⋯ 𝐴 (𝑛 factors).
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Assignment: If 𝑨 = [𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏] show that 𝑨𝟑 − 𝟐𝟑𝑨 − 𝟒𝟎𝑰 = 𝟎.
𝟒 𝟐 𝟏
−1 2 1 0
Homework: Show that if 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then
0 1 −1 2

179
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

(a) (𝐴 + 𝐵)2 ≠ 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵 2

(b) (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≠ 𝐴2 − 𝐵 2
2 −2√2 2 2√2
Homework: Show that 𝐴 and 𝐵 commute, if 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ].
√2 2 −√2 2

6. 1. 3. Transpose of a matrix.

Definition: Let 𝐴 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. The transpose of a matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴′ or 𝐴𝑡 , is

obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴. Thus the first row of 𝐴 is the first column
of 𝐴𝑡 , the second row of 𝐴 is the second column of 𝐴𝑡 and so on.
In general, if 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 then 𝐴𝑡 = (𝑎𝑗𝑖 )𝑛×𝑚 .
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎21 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑡
𝑎12 𝑎𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚2
i.e., For 𝐴 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] the transpose 𝐴 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑚×𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 … 𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑛×𝑚
1 4
1 2 3
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ] then A𝑡 = [2 5].
4 5 6
3 6
Properties of matrices transpose:
1. For any matrix 𝐴, (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴.
2. For any matrix 𝐴 and scalar 𝑘, (𝑘𝐴)𝑡 = 𝑘𝐴𝑡 .
3. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are of the same order, (𝐴 ± 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 ± 𝐵 𝑡 .
4. If 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑛 and 𝐵 is 𝑛 × 𝑝 are matrices then (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵 𝑡 𝐴𝑡 .
−2
Classwork: Verify that (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
= 𝐵 𝐴 if 𝐴 = [ 4 ] and 𝐵 = [1 3 −6].
5

6. 1. 4. Special types of matrices

Some frequently used matrices have special names.

i). Row matrix: A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix. Thus the matrix
[𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 ]1×𝑛 is a row matrix of order 1 × 𝑛.
ii). Colum matrix: a matrix having only one column is called a column matrix. Thus the matrix
𝑎11
𝑎21
[ ⋮ ] is a column matrix of order 𝑚 × 1.
𝑎𝑚1 𝑚×1

180
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

iii). Zero or Null matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It is usually
denoted by 0.
iv). Square matrix: An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is said to be a square matrix of order n if 𝑚 = 𝑛. i.e., if it has
−2 4 −2
1 2
the same number of columns as rows. For example, [ 3 3 3 ] and [ ] are square
0 1
4 −2 4
matrices of order 3 and 2.
In a square matrix of order n, the entries 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛𝑛 which lie on the diagonal are called the
main diagonal entries or more simply the main diagonal or leading diagonal.
1 −1 3
In the matrix 𝐷 = [2 −2 2] the entries 𝑑11 = 1, 𝑑22 = −2, 𝑑33 = 1 constitute the leading
3 −3 1
diagonal.
Note: If the number of rows and number of columns of a matrix are not equal the matrix is called
rectangular matrix.
v). Diagonal matrix only has non-zero elements on the main diagonal. These non-zero elements
can have any value. The following matrices are diagonal matrices.
𝑑11 0 ⋯ 0
𝑑11 0 0
𝑑 0 0 𝑑22 ⋯ 0
𝐷 = [ 11 ], [ 0 𝑑22 0 ], [ ]
0 𝑑22 ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 𝑑33
0 0 ⋯ 𝑑𝑛𝑛
 A matrix 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) is said to be diagonal if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ≠
0, for at least one 𝑖 = 𝑗.
The product of two diagonal matrices is another diagonal matrix, whose main diagonal elements
are the products of the corresponding elements of the two given matrices. Clearly, then, diagonal
matrix products commute. However, if 𝐴 is not diagonal, and 𝐵 is diagonal, the product is not
commutative. In 𝐵𝐴, the corresponding rows of 𝐴 are multiplied by the diagonal elements of 𝐵,
while in 𝐴𝐵, the corresponding columns of 𝐴 are multiplied by the diagonal elements of 𝐵.
vi) Scalar matrix: The diagonal elements are not, in general, equal in value. In the cases in which
the main diagonal elements are equal, the matrix is called a scalar matrix. i.e. A diagonal matrix
whose diagonal elements are all equal is called a scalar matrix.
𝑎 0 0
Example: [0 𝑎 0] is a scalar matrix.
0 0 𝑎

181
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Note: The sum of the entries of the leading diagonal of a square matrix 𝐴 of order n is called the
trace of 𝐴. i.e. trace of 𝐴 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖𝑖 .
Note: 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝐴) + 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝐵).
vi). Identity Matrix or Unit matrix 𝑰: A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal
to unity is called a unit matrix denoted by 𝐼. i.e., A square (𝑛 × 𝑛) matrix whose 𝑖𝑗 elements
are zero for ≠ 𝑗 , and whose elements 𝑖𝑖 are unity, is defined as the “unit matrix,” 𝐼.
 A matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is identity matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1 for 𝑖 = 𝑗 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. e.g.

