SECTION II

DE LA FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA MANUTENTION

STET13~RDERER° MANUTENTIONCONTNUE~’OONTNUOUSHANDLNG

39/41, rue Louis Blanc - 92400 Courbevoie

~a 92038 Paris La D~fense cedex, France
t~l. 01 47 17 63 35 - t61~copie 01 47 17 63 30

RULES FOR THE DESIGN OF

MOBILE EQUIPMENT
FOR CONTINUOUS HANDLING
OF BULK MATERIALS

1997
 SECTION II
DE LA FEDERATION EUROPEENNE DE LA MANUTENTION
STETIGFORDERER ~ MANUTENTION CONTINUE CONTINUOUS HANDLING
Secr~taire : Madame E. A. Codsvelle
39/41, rue Louis Blanc, 92400 Courbevoie
E~ 92038 Paris-La D~fense cedex, France
t~l. 33 (0)1 47 I7 63 27- t~l~copie 33 (0)1 47 17 63 30

RULES FOR THE DESIGN

OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT FOR
CONTINUOUS HANDLING
OF BULK MATERIALS
DOCUMENT 2 131 / 2 132

GENERAL SUMMARY

chapter 1 Scope and field of application p 1-1 to 1-12

chapter 2 Classification and loading of structures
and mechanisms p 2..1 to 2-45
chapter 3 Calculating the stresses in structures p 3-1 to 3-83
chapter 4 Calculation and choice of mechanisms
components p 4-1 to 4-34
chapter 5 Safety requirements p 5-1 to 5-2
chapter 6 " Tests and tolerances p 6-1 to 6-19

edition 1997

Copyright by FEM Section If - Also available in French and German

© FEM Section II

CHAPTER

SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION

CONTENTS

Foreword and general eontents 1-1 1-3

Introduction 1-2 1-5

Scope of the rules I-3 1-6

Field 0f application i-4 1-6
List of main sYmbols and notations 1-5 1-8

,,,[
© FEM Section II 1-3

1-1 FOREWORD AND GENERAL CONTENTS

The rules for the design of mobile equipment for continuous handling of bulk materials developed by the
Technical Committee of FEM Section II have always been widely used in many countries throughout the
world.

It should be mentioned that, since its January 1978 edition,, the document FE.M 2 131 - 01/1978 has been
adopted as an ISO international standard under the reference ISO 5049/1. It shall be proposed ’for this ISO
standard a revision to include the corresponding chapters of the present FEM edition.

The revision done in 1997 does not bring fundamental changes to the 1992 edition. The important
modifications deal with the following points :
- fatigue calculation of mechanisms, .. ’
- friction resistances to define drive mechanisms and braking devices,
- tables describing cases of notch effect for welded structure.

In order to keep the history of the evolution of these rules which apply to the machines defined below in
the clause "Scope", .it has been indicated below what are the :added values .of .the 1992 edition to the
documents :

a) FEM 2 131, edition January 1978 "Rules for the design of .mobile continuous bulk handling
equipment - chapter I Structures",

b)- FEM 2 132, edition .June 1977 "’Rules for the design of mobile continuous bulk handling
equipment - chapter II Mechanisms";

FEM Section II had decided to issue the 1992 edition of these design rules with a threefold objective :

1) to make the periodical revision ofthe above rules to update them,

2) to add chapters in particular on safety, tests and toleranees, . .

3) to harmoniz~ them, as far as possible, with the third edition of the design rules issued by
FEM Section I in 1988 for the.design .of lifting appliances. "

The following oornments can be made on the three objectives which are at the origin of the 1992 edition :

1) Reyision ofthe.r.td.e..sFEM2 131 -FEM 2 132

The 1992 periodical revision did not involve fundamental changes, but was an updating which
essentially took into account the changes brought in other standards with regard for exaraple to units,
welding symbols, etc.

2) Additions to th~previous edition

The 1992 edition had been completed with two chapters covering :
safety requirements (chapter 5)
tests and tolerances (chapter 6)
It w~s planned to add an "Electriear’ chapter in a next edition.

.../
 1-4 © FEM Section II

3) Harmonization with the 3rd edition of FEM S_e.etion I desi_~n rules, for lifting app!.i.ances

Design departments which have to design both handling equipment (FEM Section II rules) and lifting
equipment (FEM Section I rules) have sometimes met difficulties due to a certain lack of consistency
between the corresponding rules.

While it should be pointed .out that continuous handling equipment and lifting appliances are different
with regard to the definition of loads and their combinations, it should be noted, on the other hand, that
the method of classification of the machines, of.their mechanisms or components, and the calculation
of certain elements, should be similar if not identical.

The 1992 edition therefore tries to be in harmony with FEM Section I design rules to the .greatest
possible extent. Some differences however remain : it may be possible to reduce them later when the
results Of many s0adies currently in progress (calculation for fatigue, definition of rail wheels,
calculation of wind effects,..,) are known.

4) Major chan~es inthe documents FEM 2 i31 and 2 132,,.editions of 1978 and 1977 respectivoly

It should be stressed that the 1992 version of the design rules for continuous bulk handling equipment
does not include any major changes in its content compared to the previous edition which consisted of
documents FEM 2 131 and 2 132. .. ¯.

In particular, the. definition of the loads applying on machines andthe combination of loads have been
maintained for the most part.
The principal changes can be summarized as follows :

- Classification of the machines, their mechanisms and components

Groups have been created to facilitate dialogue between user and manufacturer. As far as the whole
machine is concerned, these groups Called A2 teA8 are directly based on the total desired duration
of utilization.

Mechanisms can be classified in eight groups called.M1 to M8, each group being based on a
spectrum class on one hand and a class of utilization (i.e. on a total duration of utilization) on the
other hand.

Structural or mechanism components can be classified in eight groups named E1 to ES, each of
them being based, in the same way as mechanisms, on a class of load. speetrtml and a class of
utilization.

L~ads to be taken into a~c, count in the calculation of stmctum~

Clarifications have been made regarding the definition of these loads, in particular on the subject of
wind loads. A load case has been added for special situations which may occur for machines during
erection.

Calculating the stresses in structural components

A method for selecting the steel grade in relation to bfittled fracture has been added : the choice is to
be made between four quality groups which are distinguished by the impact strength of the
corresponding steels.

The chapter on bolted joints has been reworked and completed.

...]
© FEM Section II 1-5

The curves giving the permissible fatigue stresses for structural components have been maintained
and given in relation to the component classification group.

Checking and choice of m~ehanism components

Wire ropes ar~ chosen on the basis of a practical safety factor which depends on the mechanism
classification gronp. The rope breaking strength takes into account the rope fill factor and spinning
loss factor.

Regarding the choice of rail wheels, the factor C2 is give~in relation to the. class of utilization of
the mechanism and not the classification group, in order to keep the method used so far which is

To conclude the summary of the major changes introduced in 1992 to the previous edition (documents
F/3M 2 131 and 2 132), it is worthwhile noting that the changes made during the elaboration of the
standard ISO 504911 published.in 1994 (which reproduced the-FEM rules 2 131),have of course been.
incorporated in the 1992 edition.

1-2 INTRODUCTION
To facilitate the use of these rules. by the:purchasers, manufactt~rers and safety 6rganizations concerned, it is
necessary to give some explanatirn in regard to thetwo following quesf!ona : .. :

How should these rules be applied in practice to the different types of appliance whose construction they

How should a purchaser USe these rules to define his requirements .in relation to an appliance which he
desires to order and what conditions should he specify in.his enquiry to ensure that themanufaeturers can
submit a proposal in accordance with his requirements ?

1) First of all; it is.necessary to recognize the great variety of appliances which are covered by the design
. rules..Itis obvious.that a bucket-wheel reelaimer.used for veryhigh duty in a st0ekyard is aOt designed
in the.same manner as a small stacker for infrequent duty, For the latter, it may not be necessary to
make all the verifications whieh world appear to be required from reading through the rules, because
one would dearly finish with a volume of calculations which would be totally out of proportion to the
objective in view.

The manufacturer must therefore decide in each particular case which parts of the new. machine, should
be analysed and which parts can be .accepted without calculatioi~. This is not because the latter would
contravene the requirements of the rules but because, on the contrary,, due to experience; the designer is
certain in advance, that the calculations for the latter would only confirm a favourable outcome. This
may be because a standard component is being used which has been verified once and for all or because
it has been established that some of the verifications imposed by the rules cannot, in certain cases,
have an unfavourabIe result and therefore serve no purpose.

With the fatigue calculations, for example, it is very easy to see that certain verifications are
unnecessary for appliances of light or moderate duty because they always lead to the conclusion that
the most unfavourable eases are those resulting from checking safety in relation to the elastic limit or
to the breaking stress.

These considerations show that calculations, made in accordance with the rules, can take a very
different form according to the type of appliance which is being considered, and may, in the case of
 I-6 © FEM Section II

a simple machine or a machine embodying standard components, be in the form of a brief summary
without prejudicing the compliance of the machine with the principles set out by the design rules.

As far as the second question is concerned, some explanation is f~rst desirable for the purchaser, who
may be somewhat bewildered by the extent of the document and confused when faced with the Variety
of choice which it presents, a variety which is, however, necessary if one wishes to take account of the
great diversity of problems to be resolved.

In fact, the only important matter for the purchaser is to define the duty which is to be expected from
the appliance and if:possible to give some indication of the duty of the various individual motions.

As regards the service to be performed by the appliance, only one factor must be specified, i.e. the
class of utilization, as defined in 2-1.2.2. This gives the group in which the appliance must be ranged.

In order to Obtain the number of hours which determines the elass of utilization, the purchaser may, for
instance, find the product of:
- the average number of hours which the appliance will be used each day,
the average number of days ofuseper year,
the number of years after which the appliance may be considered as having to be replaced.

In the case of mechanisms, the following should also be specified

- the class of utilization, aS defined in 2-L3.’2,
- the load spectrum, as defined in 2-1.3.3.

On the basis of the class of utilization of the appliance as a whole, it is possible to determine a total
number of working hours for each mechanism according to the average duration of a working cycle and
¯ the ratio between the operating time of the .mechanism and the duration of the complete cycle. An
example of classification Of an- appliance, its mechanisms and elements is given in 2-1.5.
As a general rule, the purchaser need not supply any other information in connection with the design
of the appliance, except in certain cases : e.g. the value of the out-of-service wind. where local
conditions are considered to necessitate design for an out-of-service wind greater than .that defined in
2-2.3.6.

1-3 SCOPE OF THE RULES

The purpose of these rules is to determine the loads and combinations of loads which must be taken into
account when designing handling appliances, and also to establish the strength and stability conditions to
be observed for the various load combinations.

1-4 FIELD OF APPLICATION

These rules ar~ applicable to mobile equipment for continuous handling of buIk materials, especially to
rail-mounted :

- stackers
- shiploaders
- reclaimers l
- combined stackers and reelaimers equipment fitted with bucket -wheels or bucket chains
- continuous ship unloaders J
© ~M Section II 1-7

For other equipment, such as :

excavators,
scrapers,
reclalmers with scraper chains, .
tyre or crawler-mounted stackers and/or reclaimers,

the clauses in these design rales appropriate to each.type of apparatus are alSplicable,

It should be noted that when a’ mobile machine includes one or se~eraI belt conveyors .as conveying
elements, the clauses of these design rules, inS0f~ as il~ey apply to ~he machine in question, areapplicable.
The selection of the conveyors should.he made in acgordaucewith the standard ISO 5048 : "Continuous
mechanical handling equipment - Belt conveyors with Carrying idlerS - Calculation of operating power and
tensile forces".

On the other hand, belt conveyors which are not part of a mobile machine are excluded from the scope of
these design rules.
 1-8 © FEM Section II

1-5 LIST OF MAIN SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS

Dimen-
Symbol sion Designation - First mendon chapter (...)

A m2 Front area exposed to wind (2-2,2,1)

A2 to A8 Handling machine groups (2-1.2)

Ae EnvelOped area of lattice (2-2.2.1)

B Belt width of theconveyor (2-2.1.2)

B0 to B10 Classes of utilization of structural members (2-1.4.2)
b Width of the flow of material on the belt(2.2.1.2)
b Useful width of rail in wheel calculation (4-2.4.1)
C Coefficient used to calculate the tightening torque of bolts (3-2.3) ;
selection coefficient for choice of running steel wire ropes.(4-2.2.1)
cf Shape coefficient in wind load calculation (2-2.2.1)

C1, Clmax Rotation speed coefficients for wheel calculation (4-2.4.1)

C2, C2max Utilization class coefficient for wheel calculation (4-2.4.1)

C~ C~ Factors characterising the slope of Wfihler curves (4-1.3.5)

D Symbol used in plate inspection for lamination defects (3-2.2.1)
D mm Rope winding diameter (4-2.3.1) ; wheel diameter (4-2.4.1)

Dt mm Diameter of bolt holes (3-2.3)

d mm Nominal diameter of rope (4-2.2.1)

d2 mm Bolt diameter at thread root (3-2.3)

dt mm Nominal bolt diameter (3-2.3)

N/mm~ EIastie modulus (3-2.1.1)

E1 to E8 Groups of components (2-1.4)
F N Wind force (2-2.2.1) ; compressive force on member in crippling
ealcuIation (3-3)

F0 N Minimum breaking load of rope (4-2.2.1)

f Fill factor of rope (4-2.2.1)

...]
© FEM Section 1I I-9

Dimen-
Symbo! sion Designation - First mention chapter (.,.)

g m]s2 Acceleration due to gravity, according to ISO 9,8(}665 m/s2

H Coefficient depending on group for choice of rope drums and pulleys

(4-2.3.1)
HodzontaI force perpendicular to rail axis (2-2.2.6)

Group number in component groups E1 to E8 (4-1.3.6)

Safety coefficients for calculation of bolted joints (3-2.3)

K’ Empirical coefficient for determining minimum breaking strength of

rope (4-2.2.I)

KO to K4 Stress concentration classes for welded parts (3-4,5,1)

KL Pressure of wheel on rail (4-2,4.2)

k Spinning loss coefficient for ropes (4-2.2.1)

Size coefficient in fatigue verification of mechanism parts (4-1.3.3)

l~m
ks Shape coefficient in fatiguz verification of mechanism parts

ksp , .Spectrum factor for components (2,1.4,3)

Surface finish ,(machining)coefficient in fatigue verification of
mechanism parts (4-1.3.3)

kue Corrosion coefficient in fatigue verification of mechanism parts

(4-1.3.3)
L1 toL4 Spectrum classes for mechanisms (2-1.3.3)

1 Overall width or rail head (4-2.4.1)

, Length of parts tightenedin bolted joints (3-2,3)

M External moment in bolted joints (3-2.3,4,4)

M1 to M8 Mechanism groups (2-1.3)

Ma Nm Torque required to tighten bolts (3-2,3)

Ms Nm Stabilizing moment for the machine (3-6.1)

Mk Nm Overturning moment (3-6.1)

m Number of friction surfaces in bolted joints (3-2.3.4.2)

o../
 1-10 © FEM Section II

Dimen-
Symbol sion Designation - First mention chapter (...)

Number of stress cycles (2-1.4,2)

N External force perpendicular to joint plane in bolted joints

(3-2.3.4.3)
kN Permissible additional tensile force for bolt (3-2.3.4.5)

Number of stress cycles (4-1.3.5)

P N Load on.wheel (4-2.4.2)

PI to P4 Spectrum classes for components (2-1.4.3)

PIO, P100 Symbols indicating welding tests (3-2,2.1)

Pmean I, II, HI N Mean load on wheel in loading cases I~ II and HI (4-2.4.1)

Pmin I, II, HI N Minimum load on wheel in loading cases I, II and III (4-2.4.t)

~m~x ~, r~, ~ii N Maximum load on wheel in loading cases I, rr and HI (4-2.4.1)

Pa mm Pitch of thread (3-2.3)

PL N/mm~ Limiting pressure in wheel caleulat{on (4-2.4.1)

q Correction factor shape coefficient ks (4-1.3.1)

q N/mm~ Aerodynamic pressure of the wind (2-2,2,1)

RO N/mm2 Minimum ultimate tensile strength of the wire of a rope (4-2.2.1)

mm Radius of rope groove (4-2.3.2) ; radius of rail head (4-2.4.1) ;

bleliding radius (4-1.3A)
S N Maximum tensile force in rope (4-2.2.1)

S m2 Area of material on the conveyor belt (2-2.1.2)

SG Center of gravity of dead leads (3-6.1)

Smean N Mean load in bearing calculation (4-2.1.2)

Smin N Minimum Ioad in bearing calculation (4-2.1.2)

Smax I, II, III N Maximum load’in load cases I, II or HI (4-2.1.2)

Sb mm2 Root sectional area of bolt (3-2.3.3)

s m Span of handling appliance (6-2.2)

T h Total duration of use of handling appliance and its mechanisms
(2-1.2.2)- (2-1.3.2)
© F~M Section II 1-11

Dimen-
Symbol sion Designation - First mention chapter (...)

T Ambient temperature at place of erection (3-1.3)

T N External force parallel to joint plane in bolted joint (3-2.3.4.2)

T0to T9 Classes of utilization of mechanisms (2-1.3.2)

Ta Permissible load per bolt which can be transmitted by friction

(3-2.3.4.2)

Tc Test temperature for impact, test (3-1.3)

tl, t2 .... Duration of different l~vels of loading (2-1.3)

tj ..... tr

Vs rrds Theoretical wind speed (2-2.2.

Vt m/s Nominal travel speed of handling appliance (2-2.3.7)

Vy N Vertical load on travelling whee!.(2-2.2.6)

W0, W1, W2 Notch eases of unwelded members (3-4.5.1.1)

ZA. Assessing e0efficient for influence A (3-1.1.1)

Assessing coefficient for influence B (3-1.1.2)

Zc Assessing coefficient for influence C (3-1.1.3)

Minimum practical factor of safety for choice of steel wire ropes

(4-2.2.1).
All mm Shortening of joined, elements under the tightening force in bolted
joints (3-2,3,3,1)

A12 mm Extension of bolt under tightening force (3-2.3.3.i)

As mm Divergence in span of machine (6-2.2) ; divergence in machine rail

eenlms (6-2.3)
Shielding coefficient in calculation of wind force (2-2.2.1)
o
0 Surcharge angle for material on belt (2-2.1,2)
0 Angle of wind relative to longitudinal axis of member (2-2.2.1)
Ratio of the extreme stress values in fatigue calculation (3-4.4)
Slenderness of oolumn in crippling calculation (3-3.1)
 1-12 © FEM Section

Dimen-
Symbol sion Designation - First mention chapter (...)

~t Friction coefficient in calculation of loads due to motion (2-2.2.5) ;

coefficient of friction in threads (3-2.3)

VE Safety coefficient for Calculation of structural members depending on

ease of loading (3-2.1.1)

VR Safety coefficient for calculation of mechanism parts depending on

case. of loading (4-1.1.2)

VK Safety coefficient for verification of siability (3-6.1)

kglm~ Air density

N/mm~ Calculated stress in structures in general

N/mm~ Apparent elastic limit (3-2.1,t)

OR N/mm~ Ultimate tensile Strength (3-2.1.1)

N/mm~ The Euler stress (3-3.3)

N/mm~ Permissible tensile stress for structural members (3-2.1.1)

flaw N/ram2 Maximum permissible stress in welds (3-2.2.2)

i N/ram2 Compression stress in wheel and rail (4-2.4.2)

N/mm~ Equivalent stress used in calculating structural members (3-2,1.3)

Nlmm2 Shear stress in general

’~a N/mm~ Permissible shear stress when calculating structural members

(3-2.1.2)

Saw Nlmm~ MarJmum permissibla shear stress in welds (3-2.2.2)

Coefficient of elongation for calculation of. bolts (3-2.3.4.5)

9,~p’ Slope of WShler curve (4-1.3,5)
Ratio of stresses at plate edges in buckling calculation (3-3.3)
Crippling coefficient (3-3,1,1)

-o0o-
 Chapter 2

OF STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS

 CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION AND LOADING OF STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS

CONTENTS

Clause.

GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT

AND THEIR COMPONENTS 2-1 2-3

General plan of classification 2-1.1 2-3

Classification of the complete handling machine 2-1.2 2-3

Classification system 2-1.2~I 2-3
Classes of utilization, groups 2-1,2.2 2-3
Load spectrum 2-1.2.3 2-4
Classification of complete individual mechanisms 2-1.3 2-4
Classification system 2-1.3.1 2-4
Classes of utilization :. 2-1.3,2 2-4
Loading spectrum factor 2-1.3.3 2-5
Group classification of complete individual mechanisms 2-1.3.4 2-7
Guidance for group c!assifieation of complete individual mechanisms 2-1.3.5 2-8

Classification of components 2-1.4 2-8

Classification system 2-1.4.1
, Classes of utilization for components 2-1,4.2 2-8
Stress spectrum 2-1.413 2-9
Group classification of components 2-1.4.4 2-11

Harmonization of classification for the complete machine, complete

mechanisms and components (structure and mechanisms) 2-1.5 2-12
Complete machine 2-1.5.1 2-12
Complete mechanisms 2-1.5.2 2-12
Components 2-1.5.3 2~12
Structural component groups 2-1.5,3.1 2-13
Mechanical component groups 2-1.5.3.2 2-13
An example of the classification of a machine and its components 2-1.5.4 2-14

LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES ,2-2 2-18

Main loads 2-2.1 2-19

Dead loads 2-2.1,1 2-19
Material loads 2-2.1.2 2-19
- Material load carded on the conveyors 2-2.1,2.1 2-19
- Loads in the reclaiming devices 2-2,1.2.2 2-21
- Material in the hoppers 2-2.1.2.3 2-21
Incrustation 2-2.1.3 2-22
Normal tangential and lateral digging forces 2-2. !.4 2-22
Forces on the conveyor(s) 2-2.1.5 2-23
Permanent dynamic effects 2-2.1.6 2-23
Loads due to inclination of the working level 2.2.1,7 2-23
 © FEM Section II

Additional loads 2-2.2 2-24

Wind action 2-2,2,1 2-24
Aerodynamic wind pressure 2-2.2.1. t 2-24
In service wind 2-2.2.1.2 2-24
Wind load calculations 2-2.2.1.3 2-25
Shape and shielding coefficients 2-2.2,1.4 2-27
Sn6w and ice loads 2-2.2.2 2-32
,. Temperature 2-2.2.3 2-33
Abnormal tangential and lateral digging forces 2-2.2.4 2-33
Bearing frietion and rolling resistances 2-2.2.5 2-33
Reaction perpendicular to the rail due to travelling of the appliance 2-2,2.6 2-34
Non-permanent dynamic effects 2-2.2.7
Special Ioads 2-2,3 2-35
Clogging of chutes 2-2.3.1 2-35
Resting of the reelalming device or the boom 2,2,3.2 2-35
Failure 0fload limiting devices as in paragraph 2-2.1.2.1 2-2.3.3 2-35
Blocking of travelling devices 2~2.3.4 2-35
Lateral eollisi0n, with the slope in case ofbucket-wheel machines 2-2.3.5 2-36
Wind load on machines out of service 2-2,3.6 2-36
Buffer effects 2;2.3,7 ¯ 2-37
Loads due to earthquakes 2-2.3.8 2-37
Loads during erection (or dismantling) of the machine 2-2.3;9 2-37

LOAD CASES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN,. 2-3 2-38

Table of load cases T.2-3.1 2-3,l 2-38

LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS 2-4 2-40

- General information 2-4.1 2-40
- Loads definition 2-4.2 2-40
- Friction resistances 2-4;2.1 2-40

LOAD CASES FOR THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS 2-41

Tables of load cases T.2-5.1 (4 tables) 2-41
© FEM Section II 2-3

2-1 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF MOBILE EQUIPMENT AND THEIR

COMPONENTS

2-1,1 GENERAL PLAN OF CLASSIFICATION

When designing a mobile appliance and its components for the continuous handling of bulk materials, the
service which they are to provide and their utilization should be taken into consideration. To that end, a
group classification is employed for :

the complete handling machine,

- the eompletejndividual mechanisms,
- the eomponelats of structure and mechanisms.

This classification has been established of the base of two criteria :

- the duration of use,

the load or stress spectrum.

2-1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPLETE HANDLiNGMACHINE

2-1.2.1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Complete h~ndding machines are Classifiedin seven groups respectively designated by the symboIs
A2, A3 .... A8 ~ defined in the table T.2-1.2.2 on the basis of seven classes of utilization,

Important note : The load.spectrum which eharactedz.es all the loads handled by the machine during
its lifetime is not taken into account for the classification of the complete machine (see 2-1.2.3).

2-1.2.2 CLASSES OF UTILIZATION = GROUPS

The utilization class of a machine depends on its total duration of use.

The total duration of use of a machine is defined as the number of hours during which the machine
is actually in operation during its lifetime,

The total duration of use is a calculated duration of use, considered as a guide value, commencing
when the appliance is put into service and ending when it is finally taken out of service.

This duration, measured by a number of hours of use T, depends on the desired service time in
years, the average actual number of service days per year and the average actual number of service
hours per day.

On the base of the total duration of use, we have seven groups of handling machines, designed by
the symbols A2, A3 .... AS.

They are definedin table T.2-1.2.2.

 2-4 © FEM Section II

Complete mechanical handiing machines are most commonly classified in groups A4 to A8.

Table T.2-1.2.2
GROUPS FOR HANDLING MACHINES

Total duration of use T GROUP Symbol :

T < : 1 600
1 600 < T _<
_~ 3200 - A3
,3 200 < T .~ 6 300 A4
6 300 < T : 12 500 A5
12 500 < T ~ 25 000 A6
25 000 < T <_ 50 000 A7
50 000 < T A8

2-1.2.3 LOAD,SPECTRUM
Handling machines in operation are usually loaded close to the rated capacities which have been
taken into account in their dimensioning..

Additionally, the dead weight of the machines is usually important compared to the handled loads.
Thusi a handling machine Will n0rmally be loaded close to the maximum design value throughout
its life:

The load spectrum is therefore not taken into account for the classification of complete handling
machines.

2-1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLETE INDIVIDUAL MECHANISMS

2-1.3.1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Individual complete mechanisms are classified in eight groups, designated respectively by the
symbols MI, M2 ..... MS, on the basis of ten classes of utilization (TO to T9) and four classes
of loading spectrum (L1 to L4). See 2-1.3.4.

2-1.3.2 CLASS OF UTILIZATION

The class of utilization of a mechanism depends on its total duration of use. This is defined as the
time during which the mechanism is actually in motion during the life time of the machine.
© FEM Section II 2-5

The total duration of use of a mechanism is a calculated duration considered as a guide value and
takes into account the fact that the mechanism may be designed to be replaced a number of times in
the total life of the machine.

The total duration of use of a mechanism is expressed in terms of hours, T, calculated on the basis
of the average number of service hours/day, the number of actual service days/year and the required
duration in terms of years before replacement.

On this basis, we have ten Classes of utilization, TO, T1, T2 ..... T9,- the most common elasses
being T3 to T9. They are defined in table T.2-1,3.2.

Table T.2-1.3.2
CLASSES OF UTILIZATION

Utilization class Total duration of use T

symbol

_.. -: T .., < 200

T1 ... ..200.. < .: T ._< 400
T2 400 < T . . < 800
T3 800 < T ~
_~ 1 600
T4 1 600 < T 3 200
T5 3 200 < T _< 6 300
T6 6 300 < T _~ 12 500
T7 12 500 < T -~ 25. 000
T8 25 000 "< T ~ 50 000
T9 50 000 < T

2-1.3.3 LOADING SPECTRUM FACTOR

The loading spectrum factor characterizes the magnitude of the loads acting on a mechanism during
its total duration of use, There is a distribution function, expressing the fraction of the total
duration of use (se~ table T,2-1,3.2) for which the mechanism is subjected to a load attaining a
fraction of the maximum rated load.

An example of a loading spectrum is given in figures 2-1.3.3.1 a and b.

 2-6 © FEM Section

0,2

-I-

Figure 2-1.3.3.1 a. Figure 2-1.3.3.I b;.

Si = loading
Smax = maximum admissible load
ti = duration for which the loading is at least equal to Si
T = total duration of use

Each spectrum is assigned a spectrum factor kin, define.d by :

T (S(t),~d dt
kin-- f ,Smax,
o

For the purposes of group classification, exponent d is taken by convention as equal to 3.

In many applications the function S(t) may be approximated by a function consisting of a certain
number of steps r (see fig. 2-1.3.3.2), of respective durations tl, t2 ..... tr, for which the loadings
may be considered as practically constartt and equal to Si during the duration ti. If T represents the
total duration of use and Smax the greatest of the loadings S1, $2 ..... St, there exists a relation :

t~ +t2+...+tr=~ ti =T

.../
© FEM Section 2-7

and in approximated form :

smS--2--2 T÷ ST "T T i-I T

Depending on its loading spectrum, a mechanism is p!aced in one of the four spectrum classes L1,
L2, L3, L4, defined in table T,2,1.3.3, the m0SLcommon classes generally being L3 and L4 for
the main mechanisms.

Table T,2-113.3
,S,t~,E,CTRUM CLASSES,

Speetmm class Spectrum factor km

symbol

L1 km < 0.125
L2 O. 125 < km -< 0.250
~-
L3 0.250 < km 0.500
0.500 < km :~ 1.000
L4

2-1.3.4 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLETE INDIVIDUAL

MECHANISMS
Depending on their class of utilization and spectrum class, complete individual mechanisms are
classified in one of the eight groups Mt, M2 ..... MS, defined in table T.2-1.3.4. The groups
generally chosen for the main mechanisms are M4 to MS, a result of the commonly selected
classes of utilization and spectrum factors.
 2-8 © FEM Section II

Table T.2-1.3.4
MECHANISM GROUPS_

Class of load
spectrum Class of utilization
TO T1 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8’
L1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
L2 M1 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M8
L5 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M8 M8
L4 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M8 M8 M8

2-1.3.5 GUIDANCE FOR GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPLETE

INDIVIDUAL MECHANISMS
Since appliances of the same type may be used in a wide variety of ways, according to the method
of working for instance, it is not really possible to pre~determine the group of a mechanism
exactly.

The classification possibilities are particularly wide for mechanisms which can be either working
mechanisms or only positioning mechanisms.

Further discussion relating to the harmonization of d!asses and groups is given in chapter 2-1.5,
along With a typical example of classification of a machine and its components.

2-1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS

2-1.4.1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

ComPonents, both structural and mechanical, are classified in eight groups, designed respectively
by the symbols El, E2 ..... E8, on the basis of eleven classes of utilization B0 to B10 and
four classes of stress spectrum P1 to P4.

2-1.4.2 CLASSES OF UTILIZATION FOR COMPONENTS

The class of utilization of a component depends on its total duration of use, which is defined as the
number of stress cycles to which the component is subjected during the lifetime of the machine.

A stress cycle is a complete set of successive stresses, commencing at the moment when the stress
under consideration exceeds the stress ~rm defined in fig. 2-1.4.3 and ending at the moment when
this stress is, for the first time, about to exceed again ~rm in the same direction, Fig. 2-1.4.3
therefore represents the fluctuations of the stress (r over a duration of use equal to five stress
eyeles.

.The total duration of use of a component is a ca!culated duration, considered as a guide value and
taking into account the fact that the component may be designed to be replaced a number of times
in the total life of the machine.
© FEM Section II 2-9

In the case of structural components .the number of stress cycles is proportional to the number of
typical handling sequences. Certain components may be subjected to several stress cycles during a
typical sequence¯ depending on their position in the structure. Hense the ratio in question may differ
from one component to another..Once this ratio is known, the total duration of use for the
component is derived from the total duration of use determined by the class of utilization of the
appliance.

For~mechanical components,-.the total duration of use is derived from thetotal duration of use of the
mechanism to. which .that particular component belongs taldn.g into account its speed of rotation
and/or other circumstances affecting its 0p~ration. . ’..

Based on this total duration of use, we have eleven classes of utilization, designated respectively by
the symbols B0, 131 ..... B10. They are defined in table T.2-1.4.2. The most usual classes are B5
to B 1.0 for the main components. ~ ~

Table T,2-1,4,2
¯ .. CLASSES OF ~IZATION

Utilization class
symbol Total duration of use measured by number N ofstress cycles

130 N < 16 000

B1 I6 000 < N < 32 000
B2 32 000 < N -< 63 000
B3 63 000 < N < 125 000
B4 125 000 < N < 250 000
B5 250000 ~:.... N -< 500000.
B6 500 000 ’ < N -<
~_ 1 000 OOO
B7 000 000 < N 2 000 000
B8 000 .000 < N -<
_~ 4 000 000
B9 000 000 < .N 8 000 000
BIO 000 000 < N

2-1.4.3 STRESS SPECTRUM

The stress spectrum characterizes the magnitude of the loads acting on the component during its
total duration of use. There is a distribution function, expressing the fraction of the total duration of
use (see 2-1,4.2), during which the component is subjected to a stress attaining at least a fraction of
the maximum stress.

Each stress spectrum is assigned a spectrum factor ksp, defined by :

 2-10 © FEM Section II

Wherein the exponent c is dependant on the properties of the material concerned, the shape and size
of the component, its surface roughness and its degree of exposure to corrosion.

For structural components : unless otherwise specified, the value of c should normally be taken
as 3 for welded .parts. Higher values for some configurations may be used in some
circumstances, but these should be used with care.

For mechanical components,: the calculation of c values is given in chapter 4-1.3.5 and
Annex A.4- L3.

In many applications the function ~(n) may be approximated by a function consisting of a certain
humbert of steps, comprising respectively nl, n2 ..... nr stress cycles ; the stress c¢ may b~
considered as practically constant and equal to 6i during ni cycles. If N represents the total number
of cycles and ffmax the greatest of the stresses cr1, ~2 ..... crr , there exists a relation :

with.

and : ~1 > or2 > "- > (rr

we get an approximated form

in which summation is ~’uucated for the first ni -> 2.106. This ni is taken as nr and replaced by
nr = 2.106 cycles.

Depending on its stress spectrum, a component is placed in one of the spectrum classes P1, P2,
P3, P4, defined in table T.2-1.4.3, the most usual classes being P3 and P4 for main components.

Table T.2-1,4.3
SPECT.RUM ,,CLASSES

Spectrum class Spectrum factor ksp

symbol

P1 ksp _< 0.125

P2 0.125 < ksp <-- 0.250
P3 0.250 < ksp -<" 0.500
P4 0.500 < ksp ~ 1.000

..,/
© FEM Section II 2-11

For structural components, the stresses to be taken into ’consideration for determination of the
spectrum factor are the differences asup - ~m between the upper stresses ~sup and the average
stress ~rm, these concepts being defined by fig. 2-1.4.3 representing the variation of the stress
over time during five stress cycles.

Fig. 2-1.4.3 - Variation of stress as a function of time during five stress cycles

upper stress
O’SUp max maximum upper stress
~sup min = minimum upper stress
Oinf -
~m aritlmetie mean Of all. upper and lower stresses during the ~otat.duration of use

in the case of mechanical eomt~onents. ~rm can be assfimed to be zero and the stresses inlroduced
into the calculation of the spectrum factor are then the total stresses occurring in the relevant
section of the component. ¯ :

Note : Stress changes with values less than 10 % of the maximum stress are not to be considered
for the caleulation of the spectrum factor for structural or mechanical components.

These small stress changes, as proved by experience, have no noticeable effect on the working life.

2-1.4.4 GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS

On the basis of their class of utilization and their stress spectrum class, components are classified
in one of the eight groups El, E2 ..... E8, defined in table T.2-1.4.4.
 2-12 © FEM Section II

Considering the most common classes of utilization and stress spectrum classes, the groups
generally used for main components are E5 to ES.

Table T.2-1.4.4
COMPONENT GRQ .L~._S

Stress
spectrum Class of utilization
class
B1 B2 B3.¸ B4 B5~ B6 B7 B8 ~0
P1 E1 E1 E1 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8
P2 E1 131 E1 E2 133 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E8
P3 E1 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E7 E8 E8 E8
P4 E1 B2 , E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E8 E8

2-1.5 HARMONIZATION OF CLASSIFICATION FOR THE COMPLETE

MACHINE, COMPLETE MECHANISMS AND COMPONENTS
(STRUCTURE AND MECHANISMS)

2-1.5.1 COMPLETE MACHINE

The classification of the various mechanisms or components (of structure or mechanisms) of a
given handling machine is derived from the expected TOTAL DURATION OF USE (expressed in
hours) of the machine during its lifetime which defines its GROUP.

The total duration of use (expressed in hours) of the complete maclfine is the product of the three
following estimated’ factors :

average number of actual service hours per day,

average number of actual service days per year,
number of desired service years.