1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0
𝐼=[ ], 𝐼 = [0 1 0] , 𝐼𝑛 = [0 1 0 0 ]
0 1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
vii). Triangular matrix: A square matrix whose elements either above (below) the leading diagonal
are all zero, is called a triangular matrix. If the matrix, 𝐴, has all zero elements below the main
diagonal, it is known as an “upper triangular” matrix. The transpose of an upper triangular
matrix—one with all zero elements above the main diagonal—is called “lower triangular.” Then
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 0 0
[ 0 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] and [𝑎21 𝑎22 0 ]
0 0 0 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
are examples of upper and lower triangular matrices.
If 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix such that 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 whenever 𝑖 > 𝑗, we say A is upper triangular.
If 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix such that 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 whenever 𝑖 < 𝑗, we say 𝐴 is lower triangular.
Note: If 𝐴 is diagonal, upper triangular, or lower triangular, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) is the product of the
diagonal entries of 𝐴. i.e.
𝑛

|𝐴| = ∏ 𝑎𝑖𝑖
𝑖=0

Such matrices are very important because (1) their determinant is easily calculated as the product
of its main diagonal terms, and (2) its inverse is similarly easy to determine.
viii). Matrix equality: Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal, written 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if
they are of the same order and each element of matrix 𝐴 is equal (identical) to the
corresponding element of matrix 𝐵; i.e 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if for each 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 and
𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟(𝐵).
𝑥−𝑦 6 2 6
Activity: Given the matrix equation [ ]=[ ]. Find the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦.
𝑥+𝑦 8 −4 8

182
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
 Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

ix). Orthogonal, symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix

Definition: A matrix which is unchanged under transposition is known as “symmetric.” i.e. if
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 then 𝐴 is a symmetric matrix.
3 2 −1 3 2 −1
Example: 𝐴 = [ 2 7 0 ] , A𝑡 = [ 2 7 0 ] .
−1 0 8 −1 0 8
Note: If 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 is symmetric matrix then 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 for each 𝑖 and 𝑗.

Definition: If 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴 then 𝐴 is a skew-symmetric matrix.

0 5 7
Example: The matrix A = [−5 0 −4] is a skew-symmetric matrix.
−7 4 0
Note: If 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 is skew-symmetric then 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for each 𝑖 and 𝑗. Moreover when

𝑖 = 𝑗, then 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖 , i.e., 2𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0. Hence element of main diagonal of skew-symmetric
matrix are all zero.
Definition: A square matrix 𝐴 is said to be orthogonal matrix if 𝐴𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 𝐴 = 𝐼.
−1
1 1
Example: 𝐴 = (
) is orthogonal matrix.
1
√2 1
1 1 −1 1 1 1 1 1+1 1−1 1 2 0 1 0
𝐴𝐴𝑡 = ( ) ( ) = 2( ) = 2( )=( ) = 𝐼.
√2 1 1 √2 −1 1 1−1 1+1 0 2 0 1
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
1. For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 is skew-symmetric.
2. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrices of the same order, then so
is 𝐴 + 𝐵.
3. If 𝐴 is symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrix, then so is 𝑘𝐴.
4. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two symmetric matrices of the same order, then 𝐴𝐵 is symmetric iff
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
5. Every matrix 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℝ) can be uniquely written as the sum of a skew-symmetric and
1 1
symmetric matrix. i.e., 𝐴 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 ) + 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 ).
1 3 −2
Classwork: For a matrix 𝐴 = [−2 4 2 ] verify that 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 is
0 5 1
skew-symmetric.

183
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

6.2. Determinant and its properties

It is important that students have mastered find the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix before
progressing to 3 × 3 and above. The determinants of orders 1 is defined as:
 let 𝐴 = [𝑎11 ] be a square matrix of order 1, then determinant of 𝐴, denoted by |𝐴| is
defined as |𝐴| = |𝑎11 | = 𝑎11
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
 The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] is written |𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 | =
21

𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21 .