2-i.5.2 COMPLETE MECHANISMS

From the total duration of use of the machine the duration of use of each complete mechanism is
determined. This duration obviously depends on the operating mode of the mael-fine and of the
mechanism involved, and corresponds to a class of utilization (TO to T9). The combination of this
class of utilization with the load spectrum class (L1 to L4) defines the mechanism group (M1
to MS). The most commonly used groups will normally be M4 to M8 for main mechanisms.

2-1.5.3 COMPONENTS
The groups for structural or mechanical components are determined as follows :

..,[
© FEM Section II 2-13

2-1.5.3.1 STRUCTURAL COMPONENT GROUPS

On the basis of the frequency of eperating cycles (and therefore of repetition cycles) and the total
duration of use of the machine, it is possible to calculate the total number of the stress repetition
cycles expected in the lifetime of the machine and therefore to classify the structural component in
one of the classes of utilization 030 to BI0). This is used, along with the spectrum class (P1
to P4) to select the component group (El to ES).

2-1.5.3.2 MECHANICAL COMPONENT GROUPS

Dependant on the class of utilization of a complete mechanism to which a particular component
belongs, the total number of stress cycles to which this component will be subjected in the
duration of use of the mechanism can be determined.

It is not possible to give a general method fo~ determining the number of stress cycles F for a
mechanical component, as the number of stress cycles greatly depends upon the type ofload and the
function of the component in a given mechanism.

Elgme_.nts_of me~h~sms_whose_nu_m.hb~ of..s~r~ss_ ~yel_es_~p_en_ds_onl2~ on_the_n_umhe~: of.workJn_g

This applies to. mechanism elements which, for each operating cycle, undergo stress variations
corresponding to a certain multiple, of the operating cycle, for example, carriage wheel axles,
slewing bearings for rotatifig parts of the unit.

In this case the number of cycles per hour is :

Fh = ka. Sp

where :

Sp = number of working cycles per operating hour

ka = the factor by which the number of operating cycles is multiplied when the mechanism
element is subjected to se~,eral stress cycles for each operating cycle.

]~xamRlg : carriage wheel axle of a reclaiming unit where one worldng cycle includes the following
movements :

1- forward movement of the unit with wheel load

2- slewing the boom
3- forward movement of the unit with altered wheel load
4- boom return.
 2-14 © FEM Section II

In this case : ka = 2, for a fixed axle as the stress changes only when the boom is slewed.

M~h_anism components.with s_t_re_ss_czctes_ _deRe_ndi_’ng on_the_numhe_r _of_r_.ev_olu_ti_o_ns_p_sr_minut_e

This group contains all rotating mechanism parts which are stressed by rotating-bending and
shearing stresses. It also appIies to the bending and Hertzian stresses on toothed gears.

In these cases:

Fh = ka. nm. 60

where : ’

nm = number of revolutions per minute

For the Hertzian stress of toothed gears, whose flanks are used on both sides, e.g. under-carriages or
slewing mechanisms, it shall be considered :

ka-- 0.5

From the number of stress cycles to which the mechanical c0mpo’nent will be subjected, a class of
utilization (B0 to B10) can be determined.. This is used, along with the spectrum class (P1 to P4),
to select the component group (El to 188).

In this manner, all components or sets of components are classified in GROUPS representing the
anticipated service to be provided by those Components.

2-1.5.4 AN EXAMPLE OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF A MACHINEAND

ITS COMPONENTS

The classification and values given in this chapter must only be considered as an example.

The assumptions relating to particular design requirements and operating methods are specific to
this example and will vary according to the detailed design of the machine, site conditions, working
method, etc. .

This example is based on a combined stacker/bucket-wheel reclaimer for the handling of ore and
coal.

Stacking capacity : 3000 t/h of ore - 2000 t/h of coal

Reclaiming capacity : 2000 tlh of ore - 1000 t/h of coal

Ore handling : 2/3 of total tonnage

Coal handling : 1/3 of total tonnage

¯ Desired duration of use : 50,000 hours, i.e. GROUP A7 for the machine as a whole,
© FEM Section II 2-15

From these parameters it can be calculated that the machine will be.used in the following way :

Ore stacking =. 10,500 h approx. (31.5 Mr)

Coal stacking = 7,900h approx. (15.8 Mt)
Ore reclaiming = t5,800 h approx. (31,5 Mt)
Coal reclaiming = 15800 h approx. (15.8 Mt)
= 50,000 h

EXAMPLE OF GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF. MECHANISMS AS,A,~OLE

Total duration Spectrum

Mechanism of use ¯ Class of factor. .. Spectrum GROUP
(h) utilization km * (3) class

Reclaiming .31,600 T8 i.e. 0.76 " M8

unit
:Boom 50,000 T8 i.el 0.45 L3 *(4) M8
conveyor
Slewing 33,500 T8 i.e. 0.80 L4. M8
,,(I)
Lifting 5,ooo i.e. 1’: L4 M7
Travelling 12,500 T6 i.e. 1 L4 M8
* (2)

*(1) Assuming : 31,600h for reclaiming operation

+ 1,900 h during 10 % of stacking operation

*(2) Assuming : 7,900 h continuous travel during coat stacking to ensure preliminary
blending
1,100 h travel during 10 % of stacking operation (iron ore)
3,200 h travel during 10 % of recIaim operation (5-6 seconds/minute
for advance)
TOTAL : 12,200 h
rounded to 12,500 h,

*(3) Spectrum factors must be calculated on the basis of the loads applied during the whole or
relevant parts of the four main service phases, i.e. ore stacking, coal stacking, ore reclaiming,
coal reclaiming.
 2-16 © FEM Section II

For the reclaiming unit for instance, if the loads created by coal reclaiming amount to 80 %
of the loads created by ore reclaiming (corresponding to a maximum load) for equal service
times for ore and coal, factor km will be 0.5 + 0,83 . 0.5 = 0.76 approx.

It should be noted that the most common spectrum class for these appliances is class IA.

*(4) Assuming a reversible boom conveyor, the different duration of utilization in relation to the
total duration of utilization of the machine will be as follows :
storage of iron ore = 012i ~ outofatotalof
storage of coal = 0.158 ~ 50,O00 hours of
reclaiming of iron ore = 0.3i6 ’ l scheduled utilization
reclaiming of coal = 0.3!6 J
If we consider that the mechanism will be loaded at the ~aximum value of 1 for. the storage
of iron ore, the loads on the mechanism for the three other operations are for instance :

0.74 for storage of coal and reclaiming of iron ore

0;53 for reclaiming coal at the capacity of 1000 t/h

we have therefore :

km = 0.21.13 + 0,158.0.743 + 0.316.0.74a + 0 316.0.533

km = 0.449 and spectrum class L3

It must be noted that, for a boom conveyor with a variable inclination it would be possible,
for each of the four kinds of utilization, to calculate an average, load for the driving
mechanism as it is obvious that the maximum loading when staking material is supported
only when the elevation of the handled product is maximum, i.e. with the boom in the
highest position.

Nevertheless, the interest of this study appears only if it is possible to go from a stress factor
spectrum to a smaller one, which is not the case for the example above.

When chosing some components of the mechanism such as the gear box reducer,
consideration may be given to the fact that the boom conveyor is reversible, which means
that the reducer will be used 18,400 hours driving ih one direction and 31,600 hours in the
opposite direction.

CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL AND MECHAt~CAL COMPO]~ENTS

For structural components it is necessary to determine the number of stress cycles to which a given
component will be subjected during the 50,000 h use of the machine.
© FEM Section II 2-17

A structural component will therefore belong to a group (generally E5 to ES) depending essentially
on its position in the machine.

As regards mechanical components, it is also necessary to determine the number of stress cycles to
which each part will be subjected during the use of tke mechanism as a whole, e.g. the slew drive
pinion can be classified as follows :

given rotating speed 2 rpm, hence F = 1/2.2.60 = 60/h

number of hours of utilization = 33,500
hense expected stress cycl.es = 33,500.60 = 2.01.106
class of utilization -"
spectrum class = P4
(according to spectrum factor of approx. 0.8, similar to s ~ectrum factor of slewing mechanism)
hense group classification ES.
 2-18 © FEM Section II

2-2 LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

The structural calcuIations shall be undertaken to determine the stresses developed in an appliance during
its operation or when out of service with maximum wind conditions. These stresses shall be calculated on
the basis of the loads defined below.
Depending on their frequency, the loads are divided into three different Ioad categories : main loads,
additional loads and special loads.

The main loads, include all the permanent loads which occur when the equipment is used under normal
operating conditions.

They mainly are :

- dead loads,
- material loads,
inerus.tation,
normal tangential and lateral digging forces,
- forces on the conveyor(s),
permanent dynamic effects,
~ inclination of the working level.

b) The additional loads are loads that can occur intermittently during operation of the equipment or when the
¯ equipment is not working ; these loads can either replace certain main loads or be additional to the main
loads.

They are, among other :

- wind load for machine in service, ]

- snow and ice loads, ~ climatic effects
- temperature effects, J
- abnormal tangential and lateral digging forces,
- bearing friction and roiling resistances,
- reactions perpendicular to the rail due to travelling (skewing effec0,
non permanent dynamic effects.

e) The special loads comprise those loads which should not occur during and outside the operation of the
equipment but the occurence of which is not to be excluded.

They include :

clogging of chutes,
resting of the reclaiming device or the boom,
failure of load limiting devices (see 2-2.1.2.1),
blocking of travelling devices,
tateral collision of the bucket-wheel with the slope,
wind load on machines out of service,
buffer effects,
loads due to earthquakes,
loads during erection (or dismantling) of the machine.
 © FEM Section II 2-19

2-2.1 MAIN LOADS

2-2.1.1 DEAD LOADS

Dead loads consist of all loads of constant magnitude and position on the machine, which act
permanently on the structure or member being designed.

Note : .It should be noted that stairs, platforms and gangways On which equipment can be placed
must be calculated to bear 3 kNof "pate.1310ad" (on an assuming area of 0.5 x 0.5 m). Access and
gangways only used as passage for people are calculated to bear 1.5 kN/m, and the railings and
guards to stand 0.3 kN of horizontal load.

When higher loads are to be supported, temporarily by platforms, the latter must be designed and
sized accordingly. Platforms of larg, siz~ must be verified with a load of at least 1 kN/m2.

Dead loads include the structure of stairs, gangways, etc, but exclude loads on stairs, gangways, etc,
which are to be considered as local loads for. the. design of these stairs, gangways, etc, but no__!t for
the design of the structure as a Wh01a.

2-2.1.2 MATERIAL LOADS

The material l:oads earn-led on conveyors and reclaiming devices are to be considered as follows :

2-2.1.2.1 MATERIAL LOAD CARRIED ON THE CONV-E. YORS

These loads are determined from the design capacity’ ~tn3/h) and the maximt~mcorresponding bulk
density specified by the customer.,

1) Units with no built-in reclaiming device

a) Where the belt load is limited by automatic devices, the load on the conveyor will be assumed to be
that which results from the capacity thus limited.

b) Where there is no capacity limiter, the design Capacity is that resulting from the maximum
equivalent cross sectional area of the material on the conveyor multiplied by the conveying speed.

Unless otherwise specified in the contract, this cross sectional area shall be determined assuming a
surcharge angle 0 = 20° and considering a surcharge area according to ISO 5048 "Continuous
mechanical handling equipment - Belt conveyors with carrying idiers - Calculation of operating
power and tensile forces".

The diagrams 2-2.1,2.1 hereafter give the cross sectional area to be considered for different belt
conveyor designs.
 2-20 © PEM Section II

Fig. 2-2,!.2,1 - Belt.conveyor cr0ss:~ection~

B
b=0,9 S’0,05rn for B-.< 2 m
b=B-0,25rn for /3>2m

angle

a) With one carrying idler

~e angle

b) With ~wo carrying idlers

/3
c) With three carrying id.lers

.,./
© FEM Section II 2-21

c) Where the design capacity resulting from b) on the upstream units is lower than that of
downstream units, the downstream units may have the same capacity as the upstream units.

Units fitted with bucket-wheel or bucket chain as .reclaiming device

a) Where there is no capacity limiter, the design volumetric capacity shall be.taken as 1.5 times the
nominal filling capacity of the buckets multiplied by the ms’mum number of discharges. In the
ease of bucket-wheels, the factor 1.5 (which takes into account the volumes which can be filled in
addition to the buckets), can be replaced by taking into account the actual fill value additional to the
bucket volume. -

b) Where there are automatic capacity limiters, the design capacity shall be the capacity thus limited.

Where the unit is to be used to convey materials of different bulk densities (for example coal mad
ore) safety devices shall be provided to ensure that the calculated loads will not be exceeded with the
heavier material: :.¯, ’ ’ ’.

3) Dynamic. load factor,

To account for the dynamic loads with can be applied to the conveyor in transporting the material,
the material loads defined above must bemultiplied by the factor 1.1. ..

2.2.1.2.2 .LOADS IN THE RECLAIMING DEVICES

To take into account the weight of the material to be conveyed in the reclaiming. devices it can be

assumed that, typically : ’.

a) for bucket-wheels :

I/4 of all available buckets are full at 100 %,

b) for bucket-chains :

1/3 of all the buckets in contact with the face are 33.3 % full,
1/3 of all the buckets in contact with the face are 66.7 % full,
all other buckets up to the sprocket are I00 % full.

2.2.1.2.3 MATERIAL IN THE HOPPERS

The weight of the material in hoppers is obtained by multiplying the bulk density of the material
by the volume (filled to the brim).
 2-22 © FEM Section

Where the weight of the mater~al is limited by reliable automatic controls, deviation from the
above-mentioned value is permissible.

2-2.1.3 INCRUSTATION

The degre~ of incrustation (dirt accumulation) depends on the specific material and operating
conditions prevailing in each given case.

The data which follow are to be taken as a guide, and are generally applicable to stockyards
machines.

For excavating eqtfipment they are to be taken as minimum values.

Unless experience in particular eases or Customer’s requirements specify otherwise, the loads due to
dirt accumulation that should be taken into account are :

on the conveying devices 10 % of the material load calculated according to 2-2.1,2,

for bucket-wheels the equivalent weight.of a. 5 cm thick layer of material of maximum specified
bulk density on the centre of the bucket-wheel considered as a solid disc up to the cutting circle,

for bucket-chains 10 % of the design material load calculated according to 2-2.1.2, uniformly
distributed over the total length of the ladder.

2-2.1.4 NORMAL TANGENTIAL AND LATERAL DIGGING FORCES

These forces are to be calculated as concentrated loads, i.e, on bueket-wheels as acting at the most
unfavourable point of the cutting circte, on bucket-chains as acting at a point one-third of the way
along the part of the ladder in contact with the face,

a) Normal tangential digging force

For excavators and, in general, for machines for which the digging effort is largely uncertain, the
normal digging force acting tangentially to the wheel cutting eircIe or in the direction of the
bucket-chain is obtained from the nominal rating of the drive motor, the efficiency of the
transmission gear, the circumferential speed of the cutting edge, and the power necessary to lift
the material, and in the case of bucket-ladders from the power necessary to move the loaded
bucket-chain.

To calculate the lifting power, the figures indicated in 2-2.1.2.2 must be used.
© FEM Section II 2-23

For storage yard applications, the above method of calculation may be ignored if. the digging
resistance of the material is accurately known as a result of tests and if it can be guaranteed that
this digging resistance will not be exceeded during normal operation.

b) Normal lateral digging force

Unless otherwise specified, the normal lateral digging force can be assumed as 0.3 times the values
of the normal tangential digging.force. ’

2-2.1.5 FORCES ON THE CONVEYOR(S)

Belt tensions, chain tensions, etc, must be taken into consideration for the calculation as far as they
have an effect on the structures.

2-2.1.6 PERMANENT DYNAMIC EFFECTS

In general the dynamic effect of the digging resistances, the falling masses at the transfer.points, the
rotating parts of machinery, the vibra~ting feeders, etc, need only be considered as acting locally,

b) The inertia forces due to acceleration and braking of moving structural parts must be taken into
account. These can be neglected for appliances working outdoors if the acceleration and deceleration

If possible the drive motors and brakes must be designed in such a way that this acceleration value
0.2 m/s2 is not exceeded.

If the number of load cycles caused by inertia forces due to acceleration and br~.ing is lower than
2 x 104 during the lifetime of the machine the effects should be considered as additional loads (see
2-2.2.7).

2-2.1.7 LOADS DUES TO INCLINATION OF WORKING LEVEL

In cases where the working levet is inclined, dead loads acting vertically should be resolved into
components acting perpendicularly and parallel to the working plane.

The slope related loads should be determined for the maximum slope contractually defined and then
increased by 20 % for the calculation purposes.
 2-24 © FEM Section II

2- 2.2 ADDITIONAL LOADS

2-2.2.1 WIND ACTION

This clause relates to wind loads on the structure of handling machines.

It gives a simplified method of calculation and assumes that the wind can blow horizontally from
any direction, that the wind blows at a constant velocity and that there is a static reaction to the
1endings it applies to the eran structure.

The wind effects Shall.be considered for the machine in service (see 2-2,2,1.2) and for the machine
out of service (2-2.3.6). Unless otherwise specified due to local conditions, the design wind speed
given in these chapters should be used.

2-2.2.1.1 AERODYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE

The aerodynamic wind pressure q, in relation with the air density and the wind speed Vs, is given
by the formula :

P Vs
q:-y-

q = the aerodynamic pressure N/m2

Vs = the design wind speed in m/s, used for the calculation and depending on the load ease
p -- air density in kglm~

Under normal conditions, with p= 1.225 kg/m3, the formuIa becomes :

q = 0.613 V2s

2-2~2.1.2 IN SERVICE WIND

a) Maximumin service wind

This is the maximum wind in which the machine is designed to operate. The wind loads are
assumed to be applied in the least favourable direction in combination with the appropriate service
loads.

For calculation and unless specified otherwise, a maximum design wind speed
Vs = 20m/s = 72 km/h (constant over the height of the machine) shall be assumed for the
machine in operation.

,../
© FEM Section II 2-25

The corresponding pressure q is 250 N/m2 (1).

Equivalent average in service wind

For wear or fatigue calculations on mechanisms for example,, an aerodynamic wind pressure equal to
~t_Ihitd. of the maximum working aerodynamic pressure should be assumed.

This equivalent aerodynamic pressure is assumed to be applied during tile whole design lifetime of
the mechanism and to cause the same wear or fatigue effects as the actual effects of service winds
whose aerodynamic pressures will vary between O and the maximum working aerodynamic
pressure.

¯ It should be noted that this equivalent aerodynamic pressure for wear calculations corresponds to a
wind speed equal to approximately 60 % of the design maximum permissible speed of the service
wind.

Start-up must aIways be po§sible against maximum in service wind,, but it is assumed that the
operating speeds and nominal accelerations are not necessarily reached under maximum in service
wind conditions.

Under certain circumstances, an appliance may have to go back, unloaded, to "out of service"
anchoring positions. In such cases, travelling mechanisms should be dimensioned in relation to the
maximum permissible aerodynamic wind pressures defined in the specifications for this load case,
and dependant on the machine surface exposed to the wind, the machine may need to be placed in a
configuration designed for such transfer.

2-2.2.1.3 WIND LOAD CALCULATIONS

The plane of the exposed parts placed_t~m_ endicu!arI.v, to the wind direction

For most complete or part stmctures, and individual members used in structures, the wind load is
calculated from :

F=A. q. Cf
for a wind blowing perpendicularly to the exposed plane of the components.

(1) Where a wind speed measuring device is to be attached to an appliance, it shall normally be placed
at the maximum height. In eases where the wind speed at a different level is more significant to the
safety of the appliance, the manufacturer sha11 state the heigt at which the device shall be placed.
 2-26 © FEM Section II

where :

F is the wind load in N

A is the effective.frontal area of the part under consideration in irt~
q is the aerodynamic wind pressure corresponding to the appropriate design condition in N/m~
Cf is the shape coefficient for the part under consideration.

Note : shape coefficient is differently named in some documents.

The total wind load on the structure is taken as the sum of the loads on its component parts.

In determining strength of the appliance and safety requirements against overturning and drifting the
total wind load shall be considered (see 3-6 and 3-7).

The.plane of the exposed parts placed non perpertdicularly to the wind..direction (inclined boom for

oruindi_’vi_du_al_ com..~_p_on_enis_with sol3_d

Where the wind blows at an angle.0 to the longitudinal axis of a member (see fig, 2-2,2.1.3) :

The load in the direction of wind is :

¯ F=A~ q. Cf, sin~0

The load in the direction perpendicular to the wind direction is :

F_I. = A. q. Cf. sin 0. cos 0

The load in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member is the resultant of
F and F.!_ and is :

FN = A. q. Cf, sin 0

fig, 2-2.2.1,3

wind

A’ = L,b or L,D,
L = lenght
b = width
D = diameter

.,./
© FEM Section II 2-27

A = area of the projected member on to aplane perpendicular to the wind direction = A’sin 0,
Cf = is in relation with the ratio L/b or L/D according to 2-2.2.1.4,
q = is given in 2-2.2.1.1.

In the case of very small values of the angle 0 (< 20°), the calculation must be made with a
minimum value of 0 equal to 20° (to take into account unavoidable aerodynamic effects).

o_nJ_atti_ce, ig~s_an_d.towe~

Where the wind blows at an angle to the longitudinal axis ofa lattice girder or tower, the wind Ioad
in the direction of the wind is obtained from :

F=A. q. Cf. K2 in N

where F, A, q, and Cf are as defined in 2-2.2.1.3a and

0 which cannot be less than 0.35

K2-
50 (1.7. Ss~) or greater than I

Where 0 is the angle of the wind in de~xees to the longitudinal axis of the girder or tower
(0 -< 90°).

Sp is the area in m2 of the bracing members of the girder or tower projected on to its windward
plane.

S is the area in m2 of all (bracing and main) members of the girder or tower projected on to its
windward plane.

The value of K2 is assumed to have lower and upper limits of 0.35 and 1.0 respectively. It is taken
0.35 whenever the calculated value < 0.35 and as 1.0 whenever the calculated value > 1.0.

SHAPE AND SHIELDING COEFFICIENTS

Shape coefficients for individual members, girders,, ere.

Shape coefficients for individual members, single lattice girders and machinery houses are given in
table T.2-2.2.1.4.1. The values for individual members vary according to the aerodynamic
slenderness and, in the case of large box sections, with the section ratio,

Aerodynamic slenderness and section ratio are defined in figure 2-2.2.1.4.2.

 2-28 © FEM Section II

The wind load on singIe lattice girders may be caleulated on the basis of the coefficients for the
individual members given in the top part .of table T,2-2,2,!~4.1, In this case the aerodynamic
slenderness of each member shatl be taken into account. Alternatively the overall coefficients for
lattice girders constructed of flat sided and circular sections given in the middle part of the table may
be used.

Where a lattice girder is made up of fiat-sided or circular sections, or of circular sections in both
flow regimes (D. Vs < 6 mVs and D. Vs > 6m2/s) the appropriate shape coefficients are
applied to the corresponding frontal areas.

Where gusset plates of normal size are used in welded lattice construction no allowance for the
additional area presented by the pIates is necessary, provided the lengths of individual members am
taken between the centres of node points.

Shape coefficients obtained from wind-tunnel or full-scale tests may also be used.
© FI~M Section II 2-29

T.2-2.2.1.4.1
SHAPE COEFFICIENTS .

Type Description Aerodynamic slenderness I/b or 1/D *

<5 10 20 [¸ 3o 4O 50 ~ 50

Rolled se.ctions J ] 1.15 1.15 1.3 1.4 1,45 1.5 1.60

Rectangular hollow 1.4 1,45 1.5 1.55 1.55 1.55 1,6
sections up to 356 mm
square
arid 254 x 457 mm 1.05 1.05 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
rectangular

Other sections 1.30 1.35 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.80 1.80

Individual
members CirCular ’~e’etions where
D,Vs < 6 m2/s ’ 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.90
,D,Vs - 6 m21s 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.75 0,80 0.80

Rectangular b/d
hollow sections 1,55 1.75 2’,i0 2~20
over 356 mm’ 1.40 1.55 1.75 1.85 1,90
square and 0,5 1.0 1,20 1.30 1.35 1.40
254.x.457 mm 0.25 0.80 0;90 .0.90 1.0 1.0
rectangular

Wind

Flat-sided sections 1.60

Single
lattie~
girders Circular sections where
D,Vs <6 m2ts 1.10
D.Vs ->- 6 mVs 0.80

Machinery Closed rectangular 1.30

houses structures
etC.

* see figure 2-2.2.1.4.2

,.,/
 2-30 © FEiM Section

Figure 2-2.2,1.4.2
DEFINITIONS : AERODYNAMIC SLENDERNESS. SOLIDITY RATIO. SPACINO RATIO
AND SECTION RATIO

(I) Aerodynamic slenderness =

length of member I ,, 1 ,
breadth of section across wind front = ~" or ~

In lattice construction the lengths of individual members are taken between the centres of
adjacent node points, See diagram below.

(rr) Solidity ratio = area of.s01id parts A £ li. bi

distance
(m) Spacing ratio = breadth between facin~
of members acrosssides a - ~" a
wind front or ~"

for "a" take the smallest possible value in the geometry of the exposed face.

breadth of section across wind front b

(IV) Section ratio = depth of section paraltel to wind flow = ~"
© FEM Section II 2-31

b) ,Shielding factors,for multiple girders or mernber~

Where parallel girderd Or members m-e positioned so that shielding takes place, the wind loads on
the windward girder or member, and on the unsheltered parts of those behind it, are calculated using
the appropriate force coefficients. The wind load on the sheltered parts is multiplied by a shielding
factor ~1 given in table T,2-2,2.1.4.3. Values of rI vary with the solidity and spacing ratios as
defined in figures 2-2.2.1.4.2.

Table T,2-2.2.1.4,3
SHIELDING COEFFICIENTS

Spacing ratio Solidity ratio MAc

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -> 0.6

¯ 0.21
0.75 0.32 0,i5 . 0.1
1.0¯ 0.92 0.59 0.43 0,25 0.1
2.0 0,95 0.8 0,63 0.5 0.33 0.2
4,0 1 0.88 0.76 0,66 0.55 0.45
¯ 5,0 1 0.95 ¯ 0.88 ’, 0.81 0:75 ¯ 0.68
6,0 1 1 1 1 1 1

Where a number of identical girders or members are spaced equidistantly behind each other in such a
way that each girder shields those behind it, the shiedling effect is assumed to increase up to the
ninth girder and to remain constant thereafter. The wind loads are calculated as follows :

On the 1st. girder F1 = A.q.Cf in N

On the 2nd. girder F2 = ’~.A.q.Cf in N
On the nth girder Fn = ~(n-1),A.q,Cf in N
(where n is from 3 to 8)

Onthe 9th and

subsequent girders F9 = ~.A.q.Cf in N
The total wind load is thus :

Where there are up to 9 girders FtotaI = [1 + "q + ~ + ~3 + ... + ~l(n-1) ] A.q.Cf

1n
= A.q.Cf ~) in N

...]
 2-32 © FEM Section II

Where there are more than 9 girders Ftota1 = [1 +/] + rl~ + rl3 + .., + rl~ + (n - 9)rls] A.q.Cf
1- ~
= A.q,Cf [ ~_2._~" ) + (n- 9) rl~ ] in N

The term rlX used in the above formula is assumed to have a lower limit of 0,10. It is taken as 0.10
when ever

rlx < 0.10

Lattice tov~rs

For calculating the "face-on" wind load on square towers in the absence of a detailed calculation, the
solid area of the windward face is multiplied by the following overall force coefficient :

For towers composed of flat sided sections 1,7,(1+~)

For towers composed of circular sections

where DoVs < 6 mVs 1.i,(l+~)

where D.Vs > 6 mVs 1,4

The value of~l is taken from table T.2-2.2.1,4.3 for a/b = 1 according to the solidity ratio of the
windward face.
The maximum wind load on a square tower occurs when the wind blows on to a comer. In the
absence of a detailed calculation, this load can be considered as 1.2 times that developed with
"face-on" wind on one side.

2-2.2.2 SNOW AND ICE LOADS

For temperate areas, normal snow and ice loads can be assumed to have been included in the
allowances for incrustation calculated in section 2-2.1,3.

For machines in areas with severe climatic conditions, or where specified by the purchaser,
consideration should be given to the additional loads arising from snow and ice.

.,,]
© FEM Section 17 2-33

2-2.2.3 TEMPERATURE
Temperature effects need only by Considered in special cases, e.g. for areas with extreme climatic
conditions or when using materials with different expansion coefficients within the same
component that are not free to expand or contract separately.

2-2.2.4 ABNORMAL TANGENTIAL AND LATERAL DIGGING FORCES

The abnormal digging force acting tangentially to the bucket-wheel or in the direction of the
bucket-chain, is calculated from the starting torque of the drive motor or from the cut-off torque of
the built in safety coupling taking into account the more unfavourable of the two cases listed
. . below :.

If the wheel or chain is not loaded : ..

In this case no account is taken of the power necessary to llft and/or move the material and the load
due to the starting or Cut-off torque of the motor is considered as a digging load.

b) If the wheel or chain is loaded according to 2-2.1.2,2, in this ease the digging power can be reduced
by thepower.required to lift and/or move th~ materiai~.

The abnormal lateral digging force is calculated as in 2-2.1.4.2 (b) thereby considering a load of
0.3 times the abnormal tangential digging force.
If appropriate, this load can be Caiculated from the~ Working t0rqu~ of an exi’sti~ Cut-out device of
the slewing or travelling mechanism and which should be at least equal to. i. 1 times the sum of the
torques due.to the inclination of .the machine (see 2,2.1.7)~ and to wind load for machines in
operation (see 2-2.2.1.2), " ....

Where a torque limit device is installed on the slewing mechanism, the mechanism must be
equipped with a locking device preventing the slewing part rotating when out of service (due to
wind force) if this rotation is dangerous.

BEARING FRICTION AND ROLLING RESISTANCES

Frictional forces need only to be calculated where they influence the size of structural components.

Following friction coefficient can be used in default of more precise values based On suppliers’
specifications :

for pivots and bali bearings ~=0.10

for structural parts with sliding friction ~=0.25
on wheels of rail-mounted machines ~=0.03
on wheels of crawler-mounted machines ~=0.10
between plate base and ground (crawler, shiftable conveyors) ~=0.60
 2-34 © FEM Section

2-2.2.6 REACTION PERPENDICULAR TO THE RAIL DUE TO

TRAVELLING OF THE APPLIANCE (LOAD CAUSED BY
SKEWING)

For appliances on rails account must be taken of the reactions resulting from the travelling
movement of the unit under a skewing angle, giving rise to a horizontal guide force Hy directed
perpeudicu.larly to the rail.

The force Hy can act on any guiding device (flange of wheel or separate guiding wheel) and is in
equilibrium withthe horizontal frlcdon forces acting between wheels and rails..

To calculate the force Hy the relevant system properties shall be taken into account(see ISO 8686
clause 6.2,2 and annex F),

If no accurate calculation can be effected the force Hy should be taken as :

Hy = 0.2. Vy

where Vy is the maximum vertical load of the wheel or bogie.

2- 2.2.7 NON-PERMANENT DYNAMIC EFFECTS

Inertia forces (due to the acceleration and braking ofm0ving structural parts) which occur less than
2, 10a times during the lifetime of the appliance should be checked as additional loads. They may
be disregarded if their effect is less than the wind force during operation as defined in 2-2.2.1.

If the inertia forces are such that they have to be taken into account, the wind effect can be
disregarded.

Note : As these forces are, in practice, present at the same time as the wind effects, it must be
noted that actual accelerating and braking times are not the sarae as when still conditions prevail.

.,,]
© FEM Section 2-35

2-2.3 SPECIAL LOADS

2-2.3.1 CLOGGING OF CHUTES

The weight of material due to clogging should be calculated using a load which is equivalent to the
capacity of.the chute in question, with due reference to the angle of repose. The actual bulk density
must be taken for calculation.

2-2.3.2 RESTING OF THE RECLAIMING DEVICE OR THE BOOM

Where safety devices are installed such as a slack rope detector for rope suspensions or pressure
switches for hydraulic hoists, which prevent the full weight of the reclaiming device or the boom
from coating to rest, the permissible resting force is to be calculated as a special load at 1.10 times
the value set by the safety device;

Where suchsafety devices are not provided, the special load is to be calculated with the full resting
weight. ’’’"

FAILURE OF LOAD LIMITING DEVICES AS IN PARAGRAPH

2-2.1.-2.1 " ’ . ’ :’ :’ : ’ "

In the case of failure on the part of an automatic load limiting to limit the useful loads on the
conveyors, the outptit can be.calculated as follows : ...... . "

in the ease of appliances without reclaiming device according to .paragraph i)(b), of item
2-2.1.2.I,

b) in the case of appliances with built-in reclaiming device .aee0rding to paragraph 2) (a), of item

For this purpose account need not .be taken of the dynamic factor 1.1.

2-2.3.4 BLOCKING OF TRAVELLING DEVICES

The design of rail-mounted equipment must take into account the likelihood of bogies being
blocked, e.g. by derailment or rail fracture. For the loads occurring under such conditions, the
coefficient of friction between driven wheels and rails should be calculated as g = 0.20 provided
that the drive motors can generate sufficient torque.

For equipment mounted on fixed rails, a wheel can be considered as blocked which cannot rotate but
slides on the rail.

For equipment mounted on relocatable rails, blocking of a carrying wheel or bogie should be
assumed as resulting from derailment or rail fracture. The maximum motive force is then
determined by the non blocked wheels and it cannot exceed the force transferable by rail/wheel
friction.

.,,[
 2-36 © FEM Section II:

in the case of gantry with large rails center distance, equipped with special devices to check the
respective displacement on both sides of the traveIling mechanism, the calculation will be made
taking into account the maximum possible difference on the position of bogies allowed by these
special devices.

2-2.3.5 LATERAL COLLISION WITH. THE SLOPE IN CASE OF BUCKET-

WHEEL MACHINES
The maximum lateral resistance in bumping against the slope is deterr~ned by the safety coupling
in the slewing gear or the kinetle energy of the superstructure, This load is to be applied in
accordance With 2-2.1.4. In calculating the lateral resistance from the kinetic energy, a theoretical
bracking distance of 30 cm and a constant braking deceleration are to be assumed.

2-2.3.6 WIND LOAD ON MACHINES OUT OF SERVICE

This is a maximum (storm) wind that the handling machine is .designed to withstand in out of
service conditions, as indicated, by the manufacturer.

It must be noted that, in this out of service position, the machine eventually need to be placed in a
special parking area, in a defined position (boom orientation for instance) and could require the use
of special devices such as rail clamps, anchors ....

The wind speed varies with the height above the surrounding level, and the geographical location.
The wind load on the apparatus depends also on the degree of exposure to the prevailing winds.

For calculation and unless..Specified otherwise for handling appliances used in the open air th~
aerodynamic wind pressures to be used and the corresponding speeds, for "out of service" conditions
are indicated in the table T.2-2.3.6.

Table T.2-2.3.6
OUT OF SERVICE AERODYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE

Height above Out of service Apprordmate ~ivalent ’’

surrounding aerodynamic wind out of service design
level pressure q wind speed
m ,,, ...... m/s kava’
0 to 20 800 36 130
20 to 100 1,100 42 150
more than 100 1,300 46 165

When calculating wind loads for out of service conditions the aerodynamic wind pressure shall be
taken as constant over the vertical height intervals in table T.2-2.3.6.
© FEM Section 2-37

The calculation procedure is detailed ~ el~apter 2-2.2.1.1 (in service wind).

Where machines are to be permanently installed or used for extended periods in areas .where wind
conditions are exceptionally severe, the above figures may be modified by agreement between the
manufacturer and purchaser in the light of local meteorological data.

2-2.3.7 BUFFER EFFECTS

For.horizontal speeds below 0.7 m/s no account shall be taken of buffer effects. For speeds in
excess of 017 m/s account must be taken of the reactioh bn ihe structu~e"by ~611fsions-~vith.bt~ffers,
when buffering is not made impossible by special devices.

It shall be assumed that the buffers are capable of absorbing the kinetic energy of the machine with
operating load up to a certain fraction of the rated travelling speed Vt ; this fraction is ftxed at
minimum 0.7 Vt.

The resultingloads on the structure shall be calculated in terms of the deceleration imparted to. the
machine by the buffer in use.