Example: If 𝐴 = [10], 𝐵 = [−15] and 𝐶 = [0] then |𝐴| = 10, |𝐵| = −15 and |𝐶| = 0.
1 2
Example: Find det. 𝐴 if 𝐴 = [ ].
4 −7
1 2
Solution: |A| = | | = 1 × (−7) − 2 × 4 = −15.
4 −7
Note: The determinants are defined only for square matrices.
𝑎−𝑏 𝑏
Classwork: | | = 𝑎2 − 2𝑏 2 (Show!)
𝑏 𝑎+𝑏

6.2.1. Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix 𝐴 is called singular if |𝐴| = 0 and 𝐴 is called non-singular if |𝐴| ≠ 0.

2 10
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ], then |𝐴| = 0, hence 𝐴 is singular.
1 5
𝑘−2 1
Example: Find 𝑘 if 𝐴 = [ ] is singular.
5 𝑘+2
𝑘−2 1
Solution: Since 𝐴 is singular, | |=0
5 𝑘+2
(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 + 2) − 5 = 0 ⟹ 𝑘 2 − 4 − 5 = 0 ⟹ 𝑘 2 − 9 = 0 ⟹ 𝑘 = ±3.
Properties of determinate.
1. |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑡 |.
2. |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|.
6.2.2. Minors and Co-factors of element

If we delete the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ rows and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ columns in the determinant of 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 , we get another determinant
of order (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 1), and we call the new formed determinant minor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . It
is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .
Consider a determinant |𝐴| of third order

184
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝐴 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎11 𝑎12
Then, the minor of the element 𝑎11 is 𝑀11 = |𝑎 𝑎 |, the minor of 𝑎23 is 𝑀23 = |𝑎 𝑎32 |
32 33 31

and so on.
Cofactors

The scalars 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 are called the cofactor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of the matrix 𝐴, where
𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the minor matrix of order (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 1) formed by deleting the column and row
containing 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ; For example,
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑐11 = = (1) | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = |𝑎
(−1)1+1 |𝑚11 | 𝑎 | = 𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎32
32 𝑎33
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑐23 = (−1) |𝑚23 | = (−1) |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = |𝑎
2+3
| = 𝑎11 𝑎32 − 𝑎12 𝑎31
31 𝑎32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
−2 3
Example: Find the cofactors matrix of = [ ]?
7 11
Solution: 𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 |11| = (1). (11) = 11
𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 |3| = (-1).(3) = -3 , etc…
2 1 4
Example: Find the cofactors matrix of 𝐴 = [5 2 3]
8 7 3
5 3
Solution: 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 | | = (−1)[5 × 3 − 3 × 8] = (-1).(-9) = 9
8 3
2 4
𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 | | = (−1)[2 × 3 − 4 × 8] = (1). (−26) = −26 , etc...
8 3
Determinant of a matrix of order greater than 3
If 𝐴 is a square matrix of order 𝑛 (𝑛 > 2) and if 𝐶𝑖𝑗 and 𝑀𝑖𝑗 are the cofactor and minor,
respectively, of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , then its determinant may be calculated as
|𝐴| = 𝑎𝑖1 𝐶𝑖1 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝐶𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛 = (−1)𝑖+1 𝑎𝑖1 𝐶𝑖1 + (−1)𝑖+1 𝑎𝑖2 𝐶𝑖2 + ⋯ +
(−1)𝑖+1 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑛
or |𝐴| = 𝑎1𝑗 𝐶1𝑗 + 𝑎2𝑗 𝐶2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝐶𝑛𝑗 = (−1) 𝐽+1 𝑎1𝑗 𝑀1𝑗 + 𝑎2𝑗 𝑀2𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑗 𝑀𝑛𝑗
Hence the 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 is the sum of the elements of any row or column multiplied by their
corresponding cofactors.

185
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 . | 22 | − 𝑎 . | | + 𝑎 . |
𝑎32 𝑎33 12 𝑎31 𝑎33 13 𝑎31 𝑎32 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
= 𝑎11 (𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎32 ) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎31 ) +
𝑎13 (𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎22 𝑎31 ).
1 4 7
Example: Let 𝐴 = (2 5 8), find |𝐴|.
3 6 9
1 4 7
5 8 2 8 2 5
Solution: |𝐴| = |2 5 8| = 1 | | − 4| | + 7| | = 1 × −3 − 4 × −6 + 7 × −3 =
6 9 3 9 3 6
3 6 9
0
1 4 7
4 7 1 7 1 4
Or, |𝐴| = |2 5 8| = −2 | | + 5| | −8| | = −2 × −6 + 5 × −12 +
6 9 3 9 3 6
3 6 9
(−8) × −6 = 0
3 −5 3
Example: Find 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐴 if 𝐴 = [2 1 −1].
1 0 4
3 −5 3
1 −1 2 −1 2 1
Solution: |A| = |2 1 −1|= 3 | | − (−5) | | + 3| |= 3(4) + 5(9) + 3(-
0 4 1 4 1 0
1 0 4
1)=54..
Rules of Sarrus (For third order determinates only)
There is another method and to compute the determinant of a 3×3 matrix. It is named Sarrus' rule
or Sarrus' scheme. Consider a 3 × 3 matrix:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
[𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
then its determinant can be computed by the following scheme:

= 𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32

− 𝑎13 𝑎22 𝑎31 − 𝑎11 𝑎23 𝑎32
− 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎33

After writing the determinant, repeat the first two columns as below

186
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

1 2 3 4
0 −1 −2 −3
Homework: Let 𝐴 = ( ), find |𝐴|.
1 0 2 3
1 2 3 0
Note: 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐼𝑛 ) = 1, where 𝐼𝑛 is an identity matrix of order 𝑛.
Adjoint a matrix

Definition: Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix of order 𝑛 and let 𝐶𝑖𝑗 be the co-factor of (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ). Then
the adjoin of 𝑨, denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴, is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix 𝐶 𝑖𝑗 .
1 0 −1
Example: If 𝐴 = [1 3 1 ], co-factors of 𝐴 are:
0 1 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
𝐶11 = | | = 5, 𝐶12 = (−1)3 | | = −2, 𝐶13 = (−1)4 | |=1
1 2 0 2 0 1
𝐶21 = −1, 𝐶22 = 2, 𝐶23 = −1
𝐶31 = 3, 𝐶32 = −2, 𝐶33 = 3
5 −2 1 5 −1 3
then 𝐶 = [−1 2 −2]. Hence, 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 = [2 2 −2].
3 −2 3 1 −1 3

6.3. Inverse of a square matrix

Note: The inverse 𝒂−𝟏 of a scalar (number) 𝒂 is defined by 𝑎𝑎−1 = 1.
We say that the inverse of a square matrix 𝐴 is another square matrix 𝐵 where:
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 and 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼
where 𝐼 is the identity matrix of the same order.
Such a matrix 𝐵, if it exists, is unique and is called the inverse of 𝑨 (written as 𝐴−1 ). Consequently
we have:
𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼 = 𝐴−1 𝐴.
3 10 7 10
Example: Consider these two square matrices: ( ) and ( ).
2 7 −2 3
Multiplying the two matrices
3 10 7 10 1 0
( )( )=( )
2 7 −2 3 0 1
7 10 3 10 1 0
Similarly, ( )( )=( ). Hence these two matrices are inverses of one
−2 3 2 7 0 1
another.
Steps to find the inverse of matrix:

187
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

1. Find the determinant 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐴.

2. Find the cofactors of all elements in 𝐴 and form a new matrix 𝐶 of cofactors, where each
element is replaced by its cofactor.
3. The inverse of 𝐴 is now given as:

−1
𝐶𝑡
𝐴 =
|𝐴|
Note: The inverse 𝐴−1 exists if (and only if) |𝐴| ≠ 0.
To obtain the inverse of a square matrix of order 2 we:
Step 1: Interchange the elements on the main diagonal,
Step 2: Change the sign of the other two elements,
Step 3: Divide by the determinant corresponding to the original matrix.
Suppose we have a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴:
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎22 )
21

Then the inverse of 𝐴 is:

1 𝑎22 −𝑎12
𝐴−1 = ( 𝑎11 )
|𝐴| −𝑎21
Note: 1. 𝐴 matrix having an inverse is called an invertible matrix.
2. Inverse of a matrix is unique.
3. A square matrix 𝐴 is invertaible( non-singular) if |𝐴| ≠ 0 and non-invertible(singular) if
|𝐴| = 0.
1
4. 𝐴−1 = |𝐴| 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴.
1
5. |𝐴−1 | = |𝐴|.

1 0 1
Example: Consider 𝐴 = (0 2 1), since |𝐴| = 0, the matrix 𝐴 do not have inverse.
1 2 2
1 −1 2
Example: Find the inverse of A = [−3 1 2 ]?
3 −2 −1
Solution: + + + - - -
1 −1 2 1 −1
|A| = |−3 1 2 | −3 1
3 −2 −1 3 −2

188
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

= 1 × 1 × (−1) + (−1) × 2 × 3 + 2 × (−3) × (−2) − 2 × 1 × 3 − 1 × 2 × (−2)