2-2.~3.8 LOADS DUE TO EARTHQUAKES

In general the structures of handling appliances do not have to be checked for seismic effects,
However, if local regulations or particular specifications so pr~cribe, special rules or
recommendations must be applied in areas subject to earthquakes.

The supplier shall be advised of this requirement by the user of the installation who shall also
provide the corresponding seismic spectra.

2-2.3.9 LOADS DURING ERECTION (OR DISMANTLING) OF THE

MACHINE

In general, the loads during erection are less than they will be for the machine in operation.

Nevertheless, in some particular situations, according to the erection process, it can be necessary to
cheek some structural (or meehanleal) parts for a certain stage of the erection,

The checking is made by taking into account the actual supporting conditions and the. eventual
anchorages of the given structural part,

The permissible stresses are :

stress allowed in ease I for no wind condition

stress allowed in case III for out of service wind condition.
 2-38 © FEM Section II

2-3 LOAD CASES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The main, additional and special loads mentioned in chapter 2-2 rrtust be combined in load cases I, rr ~d
II~ according to table T.2-3.1 hereafter.

Loads should only be combined that can occur simultaneously to provide the highest resultant stresses.

We shall retain for case III the most unfavourable combination.

2- 3. i TABLE OF LOAD CASES

(see table on following page).
 Table T.2-3.1
LOAD COMBINATIONS

Items Main loads Main and ¯ Main, additional and special load~
additional lomls case
Loads during
case II ex~fion
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2-2.1.1 * *
2-2.1.2 Material loads on conveyors, reclaiming
devices and hoppem ............................
~ Incrustation ......................................
Normal tangential and latexai digging
forces ..............................................
2-2.1.5 Forces on the conveying element~ ........
2-2.1.6 Permanent dynamic effects .................. (1)
2-2.1.7 Loads due to inglination of working
level ...............................................
2-2.2.1 Wind force dining smwice ........................................
2-2.2.2 Snow and ice (possibly) ......................
2-2.2.3 Temperature (possibly) .......................
2-2.2.4 Abnormal mg~ntial mad lateral digging
forces .............. : ................................................... *
2-2.2.5
2-2.2.6
IResistances dne to friction and travel..: .....................
Reactions tmrpendio~lar to the rail ............................ .*
2-2.2.7 Non-permanent dynamic effecm ............................... * (1)
"2-2.3.1 ,!Chute Mocking ..................................................... "*" " ’ .... "
2-2.3.2 / Bucket-wheel resting..L ....................................................................
2-2.3.3 Failure of load limiting devices (see

/’~mvelling device blocking .......................................................... ¢. ..... * .

Lateral collision with the slope (bucket- ............................. .................. ,
wheel) ............................................. ~. .
i 2o2.3.6 W’md fome out of service ......................................................................................... * (2)
2-2.3.7 \Buffer effects ................................................................................................................... ,
2-2.3,8 !Earthqmake loads ....................................................~ ................. .......... ........
i ...... t ..... ~ *:
2-2.3,9 , Loads during ereetion .........................

(1) the most unfavoumble should be comide~ed for design. " ¯ ¯ ¯

(2) the mechanism must be equipped with a locking device preventing thedewingpart from rotating (due to wind force)~ when eu~ of service, if thiR rotation is dangerous.
 2-40 © FEM Section II

2-4 LOADS ENTERING INTO THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS

2-4.1 GENERAL INFORMATION

A "mechanism" is understood to be a combination of element~ intended to transform the power of the drive
motor, usually electric motor, into work or movement of the unit’s moving parts or the wh01e of the unit.
Included in this group are :

- reclaiming component and cutting component mechanisms (for example bucket-wheels, bucket-chains),
- belt conveYor mechanisms.,
- slewing mechanisms (slewing connections and slewing drives),
- mechanisms for moving the whole unit (mobile frames, steering and traversing movement
mechanisms),
- raising and lowering mechanisms (Cable controlled mechanisms, hydraulic raising mechanisms).

In order to design a mechanism, two loads categories are examined :

- the average loads, taking into account the load fluctuations and the operating severity as a function of
the operating time (calculation of fatigue or wearing),

- the maximum loads the mechanism must bear for short times with sufficient safety (calculation of
strength).

2- 4.2 LOADS DEFINITION

In general.the loads dealt wit~ in articles 2-2..1, 2-2,2 and 2-2.3 in the ".structure" chapter as well as certain
loads defined further on shall be taken into account in the various load combinations.

2-4.2.1 FRICTION RESISTANCES

Resistances induces by fi’iction should be calculated by taking into account the maximum friction
coefficients when defining a drive mechanism and the minimum friction coefficient when defining braking
devices.

The following friction coefficients can be used :

for (roller or ball) slewing bearings 0.0O5 </.t < 0.0t
for pivots plain bearings ~t = 0.I
for rail wheels
. with ball or roller bearings 0.005 _< ~t < 0.01
¯ with plain bearings 0.01 ~ ~ _< 0.03
on wheels of crawler machines Ix ~ 0.I
between plate base and ground (crawler, shiftable conveyors) ~t = 0.6
© FEM Section II 2-4!

2-5 LOAD CASES FOR THE DESIGN OF MECHANISMS

In order to take the 1cad fluctuations into account, we consider the two following load cases :

:, Load combinations which may appear simultaneously during norma! operation.

:Load c~mbinations in which additional or special ~oads, which may arise occasionally, are taken into
. account (in ’service Or out of service).

2-5.1TABLE OF LOAD CASES T.2-511 (*)

The load eases to be considered in eases I and II for the following mechanisms, are found in table
T.2-5.1:, : ’ " ..... ~ ’ "

reclaiming component mechanism,

belt conveyor mechanism,
slewing mechanism,
travelling mechanism (on rails or crawlers),
lifting or luffing mechanism, ..

* The numbers of the corresponding loads refer to chapter 2-2 "structures".

..,/
 2-42 © FEM Section

Table T.2-5.1,1

Mechanism or
mechanism parts Loads Case I Case II

2-2.1.1 dead loads x × x X

2-2A.2.2 material loads in reclaiming x x X
device
2-2.1.3 incrustation x x x x
2-2.1.4 .normal tangential and lateral x x x
digging forces.
2-2.1.5 tension of bucket-chain, belt .... x x X X
reclaiming unit . friction resistance of the x x
mechanism material between the bucket-
wheel or bucket-chain and the
chute
2-2,2.4 abnormal tangential and lateral x (’1
digging forces
2-2.3.2 resting of bucket-wheel or chain X
on ground or face
2-2.3.5 lateral collision of bucket-wheel X
with the slope

2-2.1.1 dead loads x x

2-2.1,2.1 material loads on conveyor X
(without dynamic coefficient)
belt conveyor belt conveyor motion X
mechanism resistances (according to ¯
ISO 5048)
2-2,1.5 belt tension (according to " x
ISO 5048)
2-2.3.3 abnormal material loads on x (*)
conveyors (without dynamic
coefficient) arising from failure
of load limiting devices as in
2-2.1.2.1)
if the output and elevation vary, take this
into account when calculating the fatigue
strength ..

(*) = referred to the maximum allowable torque

.../
© FEM Section II 2-43

Table T.2-5.1.2
SLEWING MECHANISM
Case II
Loads Case I no~
Part of the working
working
mechanism

2-2.1,1 deadloads X X x x
2-2.1.2 material !oads(witho~t dynamic x X

2-2.1.3 incrustation (witlmut 0ynamic x x X x

2-2.1.4 . , noma,al. ,.t,3nggntiM a~d lateral, X X

2-2.1.7 loads due to inclination of the x X x x

2-2.1.6 permanent dynamic , ]*

X
sunoortin~ 2-212.1 in service Wind: ,
~ompon~fi.ts.
¯ take thelgas~ favoutable load
(trades with ball 2-2.2.4 ’ ~b~io~id:t,a,fi:genfial and lateral"
or roller beating)
2-2.3;6 wind load on tna~hi~e Out x

~:213 .spe¢i~ii load,s (wh¢~ W6rking) x

.2:2i3~8 (ta~e. ~he !cad giving the

1cast favourab!ecombination)

2-2.1.6 permanent dyn~oeffects . . . :x

drive components ¯ (forces due t6:, accderation and
biakii~g ~ sie~via~~ m?tion)
(drNing unit and 2-2.1.7 lO~id~idii~:to in¢lin~tibn of the , x x
ring gear) wor~ng l~wl ’ "
2-2.2.1 in s~rvicdwind : q/3 N/ma x
2-2.2.1 - in service wind :qinN/m= (I)
2-2.3.6 wind load on mac~n~ out of x
se~oe,", . .:." (1) (3) "
2-4.2.1 Nction resistmc~ x

Note (1) : unless otherwise ~pecified, in. service wind pression value q given in section
2-2.2.1.2 and out of service wind pression value q given in section 2-2.3.6 shall
be used.
Note (2): where a torque limit device is installed the loads when working are limitbd to the
adjustment of the torque limiter, which will be at a minimum equaI to the
following values :
if there is a separat~ locking device for the slewing part :
1.1 (2-2,1,7 + 2-2.2.1)
if there is no separate locking device and where a lock is to be effected by the
brake of the driving unit :
1.1 (2-2.1,7 + 2-2.3,6)
Note (3): to take into account the non uniform aerodynamic pressure of the wind on the
total area of the machine, wind force will be decreased by 50 % on one side of
the slewing axis when calculation is least favourable.

.,./
 2-44 © FEM Seetion II

, Table T.2-5.1.3
TRAVELLING MECHANISM (ON RAILS OR CRAWLERS)

Case II
Part of the Loads Case I no~
working
mechanism working

2-2A,1. deadl0ads . X X x
2-2.1.2 materiiil loads (without dynamic X X
. .fa~tor).
2-211.3 incrustation (without dynamic X "X x
factor) . .....
2-2.t.4 nofiiaal tangential and lateral X X
digging forces
2-2.1,7 .10ads due tO inclination of the X x x
working lev~i
2-2.2.1 in service wind : x x
SUDDortJn~ qinN/m2 ¯: (I)
~,omponeBts 2-2.2,5 bearingfrietirn and rolling x x
resistances
(wheels, pins 2-2.2,6 reactions perpendicular to the X: x
equalizers,..,) rail due to movement .of
appliance .
2-2.3,6 windload.rn machine out of x
service . (1)
2-2.3 ’ sp~.ial irads (when Working) : x
2-2.3.1, 2-2.3,2,
¯ 2~2..3.4, 2-2.3.5,. 2~2..~.7,
2-2.3.8(tak~ ’~he 10ad giving the
16ast gavourabie c’ombination).
(3)
2-2,1,4 normal tangential and lateral X x
. digging foi:ces.
2-2.1.6 permanent dynamic effects x
(forces due to acceleration and
braking -t~aveli!ng motion).
2-2.1.7 loads due.to ineii’nation of.the x x
component~ working level
(driving unit) 2-2,2.1 in service wind : q/3 N/m2
2-2,2,1 max, in service wind : x
q in N/ma (1)
2-2,2,6 reactions perpendicular to the X X
rail due to movement of
appliance
2-2.3.4 blocking of travelling devices x (2)
(on rails)
2-2.3.6 wind load on machine out of
service (i)
2-4.2.1 friction resistances x x x

Note (1) : unless otherwise specified, in service wind pression value q given in section
2-2,2,1,2 and out of service wind pression value q given in section 2-2.3.6 shall
be used,
Note (2) : loads corresponding to slipping of rail wheels in case 2-2.3.4 with friction
coefficient between wheel and rail bL = 0.2.
Note (3): in the out of service situation, the brake of the driving unit and (eventually) the
locking device (rail clamp for instance) have to prevent the machine from
drifting (see 3-7),
© FEM Section II 2-45

Table 2-5.1.4
LUFFING MECHANISM

Case II
Mechanism Loads Case I not
working
workin~ *
2-2.1.1 dead loads X x x X
2-2.1.2 material loads (without dynamic X x X
coefficient)
2-2.1.3 incrustation X X X X
(cable winding 2-2.1.4 normal tangential and lateral X
mechanisms, digging forces
hydraulic lifting 2-2.1.6 permanent dynamic effets x X x
mechanisms, 2-2.1.7 inclination of the working level x x X
screw lifting 2-2.2.1 wind in operation : x x X
mechanisms) ~ q in N/m2 (1)
2-2.2.4 abnormal tangential and lateral x
digging forces
2-2.3.6 wind out of service (1)
2-2.3 special loads (when working) : X
2-2.3,1, 2-2.3.2, 2-2.3.3 (take.
.the load giving the least
favourable combination)
2-4.2.1 friction resistances x X X

Note (1): unless otherwise specified, in service wind pression value q given in section
2-2:2,1,2 and out of service wind pression value q given in section 2-2.3.6 shall
be used.

* In some circumstances, the ease II working load combination may be restricted by load limiting
devices (to be noted that machine must stay stable, but, under overload, boom may descend after
the limiting device has taken action).

Where there is no such device, as when the machine is out of service, the least favourable load
combination must be considered.

Note. : Precautions to be taken in the event of the failure of load limiting devices shall be
specified by the manufacturer (see chapter 5 : "Safety").

-o0o-
 Chapter 3

CALCULATING THE STRESSES IN STRUCTURES

© FEM Section

CHAPTER 3

CALCULATING THE STRESSESIN STRUCTURES

CONTENTS

Clause

INTRODUCTION 3z3

SELECTION OF STEEL TORESIST BRITTLE FRACTURE

Assessment of the factors which influence brittle fracture 3-1.1 3-4

A Combined effect of longitudinal residual tensile stresses and tensile’
stresses from dead load
B Thickness of member 3~6
C Influence of cold 3-1.1.3 3-7
Determination of the required steel quality group 3-1.2 3-7

Quality of steels 3-1.3 3-8

Special rules 3-1.4 3-10

CHECKING WITH RESPECT TO THE ELASTIC LIMIT 3-2 3-11

Structural members 3-2.1 3-11

Members subjected to simple tension or compression 3:2.1,1 3-11
Members subjected to shear 3-2.1.2 3-12
Members subjected to combined stresses - Equivalent stress 3-2.1:3 3-12

Welded joints 3-2.2 3-14

Weld qualities 3-2.2.1 3-14
Maximum permissible stresses 3-2.2.2 3-15
Complementary information on stresses in welded joints 3-2.2.3 3-16

Bolted joints 3-2.3 3-18

General 3-2.3.1 3-18
Definitions 3-2.3.1.1 3-18
Design 3-2.3.1.2 3-18
Controlled tightening 3-2.3.1.3 3-20
Maximum permissible stress 3-2.3.1.4 3 -20
Ordinary bolts 3-2.3.2 3-21
Definitions 3-2.3.2.1 3-21
Application 3-2.3.2.2 3-2t
Higher grade bolts : precision bolts 3-2.3.3 3-21
Precision bolts in tension 3-2.3.3.I 3-21
Precision bolts in shear 3-2.3.3.2 3-24
Precision bolts in combined tension and shear 3-2.3.3.3 3 -25
Precision bolts in bearing 3-2.3.3.4 3-25
Permissible working stresses for bolts 3-2¯3.3.5 3-27
 © FEM Section II

High tensile steel bolts with controlled tightening for friction grip joints 3~.3.4 3-28
- General 3-2.3.4.1 3-28
-ExternaI loads acting in the plane of the joint (type T) 3-2.3.4.2 3-30
- External loads acting perpendicular to the plane of the joint (type N). 3-2,3.4.3 3-32
Joints with e~t,ernal force couple (type M) ’ 3-2.3.4.4 3-32
Combined external loadings On friction grip joints 3-2.3.4.5 3-32

Guy and stay ropes 3-2.4 .... 3-37

CHECKING STABILITY OF PARTS. SUBJECT~ .TO CRIPPLING

AND BUCKLING 3-3 3-38

Buckling of struts and columns (crippling) 3-3d 3-38

Lateral buckling 3,3.2 3-43
Buckling of plates and shells 3r3.3 3-43

CHECKING MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE 3-4 3-52

- Predicted number of cycles and stress spectrum 3-4.1 3-52
- Material Used and notch effect 3-4,2 3-52
- Determination of the maximum stress amax 3-4.3 3-53
- Ratio ~: between the extreme stresses 3-4.4 3-53

Calculating members ’subject to fatigue 3-4.5 3-54

Structural elements " 3-4.5,1 .3-54
- Tensile and compressive loads 3-4.5~1.! 3-54
Shear stresses in the material of structural parts 3-4.5.1.2 3-56
Combined loads in tension (or compression) and shear 3-4.5.1,3 3-56
/0ints (welds and bolts) 3-4.5.2 3-59
- Welds 3-4.5.2,1 3-59
- Bolted joints 3-4.5.2.2 3-59
Cases of notch effect 3-4.5.2.3 3-62
Permissible fatigue stresses 3-4.5.3 3 -72
CHECK ON "AS BUILT" STRUCTURE 3-5 3-80
SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING 3-6 3-81
Checking for stability 3-6.1 3-81
Additional precautions 3-6.2 3-82
SAFETY AGAINST DRIFTING 3-7 3-83
 © FEM Section II 3-3

INTRODUCTION-.
i
The stresses set up-in the various stmetural members are determined for the three load cases defineA in
section 2-3, and a check is made to ensure that, when compared with the critical stresses, the factor of
safety v is adequate for the following three possible causes of failure : ’

¯ - exceeding the elastic limit,

- exceeding the critical crippling or buckling Ioad,
- . and, eventually, exceeding the limit of endurance to fatigue.

The grade of the steel used must be stated and the physical properties, chemical composition and
weldability must be guaranteed:by the manufacturer of the material.

The permissible stresses for the materials used should be determined as stipulated in clauses 3-2, 3-3, 3-4
and 3-5 hereunder, based on the critical stresses for the material.

The critical stresses are those which correspond either to the elastic limit or the stress corresponding to the
critioal limit for elongation as appropriate, or to the critical stress for crippling or buckling, or, in the case
of fatigue, to ehe.stress..for Which the probability ofsurvival, untler tests, is.90 %.

The suitability of the selected material to resist brittle fracture should be assessed as outlined in section
3-1.
Th~ Stresses in.the structural memb~fg should be Caldulated on the basis Of the different load cases as
defined’in"~e&ion 2-3 b~,:a~plying~bnvefitioriali~trength of mat~riAis caleulafi0n pr0e.e.dures.

The sections of metal to be considered shall be the.gross sections (i.e. without deducting the areas of holes)
for all parts which are ~ubjected to compression loads (1), and the net sections (i,~, with. the areas of holes
deducted) for all parts subjected to tensile loads.