− (−1) × (−3) × (−1)
= 6
Since the determinant is nonzero an inverse exists.
1 2 −3 2
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 | | = 3 , 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 | | = 3 , etc.
−2 −1 3 −1
Cofactors matrix will be:
3 3 3 3 −5 −4
𝐶 = [−5 −7 −1 ] , then 𝐶 𝑡 = [3 −7 −8].
−4 −8 −2 3 −1 −2
Finally, the inverse of 𝐴 is:
1 −5 −2

1 3 −5 −4 2 6 3
𝐴−1 = [3 −7 −8] = [ 12 −7 −4
].
6 6 3
3 −1 −2 1 −1 −1
2 6 3

−1
Check 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼 (unit matrix)
1 −5 −2
1 −1 2 2 6 3 1 0 0
−1
𝐴𝐴 = [−3 1 2 ] [12 −7
6
−4
3 ] = [0 1 0].
3 −2 −1 12 −1
6
−1
3
0 0 1
−2 2
Example: Find the inverse of 𝑅 = [ ] using adjoint method if the inverse exists.
5 −4
Solution: |𝑅| = (−2) × (−4) − 2 × 5 = −2.
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 |−4| = −4 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 |5| = −5 𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 |2| = −2 𝑐22 =
(−1)2+2 |−2| = −2
−4 −5 −4 −2
𝐶=[ ] , 𝐶𝑡 = [ ]
−2 −2 −5 −2
1 −4 −2 1 −4 −2 2 1
Hence, 𝑅 −1 = |𝑅| [ ] = −2 [ ]=[ ]
−5 −2 −5 −2 2.5 1
Properties of the inverse of a matrix
1. If 𝐴 is invertible matrix then (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴.
2. The transpose of an inverse matrix is equal to the inverse of its transpose. i.e. (𝐴−1 )𝑡 =
(𝐴𝑡 )−1.
3. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two invertible matrices of the same order, then 𝐴𝐵 is also invertible and
moreover, (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
4. Inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric.

189
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

6.4. Solving system of linear equations with two and three variables
6.4.1. Elementary Row Operations

There are three operations that can be applied to modify the matrix and still preserve the solution
to the system of equations.
Type 1: Interchanging: Interchanging two rows (say 𝑅𝑖 and 𝑅𝑗 ).
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑗
Type 2: Replacing: Replacing one row (say 𝑅𝑖 ) by th sum of itself and a multiple of another
row (say 𝑅𝑗 )
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘𝑅𝑗
Type 3: Scaling: Multiply all entries in a row (say 𝑅𝑖 ) by a non-zero constant(scalar) 𝑘
𝑅𝑖 → 𝑘𝑅𝑖
Note: The same as for column operation.
If the matrix is associated to a system of linear equations, then these operations do not change the
solution set. Therefore, if one's goal is to solve a system of linear equations, then using these row
operations could make the problem easier.
Note: Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a
sequence of elementary row/column operations.
Definition 1. A matrix is in row echelon form if 1. Nonzero rows appear above the zero rows. 2.
In any nonzero row, the first nonzero entry is a one (called the leading one). 3. The leading one in
a nonzero row appears to the left of the leading one in any lower row.
Definition 2. A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (RREF) if the three conditions in Definition
1 hold and in addition, we have 4. If a column contains a leading one, then all the other entries in
1 2 3 4 3
that column are zero. Example. [0 1 1 2 0] is in row echelon form, but not in RREF. Any
0 0 0 0 0
matrix can be transformed into its RREF by performing a series of operations on the rows of the
matrix. The general plan is to first transform the entries in the lower left into zeros. The final step
is to transform all the entries above the leading ones into zeros. The allowable operations are called
elementary row operations.
N4a 6.4.2. Echelon form
For each row in a matrix, if the row does not consist of only zeros, then the left-most non-zero
entry is called the leading coefficient (or pivot) of that row. So if two leading coefficients are in the

190
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

same column, then a row operation of type 3 (see above) could be used to make one of those
coefficients zero. Then by using the row swapping operation, one can always order the rows so
that for every non-zero row, the leading coefficient is to the right of the leading coefficient of the
row above. If this is the case, then matrix is said to be in row echelon form. So the lower left part
of the matrix contains only zeros, and all of the zero rows are below the non-zero rows. The word
"echelon" is used here because one can roughly think of the rows being ranked by their size, with
the largest being at the top and the smallest being at the bottom.
For example, the following matrix is in row echelon form, and its leading coefficients are shown
in bold face.
0 𝟑 1 −1
[0 0 𝟓 1]
0 0 0 0
It is in echelon form because the zero row is at the bottom, and the leading coefficient of the second
row (in the third column), is to the right of the leading coefficient of the first row (in the second
column).
A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if furthermore all of the leading coefficients
are equal to 1 (which can be achieved by using the elementary row operation of type 2), and in
every column containing a leading coefficient, all of the other entries in that column are zero
(which can be achieved by using elementary row operations of type 3).

Note: A matrix of numbers can have infinitely many Row-Echelon Forms [that the matrix is row-
equivalent to], but it has only one unique RRE Form.

Properties of a Matrix in Row-Echelon Form

1) If there are any “all-0” rows, then they must be at the bottom of the matrix.
A side from these “all-0” rows,
2) Every row must have a “1” (called a “leading 1”) as its leftmost non-0 entry.
3) The “leading 1”s must “flow down and to the right.”
More precisely: The “leading 1” of a row must be in a column to the right of the “leading 1”s of
all higher rows.
Properties of a Matrix in Reduced Row-Echelon (RRE) Form
1-3) It is in Row-Echelon form. (See Part F.)
4) Each “leading 1” has all “0”s elsewhere in its column.

191
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

6.4.3. Gaussian Elimination

You may recall from your prior mathematics work that there are three possible conclusions we can
make about the solution to a system of equations.
Case 1: There exists one unique solution.
Case 2: There is no solution.
Case 3: There is an infinite number of solutions.
Case 1: There is unique solution: Consider the example…
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 𝑅1
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 1 𝑅2
3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅3
To begin, we write the associated augmented matrix, which is written in the following form:
1 3 0 0
[1 1 1 |1]
3 −1 −1 11
To apply the method on a matrix, we use elementary row operations to modify the matrix. Our
goal is to end up with the identity matrix, which is an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix with all 1’s in the main
1 ⋯ 0
diagonal and zeros elsewhere: 𝐼 = [ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ], on the left side of the augmented matrix.
0 ⋯ 1
Our solution to the system of equations will be the resulting matrix on the right side of the
augmented matrix. This is because the resulting augmented matrix would represent a system of
equations in which each variable could be solved for (if a solution exists).
System of equations Row operation Augmented matrix

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 1 3 0 0
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 1 [1 1 1 |1]
3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 3 −1 −1 11

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 1 3 0 0
−𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 [0 −2 1 | 1 ]
3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 3 −1 −1 11

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 1 3 0 0
−𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 [0 −2 1 |1]
−10𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 0 −10 −1 11

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 1 3 0 0
−12𝑦 = 12 [0 −12 0 |12]
−10𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 0 −10 −1 11

192
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 0 1 3 0 0
𝑦 = −1 1 [0 1 0 |−1]
−10𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅2 → − 𝑅2
12 0 −10 −1 11

𝑥=3 1 0 0 3
𝑦 = −1 [0 1 0 |−1]
−10𝑦 − 𝑧 = 11 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 3𝑅2 0 −10 −1 11

𝑥=3 1 0 0 3
𝑦 = −1 [0 1 0 |−1]
−𝑧 = 1 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 10𝑅2 0 0 −1 1

𝑥=3 1 0 0 3
𝑦 = −1 [0 1 0 |−1]
𝑧 = −1 𝑅3 → −𝑅3 0 0 1 −1

The solution to our system is therefore 𝒙 = 𝟑, 𝒚 = −𝟏 and 𝒛 = −𝟏.

Case 2: There is no solution.
Consider the system of equations:
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 4
−6𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 2
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Augmented matrix: [ 𝟑 𝟐 −𝟒 | 𝟒 ]
−𝟔 𝟑 −𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Using row operation 𝑅3 + 3𝑅1 → 𝑅3 , we get [𝟑 𝟐 −𝟒 | 𝟒 ].
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟓
We note that the third row in the augmented matrix is a false statement, so there is no solution to
this system. WHEN DOES A SYSTEM HAVE NO SOLUTION? If we ever get a row of the
form: 0 0 ⋯ 0 | non zero constant.
Case 3: There is an infinite number of solutions.
Consider the system of equations:
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −3
4𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1
−2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 6
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟑
Augmented matrix: [ 𝟒 𝟒 −𝟐 | 𝟏 ]
−𝟐 𝟐 −𝟒 𝟔
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟑
Using row operations 𝑅2 − 4𝑅1 → 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 + 2𝑅1 → 𝑅3 , we get [𝟎 𝟖 −𝟏𝟎 | 𝟏𝟑 ].
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

193
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

This represents a system that leaves us with 2 equations and 3 unknowns. So, we are unable to solve
for one variable without expressing it in terms of another. This gives us an infinite number of
solutions.
Note: If we get a row of all “0”s, such as: 0 0 ⋯ 0 | 0, all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) satisfy it.
However, a row of all “0”s does not automatically imply that the corresponding system has infinitely
many solutions.