In the ease of a member subjected to bending, a half-net section should be assumed, taking the net section
in parts under tension and the gross section in parts under compression. To simplify the calculations,
however, one may use either the section modulus of the net section or the section modulus computed for
the half-net section, using as centre of gravity of the section that of the gross section.

(1) The area of the holes shall be included in the cross-sectional area only when they are filled by a rivet or
a bolt.
 3-4 © FEM Section

3-1 SELECTION OF STEEL TO RESIST BRITTLE FRACTURE

The usual cateulations required by the design rules to assess the safety of the structure against yielding,
crippling, buckling and fatigue failure do not guarantee safety against brittle fracture.

In order to obtain sufficient safety against brittle fracture, a steel grade has to be chosen to suit on the
conditions influencing brittle fracture.

3-1.1ASSESSMENT OF THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE BRITTLE

FRACTURE
The most important influences on the sensitivity to brittle fracture in steel structures are.:

A. Combined effect of longitudinal residual tensile stresses with stresses from. dead load.
B. Tb2ckaess of the member. -. :
C.. Influence of cold.

Influences A., B. and C. are evaluated with coefficients ZA, ZBaud ZC respectively. The required steel
quality is then determined from on the sum of these coefficients.

3.1.1.1 INFLUENCE A : COMBINED EFFECT OF~ LONGITUDINAL

RESIDUAL ¯TENSILE STRESSES WITH STRESSES FROM" DEAD
LOAD ....
Equations for lines L It, III in. figure..3-1.i.!.

~ : no welds, or only transverse welds

ZA=~ - 1
valid only for oG > 0.5. ¢ra

longitudinal welds

accumulation of welds

ZA-0,5. cra + 1
where :

O’a = permissible tensile stress with respect to the elastic limit, loading case I

~rG = tensile stress from permanent load

,.,/
© FEM Section II 3-5

The likehood ~f brittle f~aeture is increased by high Stress concentrations, in particular by 3-axial
tensile stresses, as is the case With an aceumulatlon of welds,

If members are stress relieved after welding (approx 600 - 650°C) line I can be used for all types of
welds.

0,5

Figure 3-1,1.1
ZA IN TERMS__.O_F._STRESSES AND WELDS
 3-6 © FEM Seetiort II

3-1.1.2 INFLUENCE B: THICKNESS OF MEMBER

,,,

t
mm
fromt= 5to t=20mm:.
16 0.9 60 4.3
9 5 0.1 20 1.45 4.55
zB = 2-~-g .t~ 6 0.15 25 2,0 70 4.8
7 0.2 30 2.5 75 5,0
fromt= 20 tot= lOOmm: 8 0.25 35 2.9 80 5.2
9 0.3 40 3,2 85 5.4
10 0.4 45 3.5 90 5.6
zB = 0.65. ~]t S"i4.~’1 - 0.05 12 0.5 50 3,8 95 5.8
15 0.8 55 4,0 100 6.0
where t = thickness of member in ram

Figure 3-1.1.2
ASSESSlNO COEFFIC)EN~, ZB = f (t)

For round, square or rectangular solid sections an equivalent thickness t’. is to bo used. This is :
d
for round sections : t’ = ~
1.8

for square sections : t’ = ~t

1.8

b
for rectangular sections :

¯
© FEM Section II 3-7

where b represents the larger side of the rectangle and the ratio of the side b/t < 1.8. For b/t > 1.8,
t’=t.

3-1.1.3 INFLUENCE C: INFLUENCE OF COLD

The lowest temperature at the place of erection of the appliance determines the classification. This
temperature is generally lower than the working temperature.

from T = 0 °C to T = - 30 °C
6
ZC - 1,600 ’ T2
from T = - 30 °Cto T =- 55 °C
- 2.25 . T - 33.75
ZC - 10
where T = temperatttre at the plaee of
erection in °C

4-

7.- ....

ZC ~

0
0 0.0 - 30 3.4
-1.0 -20 -30 -40
-5 0j - 35 ¯ 4.5
- I0 0.4 - 40 5.6
- 15 0.8 -45 6.7
Temperature in °C - 20. 1.5 - 50 7.9
- 25 2.3 - 55 9.0

Figure 3.1,1.3
ASS~.SSING, COEFFICIENT Zc = f (T)

3-1.2 DETERMINATION OF THE REQUIRED STEEL QUALITY GROUP

It is the sum of assessing coefficients from paragraph 3-1.1 which determines the minimum required
quality for the steel structure.

Table T.3-1.2 shows the classification of the quality groups in relat2on to the sum of the assessing
coefficients.

If the sum of the assessing coefficients is higher than 16 or if the required steel quality cannot be obtained,
special measures must be taken to obtain the necessary safety against brittle fracture,

This should be done in conjunction with the steel suppliers and metallurgical experts.
 3-8 © FI~M Section

Table T.3-1.2
.CLASSIFICATION OF QUALITY GROUPS IN RELATION
TO THE SUM OF THE ASSESSING COEFFICIENTS

Sum of the assessing coefficients from

paragraph 3-1.1 Quality group corresponding in table T.3-1.3
~;z= ZA + ZB +ZC

-<2 1
-<4 2
-<8 3
%16 4

3-1.3 QUALITY OF STEELS

The quality of steels in these design rules is the property of steel to exhibit a ductile behaviour at
determined temperatures.

The steels are divided into four quality groups. The. group in which the steel is classified, is obtained from
its notch ductility in a given test and temperature.

Table T.3-1.3 comprises the notch ductility values and test temperatures for the four quality groups.

The indicated notch ductilities are minimum values, being the mean values from three tests, where no
value must be below 20 Nm/cm2.

The notch ductility is to be determined in accordance with V-notch impact tests to ISO R 148 and
Euronorm 45-63.

Steels of digferents quality groups can be welded together,

Te is the test temperature for the V-notch impact test

T is the temperature at the place of emotion of the appliance

Tc and T are not directly comparable as the V-notch impact test imposes a more unfavourable condition
than the loading on the appliance in or out of service.

,../
© FEM Section II 3-9

Table T.3-1.3
_QUALITY GROUPS

Notch ductility Test

Quality measured in ISO sharp tempe- Steels corresponding
group notch test ISO R 148 rature to the quality group Standard
in Nm/cm2 Tc °C designation of steels (1)

Fe 360 - A .....
Fe 430 - A iSO 630
St 37. -2
1 St 44- 2 D]~ 17100
E24- 1 NF A 35-501
43 A * BS 4360 1986
Fe 360 - B
Fe 430 - B ISO 630
Fe 510 - B
R St 37 - 2
2 35 + 20° St 44-2 DIN 17100
E24-2
E28-2 ’ NF A 35-501
.E,.3.6- 2
40B43 I3 50B * Bs 4360
Fe 36o. c
Fe430- C ISO 630
Fe 510- C
St 37 -’3N
St 44 - 3N DIN17100
3 35 St 52 - 3N
E24- 3
E28-3 NFA 35-501
E36-3
40 C 43 C *
50 C BS 4360 1986
Fe 360 - D
Fe 430 - D ISO 630
Fe 510 - D
St 37 - 3N
St 44 - 3N DIN 17100
4 35 .20°C St 52 - 3N
E 24-4
E28-4 NF A 35-501
E36-4
40 D 43 D *
OD, BS 4360 1986

The test requirements of steels to BS 4360 do not in all cases correspond with the ISO and other
national standards, and the guaranteed impact test properties for steels to BS 4360 may be different to
other steels in the same quality group. Impact test properties are stated in BS 4360 and where the
requirements are different from those guaranteed in BS 4360, agreement must be obtained from the
steel suppliers.

(1) In the present rules, steels are designed by the ISO symbols, essentially Fe 360, Fe 430, Fe 510.

,,./
 3-10 © FEM Section II

3-1.4 SPECIAL RULES

In addition to the above provisions for the choice of the steel quality, the following rules are to be
observed :

1) Non killed steeIs of group. 1 shall be used for load carrying structures only in case of rolled sections
and tubes not exceeding 6 mm wall thickness.

2) Members of more than 50 nun thickness, shall not be used for welded load carrying structures unless
the manufacturer has a comprehensive experience in the welding of thick plates. The steel quality and
its testing has in this case to be determined by specialists.

3) If parts are cold bent with aradius/plate thickness ratio < 10, the steel quality has to be suitable for
folding or cold flanging ....

,,.]
© F~M Section II 3-11

3-2 CHECKING WITH RESPECT. TO THE ELASTIC LIMIT

For this check, a distinction is made between the aetuai members of the structure and the welded or bolted
joints.

3- 2.1 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

3-2.-1.1 MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO SIMPLE TENSION OR COMPRESSION

1) For steels where the ratio between the elastic limit O’Eand the ultimate tensile strength oR is
< 0.7, the computed stress ~ must not exceed the maximum permissible stress ¢Ja obtained by
dividing the elastic limit stress O’E by a eoeffici,nt VE which depends upon the load ease as defined
under section 2-3.

The values 0f VE and the permissible s~ress~s are :

Load case I

VE 1.5 1.33 1,2 *

permissible
stresses 1.33

For currently manufactured carbon steels of grades (ISO) Pc 360 - Fe 430 - Fe 510, the critical
stress ~E is conventionally taken as thatwhich corresponds to a permanent elongation of 0.2 %.

Note : For handling machines, rE= 1.2 in case III, while this coefficient is equal to 1.1 for
lifting appliances in the same case III (see FEM rules - Section I).

Characteristic values for steels of current mal~afacttlre.

oE G ~t
Steel grade
Nlmm~ Nlmm~ N/mm2 N/mm2
Fe 360 240 370 0.65 ¯ 21.10~ 8,1 . I0’~ 1.2. 10"s
Fe 430 280 440 0.64 21, 104 8.1. 104 1.2. 10"s
Fe 510 360 520 0.69 21, 104 8,1 . I0’~ 1.2. 10.5
 3-12 © FEM Section II

Table T.3-2.1,1
YALLrES OF crE ~ Oa FOR STEELS Fe 360 - Fe 430 - Fe 5

Elastic limit Maximum permissible stresses ~a

Steel grade Case I Case II Case III
N/mm2

Fe 360 240 160 180 200

Fe 430 280 187 210 233
Fe510 360 ¯ 240 270 300

2) For steels with high elastic limit, where the ratio crE / OR is greater thgn 0.7, the use of the vE
coefficients does not ensure a sufficient margin of safety. In this case a check has to be made that
the permissible stress Oa given by the formula below is not exceeded :

trE + crR
crE(Fe 510) + ~R (Fe 510) ’ ~a(Fe510)

are the elastic .limit and the ultimate tensile strength of the steeI
considered

OE(Fe 510) and OR (Fe 5-10) these same stresses’ for. steel Fe 510, i.e. 360 N/mm~ and
520 N/mm2

cra(Fe 510) the permissible stress for steel Fe 510 in the case of loading
considered

3-2.1.2 MElVIBERS SUBJECTED TO SHEAR

The permissible stress in shear ’ca has the following value :

Oa

~a being the permissible tensile stress.

3-2.1.3 MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED STRESSES -

EQUIVALENT STRESS

gx and Cry being respectively the two normal stresses and "Cxy the shear stress at a given point, a
check shall be made :

1) that each of the two stresses Crx and ~y is less than ~a and that ’cxy is less than ’ca
© FEM Section .If 3-13

2) that the equivalent stress Crcp is less than era, i.e, :

~Ycp =~TxZ + ~y~" crx.~y + 3’~xy~ < ~a

When using this formula, a simple method is to take the maximum values 3x, Cry and "~xy. But, in
fact, such a calculation leads to :too great .an equivalent stress when it is impossible for the
maximum values of each of the three stresses to occur simultaneously.

Nevertheless, this simple ealci~lafion method, being conservative, is always acceptable.

If the equivalent stress is. to be calculated more precisely, it is necessary to determine the most
unfavourable practical combination that may occur. Three checks must thea be made by calculating
successively the equivalent stress resulting from the three following combinations :

and the corresponding stresses cry.and ,rxy

and the corresponding stresses fix and ’rxy

and the ~orresponding stresses dx and ~y

Note’: I~. should be~noted that when two out of the three stresses are approximately of the same
value, and greater than half the p~rn~i."ssible ~r~ss, .the im~st unfavourable combination of th~
three Values may occur in different loading cases from those corresponding to the maximum of each
of the three Stresses.

Special case :

Tension (or compression) combined with shear

The following formula should be checked

 3-14 © FEM Section

3- 2.2 WELDED JOINTS

3- 2.2.1 WELD QUALITIES
The types of weld most commonly used for handling appliances are bt~tt welds, double bevel butt
welds (K welds) and fillet welds, of ordinary or special quality (S.Q.) as specified below.

Weld testing is also stipulated for certain types of joint.

Table T.3-2.2.1
WELD OUALIT.t~S

TyI~ of weld Weld ]Execution of weld Bxample Weld testing . Symbol

quality
°f sYlr~bol!

root of weld scraped (or

trimmed) before making
special sealing run. No end " cheek (e,g. ~ith x.rays) PIO0
quality craters. Weld must be over 100 % of seam length
(S.q.) trimmgd.by grinding
parallel to the di~ction of
load until it is flush with
the plate surface, .
full depth butt weld as for 8,Q. but solely
under tensile stress when
~rmax calculated >- 0.8 ira P IOO
(o"a in ffia~tion of ~)
ordi.nary
quality trlrrimed) before making oih~rwise rm~om 0beck
sealing ruti; No end’ Over at least 10 % Of s~m
craters length (for, example P 10
x.r, ays)
root of weld scraped (or .
trimmed) before making
special weld on other side. Weld
quality edges without Undercutting
(S,Q.) and ground ff neee.ssary,
Full penetration Welda
check that for tensile loads
K-weld in angle formed the plate perpendicular to
by two parts with bevel the dixeetion of the forces D
on one of the parts to be width clear of weld is free fr.om lamination
joined at location of penetration between the (for example ultrasonic
seam two welds ~ 0,2 e with examination)
maxi 3 mm

ordinary
quality

-<0.2 e and < 3 mm

special
quality welded edges without
(S,Q.) undercutting and ground if cheek that for tensile loads D
necessary the plate perpendicular to
fdlet welds in the angle the direction of the forces
formed by two parts is free from lamination
ordinary (for example ultrasonic
quality examination)

1) weld symbols are taken from ISO 2553, this symbol W means root of weld scraped

.,.[
© FEM Section Ii 3-15

3-2.2.2 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

In welded joints, it is assumed that the deposited metal has at least as good characteristics as the
adjacent parent metal. ’

It must be verified that the stresses developed, in the cases of longitudinal tension and compression,
and equivalent stresses do not exceed the permissible stresses %w given in table T.3-2.2.2.

For shear in-the welds, the permissible stress ’Caw is given by :

~a
’CAW ---- ~

However, for certain types of loading, particularly transverse stresses in the welds; .the maximum
permissible equivalent stress is reduced.

Table T.3-2.2.2 summarizes the maximum permissible values, for certain steels, according to the
type of loading (and the load case).

Table T.3-,2.2:2 " ’ : :’ ’

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES.IN WELD,q, ~aw (Nlmm~)
STEELS Fe 360 - Fe 430¯ - Fe 510

Types of loading , .Fe360.. Be.430 FeSl0..

’. ’ ’ , cagdl case case III case I ¯ case II case liI
LONOITuDINAL ’
AND EQUIVALENT
STRESSES FOR
ALL TYPES OF 160 !80 200 187 210 233 240. 270 300
¯ WELDS " ......
TRANSVERSE
TENSILE
STRESSES
1) butt-welds (S,Q. 160 180 200 ’ 187 ¯ 2t0 233 240 270. 300
or C,Q.) and
special quality
K-wdds
2) ordinary quality 14o 158 173 164 184 204 210 236 263
K-welds
3) fillet welds (S.Q. 113 127 141 132 149 165 170 191 212
or C.q.)
TRANSVERSE
COMPRESSIVE
STRESSES
1) butt-welds and 160 180 200 187’ 210 233 240 270 300
K-welds (S.Q. or
C.Q.)
2) fillet welds (S.Q. 130 146 163 152 171 189 195 220 244
or C,O.)
SHEAR
(S.Q. OR C.O.) 113 127 141 132 149 165 170 191 212

Complementary information on welded joints is given hereafter.

 3-16 © FEM Section II

3-2.2.3 COMPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ON STRESSES IN. WELDED

JOINTS

Determining the stresses in welds is a highly complex problem primarily because of the great
number of possible configurations welded joints can assume.

For this reason it is not possible, as the matter stands at present, to lay down precise directives in
these Rules for the Design of Handling Appliances. Indeed, both the volume and the .subject matter
of rules relating to welding would be difficult to fit into the general context of the present design
rules. It was consequently decided to include 0nly the re!lowing general indications :

At! methods of calculation assume of necessity a properly executed joint, Le. a weld with correct
penetration and a good shape, so that the joint between the components to be assembled and the
weld seam is kee from discontinuity or sudden change of section as well as from craters or notches
due to undercutting.

The design of the weld must be adapted to the forces to be transmitted, and specialized literature on
the subject should be consulted,

It should be noted that the strength of a welded jet,at is significantly improved if the surface of the
weld is finished by carefuI grinding.

2)..There is no need to take into consideration stress concentrations due to the design of the joint or
residual stresses,

3) The pertaissibIe str.esses in welds are those determined u.nder clause 3-2,2.2.and .the equivalent stress
~rcpw in the ease of combined stress (tensileor compressive) cr and shear stress ’~ i.s given by the
formula : "

trepw = ~ + 2"~: < ~aw (given in 3-2.2.2)

In cases involving dual stresses crx and ~y and the shearing stress "~xy, the following formula is
applied :

Gepw =,~x~ + C~y2 - ~rx. cry + 2’~xyZ < Craw

4) In a fillet weld, the thickness of the section considered is the depth of the weld to the bottom of the "
throat and its length is the effective Iength of the weld less the end craters.

This length need not be reduced if the joint closes on to itself or if special precautions are taken to
limit the effect of the craters.

5) Attention is drawn to the fact that it seems to be reliably established that fatigue failures in welded
joints seldom occur in the weld seam itself but usuaIIy beside it in the parent metal.
© FEM Section II 3-17

Therefore, in general the stresses Crmin and ~rmax for the fatigue strength calculations for the parent
metal beside the weld seam, must be computed using the classical methods for calculating the
strength of materials.