1. 1. 8. Solving system of linear equations: 𝑨𝒙 = 𝑩.

Given:
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + … … … + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + … … … + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + … … … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
In matrices:
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
[ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ] { ⋮ } = [ ⋮ ] ⟹ 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵.
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛
There are many methods:
1. By inversion of coefficients matrix.
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
Example: Solve the following system of equations:
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2
1 3 𝑥 5
Solution: [ ]{ } = [ ]
−1 2 𝑦 2
|𝐴| = 1 × 2 − 3 × (−1) = 5
𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 |2| = 2 , 𝑐12 = 1 , 𝑐21 = −3 , 𝑐22 = 1
2 1 2 −3
Hence 𝐶 = [ ] , 𝐶𝑡 = [ ]
−3 1 1 1
2 −3
−1
𝐶𝑡 1 2 −3
𝐴 = = [ ] = [51 5
]
|𝐴| 5 1 1 1
5 5
2 −3 4
𝑥 5 5
{𝑦} = [51 1 ] . [ ] = [57]
5 5 2 5

194
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

Example: Solve the following system of equations:

8𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 30
𝑥1 − 9𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 1
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 6𝑥3 = 31
8 2 3 x1 30
Solution: [1 −9 2] . {x2 } = [ 1 ]
2 3 6 x3 31
−9 2 1 2
c11 = (−1)1+1 . | | = −60 , c12 = (−1)1+2 | | = −2
3 6 2 6
1 −9 2 3
c13 = (−1)4 | | = 21 , c21 = (−1)3 | |= −3 , etc.
2 3 3 6
−60 −2 21 −60 −3 31
C = [ −3 42 −20] , CT = [ −2 42 −13]
31 −13 −74 21 −20 −74
+ + + - - -
8 2 3 8 2
|A| = |1 −9 2| 1 −9 = (−432) + (8) + (9)— 54 − (48) − (12) = −421
2 3 6 2 3
−60 −3 31
−1 1
A = −421 [ −2 42 −13]
21 −20 −74
60 3 −31
𝑥1 421 421 421 30 2
{𝑥2 } = [ 421
2 −42
421
13
421 ] . [ 1 ] = [1].
𝑥3 −21 20 74 31 4
421 421 421

2. Cramer's rule.
This method based on replacing the column(s) of variables by the column vector of results, then
the value of each variable can be found by dividing the determinate of the new matrix to the
determinate of the matrix of coefficients.
𝑏1 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑏1 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑏1
𝑏 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎 𝑏2 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑏2
| 2 | | 21 | | |
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛1 𝑏𝑛 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑏𝑛
𝑥1 = |𝐴|
, 𝑥2 = |𝐴|
,⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 = |𝐴|

Example: Solve the following system of equations:

−4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 9𝑧 = 2
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8
−4 2 −9 𝑥 2
Solution: [ 3 4 1 ] {𝑦} = [5]
1 −3 2 𝑧 8

195
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

For |𝐴𝑥 |, replacing the first column of |𝐴| with the corresponding constants 2, 5 and 8, we have

2 2 −9 2 2 −9
|5 4 1| |5 4 1|
8 −3 2 441 8 −3 2 −189
𝑥= −4 2 −9 = =7 𝑦= −4 2 −9 = = −3 𝑧=
63 63
|3 4 1| |3 5 1|
1 −3 2 1 8 2
2 2 −9
|5 4 1|
8 −3 2 −252
−4 2 2 = = −4
63
|3 4 5|
1 −3 8

So the solution set of the system is 𝑥 = 7, 𝑦 = −3, 𝑧 = −4.

3. Gaussian’s method
The solution using this method has three stages. In the first stage the equations are written in matrix
form. In the second stage the matrix equations are replaced by a system of equations having the
same solution but which are in triangular form. In the final stage the new system is solved by back-
substitution.
Example: Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations:
x1 + 5x2 = 7
−2x1 − 7x2 = −5
1 5 𝑥1 7
Solution: In matrix, [ ] . {𝑥 } = [ ]
−2 −7 2 −5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 2𝑅1
1 5 𝑥1 7
[ ].{ } = [ ]
0 3 𝑥2 9
3𝑥2 = 9 ⟹ 𝑥2 = 3
𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 = 7 ⟹ 𝑥1 = 7 − 5 × 3 = −8
Example: Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations:
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 5
4𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = 9
−2𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 = 4
4𝑥1 + 11𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 + 8𝑥4 = 2
2 1 −1 2 𝑥1 5
𝑥
Solution: In matrix, [ 4 5 −3 6] . { 2 } = [9]
𝑥3
−2 5 −2 6 4
4 11 −4 8 𝑥4 2
The operation 𝑅2 ⟶ 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 ⟶ 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 , 𝑅4 ⟶ 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1 gives