In order to verify the fatigue strength of the weld itself, it is generally held that it is sufficient to
confirm that the weld is capable of transmitting the same loads as the adjacent parent metal.

This rule is not obligatory however when the parts jointed are generously dimensioned in relation to
the forces actually transmitted. When this is the case the weld seam need only be dimensioned in
accordance With those forces, with the proviso that a fatigue Check should then be performed in
accordance with chapter 3,4.5.2.1.
¯
Whatever the ease it is emphasised that the size of a weld should invariably be in proi ~ortion to the
thickness of the assembled parts.
 3-I8 © FEM Section II

3-2.3 BOLTED JOINTS

3-2.3.1 GENERAL

3-2.3.1.1 DEFINITIONS

Mobile equipment for continuous handling of bulk materials includes a large range of both sizes and
types of structure which, in turn, can be subjected to a wide variety of loads.

Various structural and mechanical engineering disciplines have evolved simplified rules and codes of
practice for the use of bolts with the types of structure and loadings most commonly encountered in
each particular field.

Bulk material handling machines often include design details of many types, and it is the
responsibility of the designing engineer to apply existing codes of practice only where appropriate.

National standards and codes of practice, though often similar, do vary considerably in detail between
countries. Where National standards exist, these may be used in order to comply with local
regulations and to suit the bolts, nuts, ete available in the country of manufaoture and use.

In an attempt to avoid problems aristing from particular national interpretations of certain terms and
phrases, some definitions are given in the following chapters.

In this section, the term "bolt" may be taken to include all ISO metric bolts, screws, studs and
" threaded fasteners. In every case, for eaeh type and grade of bolt, the appropriate nut and washers
should be used.

3-2.3.1.2 DESIGN

Bolted joints should be designed on the basis of a realistic assumption of the distribution of internal
forces, having regard to relative stiffnesses. Such an assumption should correspond with the direct
load paths through the elements of connections.

Where members are connected to the surface of the web or .flange of a section, the localability of
the web or flange to transfer the applied forces should be checked and stiffening provided where
necessary,

Ease of fabrication and erection should be considered in the design of joints and splices, Attention
should be paid to clearances necessary for tightening fasteners, welding procedures, subsequent
inspection, surface Izeatment and maintenance.

,,,/
© FEM Section II 3-19

The ductility of steel assist the distribution of forces generated within a joint..Therefore residual
stresses need not usually be calculated,

When different forms of fasteners are used, or when welding and fasteners are combined to carry a
shear load, then one form of connection should normally be designed to carry the total load.

High duty bolted joints

For high duty bolted joints, espeeially under fatigue loading, where pretension is critical and
embedding of the mating surfaces and local joint design details have a significant effect, a more
rigorous analysis of the joint and bolt stresses may be required.

Clearances ..-

The recommended clearance for bolts in holes is based on ISO 273. Values for the more common
bolt diameters are tabulated below for reference.

Thread diameter CIearance hole Dt (ram)

dt (man) fine medium

12 13 13.5 14.5
16 .17 17.5 18.5
20 ’21 22 24
-25. 2-6 -2-8-
30 31 33 35
36 37 39 42

Notes : Where necessary to avoid interference between the edge of the hole and the under-head fillet
of the bolt, a chamfer is recommended.

..o/
 3-20 © FEM Section II

Especially for higher grade bolts under tension in medium and coarse elearanee holes, it may be
necessary to check the bearing stress in the plate material under the bott head and nut, using
hardened steel washers as necessary, to transfer the load.

Tolerances for fitted bolts,

Where fitted bolts are used, the holes must be drilled and reamed. The tolerance for the hole should
be H11,

Note : The term "Fitted bolt" is usgd to r~fer to any bolt.in a close fitting hole. In some countries
special bolts are made for use inclose fitting holes (e.g, DIN 7968 + DIN 7999) and these should
be used if appropriate,

3-2.3.1.3 CONTROLLED TIGHTENING

Joints tightened by controlled means must not be placed under externally applied structural load
until the jolnting process is complete, This may include the tightening of more than one joint.

Care should be taken to ensure that bolts are correctly tightened and that the preload induced in the
first bolts in a joint is not lost as the rest of the bolts are tightened.
The use of spring or bite type lock washers is not recommended for bolts tightened by controlled
means, The extra friction and joint settlement involved causes Unpredictable results and loss of
preload.

Each system of controlled tightening has its associated tolerance range, and both the designer and
user must be aware of this to ensure that the bolt is neither over-tensioned nor the joint under-
tensioned and liable tO slip or fatigue,

During controlled torque tightening, consideration must be given to the effects of thread and nut face
friction. Under the combined effect of tension and torsional loading, the nominal tensile stress
should not exceed 80 % of the elastic limit to take account of the scatter in the tightening process,

3-2.3.1.4 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESS

The maximum permissible stress, era, for the bolt material should be calculated in accordance with
section 3-2.1,1.

The permissible working stresses for bolts grades 4.6/5.6/8.8 and 10.9 are summarized in
table T,3-2.3.3,5,
© FEM Section 3-21

3-2.3.2 ORDINARY BOLTS

3-2.3.2.1 DEFINITIONS

Ordinary bolts, often referred to as black bolts, are carbon steel bolts with wide geometric
tolerances, normally of the lower strength grades (e.g. DIN 601, BS 4190 and ISO 4016).

Note : the term "black" no longer relates to the appearances of the product~ which may look either
black or bright in its finished state.

3-2.3.2.2 APPLICATION
Ordinary or black bolts are normally used in medium or coarse clearance holes in secondary joints
that do not transmit heavy loads.

They must. not .be used in joints.subject to£atigue loading.

The calculated stresses must not exceed :

~ab = 0.625 Oa in tension

’Cab = 0.5 ~a in shear

~an = 1.0 era in bearing (see note)

~ : The permissible stress in bearing should be based on the yield stress of the bolt or the plate
material, whichever has the lowest value.

Wherever there is a risk of nuts or bolts coming loose, they should be secured by the use of locking
washers or equivalent,

3-2.3.3 HIGHER GRADE BOLTS: PRECISION BOLTS

Higher grade bolts, sometimes called precision bolts, are turned or cold finished to close tolerances
(e.g. DIN 931, BS 3692 and ISO 4014).

3-2.3.3.1 PRECISION BOLTS IN TENSION

Bolts in tension can be used in fine, medium or coarse clearance holes, as required.

Bolts- tightened by not controlled m¢_ans

This simple tightening method should only be used on secondary joints.

The maximum calculated tensile stress shall not exceed 0.625

Under fluctuating or reversing loads, the stress range (Crmax - Omin) must be less than 10 % of the
ultimate stress OR, with a mean stress level less than 15 % crR.

Bolts under other cyclic loading conditions should be tightened by controlled means,
 3-22 © FEM Section II

Notre: Spring or bite-type lock washers are not normally effective when used with bolts of
grade 8.8 and above, where the hardness of the bolt is similar to or greater than that of the lock
washer.

Bolts - tightened..by, co.ntrolled means

Care should be taken to ensure that the joint is not subjected to shear loading unless the conditions
in section 3-2.3.4 are met.

Tight en_in__g.wi_thout_tLght_eni_ng torque

The maximum tensile stress Gb shall not exceed 0.8

Gb -< Crab = 0.8 GE

_Tigh_tenin_g_wit_h twist
The maximum combined stress Ob shall be checked as follows :

crb = ,~p2 + 3,tb2 < Gab = 0.8 GE

wherexb= dt ’ ~ +

where

= theoretical tensile stress under the tightening effect

"cb = torsional stress under the tightening effect

d2 = diameter of the root of the thread

dt = nominal diameter of the bolt

Pa = thread pitch
= friction coefficient in the threads *

= elastic limit of the bott metal

¯ It is necessary to get (from the manufacturer for instance) the actual value of It. ]’ust for
information, the friction coefficient is normally between 0. I0 and 0.18.

C) Maximum allowable external loads

Under maximum loading F1 the following two checks must be satisfied :

© FEM Section II 3-23

_qnn.q el_ast.i_c limit,.o’E ~ of~the.b_olt must_not_be _exc_ _ee_dgt_

Determine :

and check that :

K,K,~b

where

F1 = load on joint

8b = bolt area at root of thread

K.K’ = safety coefficients given in section b) : table T.3-2.3.3.1 below

All
iSb = All + AI2

where

All ’ = shortening of the elements being tightened .....

A12 ,=. lengthening Of the bolt under the acdon of the tighte~ng force

~rpi. ~;b -- a~.defined above

For assembled steel parts, the equivalent section Seq’ to be considered for hl 1 should be :

n
Seq =~" [(D1 + ll~k0 )~ _ Dt~]

where

D1 = bearing diameter under bolt head

lk = length of tightelxing
Dt = diameter of bolt hoIes
 3-24 © FEM Section

Note 2 : For bolts whose shank diameter differs significantly from the root diameter of the thread,
or where there is an appreciable threaded length contained within the bolt stretch length, a complete
calculation of al2 should be made.

b) _3o~n_t aq2afatio_n.sou!d_no_t.o_ccur~ ch_eck t.hat

Sb K’,K" . (1-~ib) , f2

where f2 = 1.1 to allow for I0 % tolerance in tensioning equipment

Safety coefficients K, K’ and K" :

K depends on the surface finish of the mating parts (K -- t for machined surface)

K’ factor of safety on elastic limit (see table T.3-2.3,3,1)

factor of safety on joint separation (see table T.3-2.3.3.1)

ease I case.II case

1.5 1.33 1.2

1.3 1

~ : The coefficients K’ and K" should be applied to the most unfavourable condition arising
from the scatter in applying the initial tightening effort.

3-2.3.3.2 PRECISION BOLTS IN SHEAR (BOLTS IN FITTED HOLES ONLY)

Preferably used (with or without preload) for joints subject to non-fluctuating loads.

Where fatigue loading occurs, friction grip joints should be used, See section 3-2.3.4.
 © FEM Section II 3-25

Bolts in fine, medium or coarse clearance holes

The calculated shear stress must not exceed 0.5 ¢ra as for ordinary bolting.

Note : The permissible stress in bearing should be based on the yield stress of the bolt or plate
material, whichever has the lowest value.

B) Bolis_]n fitted holes.

The caleu!ated shear stress x must be :

,
for single Shear ’ ~ < 0.6 era

for double shear ¢ g 0.8 ~a

singlesh~ar double shear

3-2.3.3.3’ PRECISION BOLTS IN coMBINED TENSION AND SHEAR (BOLTS IN

FITTED HOLES ONLY)’

A cheek shall be made that :

in tension , o < 0.625

in single shear ’r < 0.6 ~ra

in double shear x _< 0.8 Ca

and that ~ 3z~ <- 0.625

3-2.3.3.4 PRECISION BOLTS IN BEARING (BOLTS IN FITTED HOLES ONLY)

The bearing capacity of a bolt in any joint shall be taken as the lesser of the bearing capacity of the
bolt and the connected plates,

A bolt can only be considered to he effective in bearing when none of the threaded portion is in
contact with the joint plates.

However, care must be taken to ensure that there is still sufficient threaded length to enable the joint
to be correctly tightened.
 3-26 ~,© FEM Section. II

Beating capaci .ty

The bearing pressure ~hall not exceed :

1.3 tra for fitted bolts in single shear

1.75 cra for fitted bolts in double shear.

The bearing area for the bolt shall be considered as :

Ab -- dt. t

where’ ,.

dt = nominal bolt diameter

t = the thickness of the connected plate less half the depth of the chamfer, if appropriate

..
I

The bearing area for ~he plate shall be coasidered as :

<I
Ap--dt. t_~ e.t

where dt and t are as above and e is the edge distance from the centre of the bolt hole to the nearest
plate edge in the direction in which the bolt will shear.
© FEM Se,~tion II 3-27

Table T.3-2,3.3.5 ,. : .
PERMISSIBLE WORKING~.,STR~SSES~OR ORDINARY AND HIGHER GP~DE BOLTS -
SUMMARy ’

bolts in fitted holes bolts in

ISO bolt load permissible single shear double shear non fitted holes
..~grade ..... c,as.e tensile
¯ stress~. permissibl~ ixnli~ble
shear,

.....
N/mm~ N/mm~ N/mini
1o0
I13 .
1:25

I.....!25. ,. 120 ..... 260 * ,I~,..~ .350::*: .,..1,qO, .200 i:~.i:: ..

H .... 141 135 ,293 * !80,, ............ 395 x 113 226
HI ’ 156 150 325 * 200 438 x 125 250 *
¯I . 267. 555x "5ii. 427 x
8,8 . "’" 1I 301 ’ - 289.. (626 x 385- 481X
¯ .Ill :,-~ 333 320.. , ,,.,693:X.[ 533 x

s60 780 x ¯ ,600 x

i:0.9 II 423 406 :880x " 54! 677:x
11I 469 450 ¯ 975:x 600 "750 X

* ; .bearing stress exceeds elastic limit of plato material Fo 360 steel (i.e. 240 N/mmz)

X : ’be~tJngi:stress ~xc~ods elastic limi~ of-plate material Fo 510 stool (i.e. 360 N/mm~).

.,,/
 3-28 © FEM Section II

3-2.’3.4 HIGH TENSILE STEEL BOLTS WITH CONTROLLED

TIGHTENING USED FOR FRICTION GRIP JOINTS

3-2.3.4.I GENERAL

This type of joint is recommended for joints subject to fatigue where the primary loads are parallel
to the joint faces.
The joint is made using: high ter~gile steel b~itS, inI conjunction with high strength .nuts and
.hardened steal Washers. These eiemer~i~ are.tightened tO a specified minimum shank tensionso that
. 16a’ds can:be, trafis~rmffb’~tween eohn~eted p~ b), friction a~~0t by shear Or bearing on the bolt.

¯" At:tlae timeof:as’sembly;.i:the mating.~n’faees mU~t he’:free from palm, 0il, dirt, loose rust or scale
. and ~my b~s and-’other ~defects whicii ~would p~en~~olid s~.ating, of the joint faces and interfere
with the doveldpmen~ oflfriction bet~n them. ’

Where specific National ~odes or stand~ds exist th~so~ay be used {~i p~ace of this section.

Boita used for this typ0,6~joint ~iiS~ h~.ve ~ high elas~e limit,!and
must. be g~eater.than the val~es, given hereunder :

0.2-% bolt
N/mini

640 800 8:8

90O 1,000
1,080 1,200

Ttie diameter of the bolt hole shall be no more than 2 mm larger than that of ~ bolt,

3-2.3.4.1.2 TENSILE STRESS AREA .’:

When determining the stress in the bolt, the tensile stress area shall be cal~lated by taking the
arithmetic mean of the core (minor) diameter and the effective thread .-diameter. These values i.
given in the following table : .~] ; ~:-’:.: :’~, ,
© FEM Section II 3-29

nominal diameter 12 14. 18 20 22 27 30

(ram)

tensile stress area 36.6 58 84.3 115 157 .192 245 303 353. 459. 561

3-2.3.4.1.3 WHASHERS

A fdeti5n grip joint with high tensile’ ~teel bolts must ai"~Vays in¢1ud; two ~ard steel washers, on~
under the bolt head, one under the nut. ~naere these whashers have a 450 bevel on the internal rim,
this must be turned towards the bolt head or nut, .The washers must have been heat treated so that
their hardness iSfat least equal i0 th0se"o~ the b0~ niatefi’a~ ....

3-2.3.4.I.4 BOLT TIGHTENING

The Value. of the tension induced in the bolt must .reach the value determined by calculation and
must be.applie.d: by an accurately eontrol!ed method. ’ "’
Where a controlled:torque method is uged, the torquing d~vice mu~t be regularly calibrated against a
known standardf0r each siz0 of bolt used.

The torque required, Ma, 9an be derived from the equittion :

Ma = 1.10 C. dt. F

dt is the nominal bolt diameter

F. is the clamping force to be induced.in the bolt

C is a ~oefficient which includes the effects of thread form and thread and nut/head to washer
friction. It is necessary to get (from the supplier for instance), the actual value of C to take it
into account in the calculation of the iightening torque.

Note 1 : The use of grease in the thread and between nut/head and washer decreases the value of
coefficient C and allows for a better idea of the exact value of this coefficient. But it is’ absolutely
necessary to ensure that no grease is present between the plates to be joined. The use of MeSa
grease (molykote for instance) is strongly recommended because MoSz sticks and stays where it has
been applied to, while other lubricants tend to creep and enter between the plates to be joined.
Furthermore the used of MeSa leads to lowest friction values for bolt tightening.

Note 2 : where corrosion problems are anticipated, hot galvanized or sherardised bolts can be used.
In that case, brittleness due to galvanizing has to be considered.
 3-30 .~ FEM Section II

3-2.3’.4.1.5DETERMINATION OF THE STRESSES IN THE MEMBERS JOINED

For members subject to .compression, the stress is calculated on the gross section (cross-sectional
area of the holes not deducted).

For members ~ubjected tO tension there are two cases :

~ : bolts set in a single row, perpendicular to the d~rection of the load ; the following
conditions mustbe checked :

a) the total load on the gross section

b) 80 % of the total load on the net section (cross-sectional area of holes deducted)

2rid ea~e. :: seve~ai tbws of 50!ts perpendicular to the direction of the’ load.
The most heavily loaded section (cbrresponding to
row 1 for the member A - see figure) must be
analysed and the follow)ng two conditions
eh~eked :
a) ’ the tOtal load Oh~the grins Section
!
on the net section, the total load from the-
othe~;’t0Wg (i:e: ih the ~e~e of tile fi~ur~:.2i3 :
of the total load of the join0 to which 80"%
of the load taken, by row ~1 iS added.

’Itfis assumes that theload within a row is equally divided amongst all the bolts and that the number
of rows of bolts is small because if there are too many, the last bolts daffy little load. It is therefore
recommended that not more than two rows of bolts should be used or exeeptiona!ly three.

3-2.3.4.2 EXTERNAL LOADS ACTING IN THE PL&NE OF THE JOINT (LOAD

TYPE T)
The permissible load per bolt, Ta, which can be transmitted through the joint is determined by the
equation (Ta values are given in tables T.3-2.3.4.5.4) :

Ta~ .m

whet~

I.t is the friction coefficient from table T.3-2,3.4,2

F is the clamping force in the joint per bolt given in tables T,3-2.3.4.5.4
 © FEM Seotion II 3-31

VT is the safety coefficient against slipping :

1.4 for the case I loading
1.25 for the ease II loading
1.1 for the case III loading
m is the number of friction surfaces (see fig. 3-2.3.4.2)

Fig. 3-2.3.4.2
NUMBER OF EFFECTIVE FRICTION SURFACES.