196
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

2 1 −1 2 𝑥1 5
[0 3 −1 2] . {𝑥2 } = [−1]
0 6 −3 8 𝑥3 9
0 9 −2 4 𝑥4 −8
The operation 𝑅3 ⟶ 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 , 𝑅4 ⟶ 𝑅4 − 3𝑅2 gives
2 1 −1 2 𝑥1 5
0 3 −1 2 𝑥2 −1
[ ] . {𝑥 } = [ ]
0 0 −1 4 3 11
0 0 1 −2 𝑥4 −5
The operation 𝑅4 ⟶ 𝑅4 + 𝑅3 gives
2 1 −1 2 𝑥1 5
𝑥
[0 3 −1 2] . {𝑥2 } = [−1]
0 0 −1 4 3 11
0 0 0 2 𝑥4 6
Then 2𝑥4 = 6 ⟹ 𝑥4 = 3
−𝑥3 + 4𝑥4 = 11 ⟹ −𝑥3 + 4(3) = 11 ⟹ 𝑥3 = 1
3𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = −1 ⟹ 3𝑥2 − 1 + 2(3) = −1 ⟹ 𝑥2 = −2
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 = 5 ⟹ 2𝑥1 + (−2) − 1 + 2(3) = 5 ⟹ 𝑥1 = 1

ESSLCE Questions
1. Let A and B be 33 matrices. Which of the following is NOT true?
A. If 𝐵 = −𝐴, |𝐴| = |𝐵|.
B. If 𝑟 is a non-zero constant, then |𝑟𝐴| = 𝑟 3 |𝐴|.
C. |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |
D. |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
2. Let 𝐴 = (𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ) and 𝑟 ∈ ℝ. Which one of the following is equal to 𝑟𝐴?
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑐
A. (𝑟 3 𝑑 𝑟 3𝑒 𝑟 3𝑓) B. (𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑓)
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑟𝑔 𝑟ℎ 𝑟𝑖
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑐 𝑟𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
C. ( 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓) D. (𝑟𝑑 𝑒 𝑓)
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑟𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
4 −3
−2 0 5
3. Let 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = (2 −1). Which of the following is equal to 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑇 ?
3 −1 4
1 0

197
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

−2 2 4 −2 2 6 −1 1 2 1 1 3
A. ( ) B. ( ) C. 2 ( ) D. 2 ( )
0 2 4 0 −2 4 0 −1 2 0 −1 2
4. Which one of the following matrices is the augmented matrix of the system
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5 ?
−𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
−1 2
−4 0 −1 2 0 −4
A. ( 2 −3
0 5| ) B. ( 2 −3 0 | 5 )
0 −1
2 −1 0 2 −1 0
−1 0 4
2 −1 2 −4 0
C. ( 2 0| 5)
−3 D. ( 2 −3 0 | 5)
0 −1
2 0 0 2 −1 0
3 −5 1
5. Given the matrix 𝐴 = ( 2 0 4), let 𝑀𝑖𝑗 be the minor of the entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of 𝐴 and 𝐶𝑖𝑗
−2 −4 5
be the cofactor of the entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of 𝐴. Which one of the following is correct?
A. 𝐶32 = −10 B. 𝐶21 = −21 C. 𝑀31 = 20 D. 𝑀12 = 2
6. For what value of a constant 𝑘 is det 𝐴 = −3, where,
2 𝑘 0
𝐴 = (0 −1 −3) ?
1 𝑘 5
13 7 7 7
A. − B. − 3 C. 9 D. 3
9

Chapter 7: Limit and Continuity (8 hrs)

7.1. Limit of functions
7.2. Continuity of functions
7.3. Intermediate value theorem

Chapter 8: Derivative and its Application (11 hrs)

8.1. Definition of derivative and its geometric interpretation
8.2. Rules of differentiation
8.3. Derivatives of special functions (exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric)
8.4. Extreme values of functions

198
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]
Lecture Note for Remedial Program (Mathematics) Chapter 4: Coordinate Geometry

8.5. Minimization and Maximization problems

Chapter 9: Integration and its Application (11 hrs)

9.1. Integration as a reverse process of derivative
9.2. Techniques of integration (Substitution, by partial fractions and by parts)
9.3. Definite integral and Fundamental theorem of calculus
9.4. Area of a region under a curve and between two curves

199
Compiled by: Tesfaye Teferi (PhD)
tesfayeteferi@[Link]