I friction surface m = 1

1 2 friction surfaces m = 2

3 friction surfaces m = 3

.i
Table T.3-2.3.4.2 : ioint friction coefficient

The coefficient of friction usbd for each joint depends on the method of preparation of the joint
surfaces.

Before assembly, the surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned of all paint and oil. Loose rust, dirt
mill scale must be completely removed by thorough brushing with a clean wire brush.

Where surfaces have been machined, metal sprayed or otherwise treated, the coefficient of friction
must be determined by test.

,,,]
 3-32 © FEM Section II

Table T~3-2,3.4.2
VALUES OF ~

(1) specially prepared surfaces

normally prepared surfaces (for example flame-cleaned,
joined material (degreasing and brushing) shot or sand-blasted or coated
by-non slip paint)

Fe 360 0,30 0.50

Fe 430 0,30 0.50
Fe 510 0.30 0.55 (2)

(1) such a special preparation is recommended for friction grip joints.

(2). if coated by non slip paint, the value of !~ is 0.5

3-2.3.4.3 EXTERNAL LOADS ACTING PERPENDICULAR TO.. TI~ PLANE OF THE

JOINT (LOAD TYPE

The load distribution within the j0intmtist be evaluated and the effect Of any external axial loads on
the bolts must be checked in accordance with section 3-2.3.3,1.

3-2.3.4.4 JOINTS WITH EXTERNAL FORCE COUPLE (LOAD TYPE M)

If the bolted joint is subjected to an external couple of forces, the increased tensile loading within
the joint must be determined and the stress in the highest loaded bolts added to the existing tensile
(type N) load,

3-2.3.4.5 COMBINED EXTERNAL LOADINGS ON FRICTION GRIP JOINTS

For combined loading (load type T, N & M) two checks must be made :

That, for the most highly stressed bolt, the sum of the tensile stresses due to N and M loadings
remains less than the permissible tensile stress as defined in 3-2.3.3. This requirement is met where
the external tensile force doesn’t exceed the values given in table T.3-2,3.4.5.1.

,..[
© FEM Section II 3-33

Table T.3-2.3.4.5.1
PERMISIBLE ADDITIONAL Nadd perm ~TENSILE FORCE PER BOLT

load case

0.6 F 0.7 F 0.8 F

where F is the elampint force per bolt.

That the mean load Tper bolt which is transmitted by friction is less than the foilowing value :

bl) (0.2 + NaddNa~&perm

P" ’ r r,a . 0.s) Ta
where Ta is the admissible load per bolt if there is noadditional external tensile force (3-2.3.4.2).

Ta values are given in table T.3-2,3.4.5.4.

T-< ~ ’(F" N) .m

The additional tensile force N increases the bolt stress after tightening by a certain sum which
depends on the elastleity of the bolt and of the compressed members. This relation can be taken into
account by the "coefficient of elongation" which depends, for solid steel plates and for the types of
bolts normally used in construction engineering, on the length of tightening Ik and the diameter of
the bolt dt,

For the normal case where the bolt is pretightened with :

0.70"E

the permissible additional tensile force Na can be calculated with the following formula :

0.12 ~;E ¯ Fs
Na- Va.~
 3-34 © FEM Section

in which

elastic limit of the bolt metal

safety coefficient for the load cases (VaI = 1.5 ; VaII = 1.33 ; VaIII = 1.2)

coefficient of elongation on the basis of the ratio lk/dt according to table T.3-2.3.4.5.2

stress section of the bolt (see section 3-2.3.4.1.2)

Table T.3-2.3.4.5.2 -
COEPFICmNT OP ELoNgATiON

lk = length of tightening dt = diameter of the bolt

¯ Ik/dt 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 3,5 4,0 4.5 5.0 5.5 7.0 7.5

O 0,43 0,42 0,40 0,38 0.36 0.33 0,32 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.25 0,24 0.22 0,21

Table T.3-2 3.4 5,3 gives permissible additional tensile .forces Na for different bolts matefiaIs,
diameters and load cases.

The following table, T.3-2.3.4.514, gives per bolt and per friction surface, the values of the
transmissible forces in the plane parallel to that of the joint for various friction coefficients for the
steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510.

To apply these values, the number of effective friction surfaces as indicated in 3-2.3.4.2 must be
determined.

,.,/
© FEM Section II 3-35

Table T,3-2.3.4.5.3
PERMISSIBLE ADDI,TIONAL TENSILE FORCES ,Na.IN kN
FOR BOLTS AFTER TIGHTENING ,WiTH,CLAMPING, F~RCE F IN kN

Bolt material : ISO grade 8.8

~rR = 800 N/mma
640 N/mm~

tightening era = 0.70E(0.2)

:tightening dt= 1,,,6 nun dt = 20 mm dt = 24 mm

length, F= 70kN , 11o F= 158kN
load ease load:..c._ase ......... load case
1k (ram) I I m t m

io 18,8 21.2 23,5 29, .2 36.5

’. 20 - ¯ 19.6 ’22.1 24,5 ’33~7 37.3 4Z7 48,2 53.4
30- 20.9 23.5 26.1 31.4 35;4 39,2 44,1 49.7 55.1
40 ’2Z3 25.2 ¯ 27.9 ’ 33.0 37.2 41.3 4519 51.8 57.4
24.5 27.7 30.7 34.8 ’39.3 43.6 48.0 54,1 60.0
60 . 25.9 .29.2.. 32.4 .38.0 42.9 47.5. ¯ 50.2 56.6 62.8
70 27.5 ’ 31,0 34,4 39,2 44.2 49.O 54,0 60.8 67,4
80 29.8 33,6 .37.2, 41.8 , 47:2 52.3 55.9.. 63.0 69,9
,3 i’~.2.... 35.2 39.0 43:3 48,8 54.1 58.3 65,8 7Z9
~,1.00. , " 32:9 37.0 41.o~: A6.5. 52.4 58.1 6.8,7. 76.2

B01t material i.ISO grade 10,9

gR = 1,00.0 Nimm=

900 N/ram=

tightening Oa = 0.7 oE(0.2)

tightening dr= 16ram dt = 20 mm dt= 24 mm

length F= 99kN F = !54 kN F= 222kN
load case load case load case
¯ lk (ram) I iI m i m i lI m

IO 26.4 29.8 33,1 41.0 46.3 51.3

20 27.6 31.1 34,5 42.0 47.4 52.5 60,0 67,7 75.0
30 29.4 33.1 36.7 44.1 49.7 55,1 62,0 69.9 77.5
40 31.4 35.4 39,3 46.4 52.4 58,0 64.6 72.9 80.8
50 34.5 38.9 43.1 49.0 55.3 61,3 67.5 76.1 84,3
60 36.5 41.1 45.6 53.5 60.3 66,8 70.6 79.6 88.3
70 38.6 43.6 48.3 55.1 62.2 68.9 75.9 85.6 94,8
80 41.9 47.2 52.3 58.8 66.3 73.5 78,6 88.7 98,3
90 43.9 49.5 54.9 60.8 68.6 76.0 82.0 92.5 102.5
loo 46.2 52.0 57.7 65,3 73.7 81.7 85.7 96.6 107.1
 Excerpt from FEM Section II

3-36 © FEM Section II

Table T,3-2,3,4,5,4
TRANSMISSIBLE FORC.ES..IN THE PLANE OF TFIP. IOINT
ALL FORCES GIVEN PER BOLT ANDPER.FRICTION SURFA~ Ta ~

bolts to ISO class 8.8 - C~R = 800 N/mma - oE = 640 N/mm~

normally prepared specially prepared surfaces
bolt tensile elttm, applied surfaces
forc~ ........ using steels "’ using stedls ~teels"t"e 510
meter area fPoing
rce Fe 360, Fe 430, FeSl0 Fe 350, Fe 430, FeSl0 0.55
e*--0,14 ..,F=O,~O F=0,50
" ’dr Ma
mm mm~ Nm

10. 58 26 40
5.6 6:2 7.1" 9,3 10.2 11.4 13.0
12 .84.3 ~ 37 68
7.9 8,9 10.1 13,2 14,8 16.8 i4.5 16.3 18.5
I4 115 52 11.1 12.5 !4,2 !8,6
1!2. 20,8 23.6 20,4 22.9 26.0
li5 157 70 172
15.0 16.8 19.1 25,0 28.13 31.8 27,5 30,8 35.0
18 192 86 238
18.4 20;6 23.5 30.7 33A 37.8 43.0i
20 245 110 336
23.6 26.4 30.0 39,3 44.0 50.0 43.2 ~8.~ 55.0
22 303 136 460
29.1 .3Z6 37.1 " 48;6 54,4 61.8i ¯ 53.4 59.8 68.0
24 353 158 584 33.9 37.9 43.i 56.4 63.2 71.1 62.1 69.5 79,0
27 459 205 852 43,9 49.2 55.9 73.2 82.0 93,2 ¯ 80,5 90.2 I02;5
30 56i 249 1,150 53.3 59.7 67.9 88,9 97.8 109.5 124.5

bolts to ISO class 10:9r oR = 1000 N/rama- ~E~ 900 N/mm~ ’

,normally prepared"’ specially prepared s~u’faces
bolt tensile clam. applied ¯ surfaces
dia- ~t~ess ping for~ using ste~ls ¯ ’using st~els ....... using steels F¢510
molto" area fofc.g Fe 360, Fe 430, Fe 510 360, Fe 430, Fo 510 ~ = 0.55
~ = o,,3.o ~ = O,;so
dt Fs F Ma
mm ~2 ~ Nm IlI I

10 58 37 57 7.9 8.9 10.1 13.2 14.8 16.8 14.5 I6.3 18.5

12 84,3 53 98 11.4 12.7 14.5 18.9 21.2 24.1 20,8 23.3 26.5
14 115 73 157 15.6 t7.51 19.9 26.1 29.2 33.2 28.7 3Z1 36,5
16 157 99 244 21.2 23.8 27.0 35.4 39.6 45.0 38.9 43.6 49.5
18 192 121 335 25.9 29,0 33.0 43~2 48/ 55.0 47.5 53.2 60.5
20 245 154 474 33.0 37.0 42.0 55,0 70.0 60.5 67.8 77.0
22 303 191 647 40.9 45.8 52.1 68.2 76.4 86.8 75,0 84.0 95,5
24 353 222 820 47.6 53.3 60.5 79,3 88~8 I00S 87.2 97.7 t11.0
27 459 289 1,200 61.9 69.4 78.8 103,2 115.6 131A 113.5 127.2 144,5
30 561. 350 1,617 75.0 84.0 95.5 .!25.C 140.0 159.~ 137.5 154.0 175.0

* c = 0.14 is used only as an example value, Wherethis coefficien~ is known or given by the
supplier, the values of Applied Torque must be adjusted accordingly.

In the above tables, Oa is limited to a maximum value of 0.7

In some circumstances, higher values based on a maximum of 0,80E can be used, but there is a
higher risk of bolt failure, and bolts tightened to 0,8 gE must not be additionally loaded in tension
by an external load,

For bolts with lower strength grades, the values given above may be multiplied by the ratio of their
yield or 0.2 % proof stresses.

,,,/
© FgM Section II 3-37

3-2.4 ROPES (GUY AND STAY ROPES)

Only static ropes are to be considered here, i.e. guy and stay ropes without any pulleys or sheaves (fixed or
mobile on the rope).

The safety of these ropes must be ensured against the risk of breaking for the forces of case II of loading
(main and additional loads) with a safety coefficient of minimum 3 against the breaking load of the rope.

Winch ropes with pulleys and sheaves and requiring replacement in the event of w, earing (active ropes) are
examined in chapter 4Meehardsms, ’

It must be noted that static ropes with one or more equalizing sheaves forexample are to be considered ~s
¯ active ropes (running ropes, see 4-2,2)and their safety coefficient must be 6 or above.
 3-38 © F~.M Section

3-3 CHECKING STABILITYOF PARTS SUBJECT TO CRIPPLING AND

BUCKLING

3-3.1 CHECKING...,.STABILITY OF STRUTS AND CO,LUM,I S SUBJECT TO

BUC,KLING,
The guiding principle shall be that parts subject to crippling must be designed .with the same safety margin
as that adopted for the slrength ealcu!atioa ; in other words, having, determined the practical crippling
stress, the maximum permissible stress shall be the. crippling stress divided by the appropriate coef-fieient
1.5 or 1.33 or 1.2 specified in 3-2.1.1.

The choice ora practical method of calculation is left to the manufacturer who must state the origin ofthe
method chosen.

Where the method chosen involves multiplying the computed stress by a crippling coefficient co dependant
upon the slenderness ratio of the member mad then checking that this amplified stress remains less than a
certain allowable stress, the value to be chosen for this allowable stress shall be as specified in 3-2.1.1.

The values of o, as a function of the slenderness ratio X, are given in the tables below for the following
cases ~

Table T.3-3.1.1 : roiled sections in Fe 360 steel

Table T.3-3.1.2 : rolled sections in Fe 510 steel
Table T.3-3.1.3 : tubes iu Fe 360 steel
Table T.3-3.1.4 : tubes in Fe 510 steel

Determina~i0,n of effective lengths for ealeulating the slenderness rati,o,g,

1 - In the ordinary case of bars pin joined at both ends and loaded axially, the effective length is taken as
the length between between points of articulation.

2 - For an axially loaded bar encastered at one end and free at the other the effective length is t~en as twice
the length of the bar.

For intermediate cases where uncertainty exists at present about the effect of fixity on members in
compression, the effects of fLxity are ignored and the member should be designed as if it were pin
jointed at both ends, with the effective length being taken as the length between points of intersection
of axes.

The ease of bars subjected to compression and bezdinE

In the case of bars loaded eccentricaily or loaded axially with a moment causing bending in the bar :

- either check the following two formulae :

F Mfv
+--T-
© FEM Section II 3-39

oaf Mf v
"-~ + 0,9"--~-- -<Ca

where :

F. is the compressive load applied to the bar

S is the section area of the bar

Mf is the bending moment at the section considered

v is the distance of the extreme fibre from the neutral axis

I is the moment of inertia

or perform the precise calculation in terms of the deformations sustained by the bai under the combined
effect of bending and compression, the necessary calculation being effeoted either by integration or by
successive approximations.
 3-40 © FEM Section II

Table T.3-3,1.1
VALUE OF TP~E..COEFFICIENT ~o IN TERMS OF THE.SI.~.NDERNESS RATIO
FOR ROLLED SECTIONS IN Fe 360 STEEL

., ,,,

0 1 2 3 4 6 7 9

20 1.04 1,04 1.04 1.05 1,05 1.06 1.06 ¯ 1,07 1.07 1,08
30 1.08 1,09 1,09 1,10 1,10 1.il 1.12 1.13 1.13
40 1.14 1,14 1,15 1,16 1,16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1,19 1.20

50 1,21 1.22 1.23 1;23 1.,24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29
60 1,30 1.31 1.32 1,33 1,34 1.35 1.36 1,37 1.39 1.40
70 1,41 1.42 1.44 1.45 1,46 1.48 1.49 1.50 1,52 1.53
80 1.55 1.56 1.58 1.59 1,6! 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.69
90 1,71 1.73 1.74 1,76 1,78 1,80 1.82 1.84 1.86 1.88

100 1.90 1~9~ 1.98 2.00 205 2.07 2,09

110 2.11 2.i4 2,16 2.18 2.21 2.23 2.27 2.31 2.35 2.39
120 2.43 2.47 2,51 2,55 2.60 2.64 2.68¯ 2.72 2.77 2.81
130 2,85 2.90 2,94 2,99 3,03 3.08 3.12 3.17 3.22 3,26
140 3.31 3,36 3,41 3.45 3.50 3,55 3.60 3,65 3.70 3,75

150~ 3.80 3,85 3.90 3.95 4,00 4,06 4.11 4,16 4.22 4.27
160 4.32 4.38 4.43 4.49 4.54 4.60 4.65 4.71 4.77 4,82
170 4.88 4.94 5.00 ¯ 5.05 5.11 5.17 5.23 5.29 5.35 5,41
180 5.47 5.53 5.59 5.66 5.72 5.78 5.84 5.91 5.97 6.03
190 6.10 6.16 6.23 6.29 6.36 6.42 6.49 6,55 6.62 6.69

200 6.75 6.82 6.89 6.96 7.03 7.10 7.17 7.24 7.31 7.38
210 7.45 7.52 7.59 7.66 7.73 7,81 7.88 7.95 8.03 8.10
220 8.17 8,25 8.32 8.40 8.47 8,55 8.63 8.70 8.78 8,86
230 8.93 9.01 9.09 9,17 9.25 9.33 9.41 9.49 9.57 9.65
240 9.73 9.81 9.89 9,97 10.05 10,14 10.22 10.30 10.39 10.47

250 10.55
 © FEM Section II 3-41

Table T.3-3.!,2
YALUE, OF THE :COEFFICIENT.co, IN TERMS OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO
FOR ROLLED SECTIONS IN Fe 510 STEEL

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9

20 1.06 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08’ 1.08 1.09 1.09 I.!0 1.10
30 1.11 1.i2 1.12 1.13 ’ 1.14 1.15 1,I5 1.16 1.17 1.18
40 1.19 1.19 1.20 1,21 1.22 1.23 1.24. ¯ 1.25 ’1,26 1.27

50’ 1.28 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.35 1.36 1.37 I.39 1.40
60 1.41 1.43 ¯ 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.49 1.51 1.53 1.54 1.56
70 1.58 1.60 1.62 1.64 1.66 1.68 1.70 1.72 1,74 1.77
80 1,79 1.81 1.83 1.86 1.88 ’ 1.91 1.93 1.95 1.98 2.01
90 2.05 2.10 2.14 2.19 2.24 2.29 2.33 2,43 2.48

100’ 2.53 2.58 2.64 2.69 2.74 2,79 2.90 2.95

110. 3,06 3.12 3,18 3,23 3.29 3,35 3.41 3,47 "3,53 3,59
!20’ 3.71 ’3.,77 3.83 3.89 3,96..: 4.02 4,09.- 4,15 4.22
130 4.28 435 4.4! ¯ 4:48 : 4i5.5 4.62 4.69 ¯ 4,75. 4,89
140 4.96. 5.04 5,11 5,18 5,25 5.33 5.40 5,47 5,55 5,62

150 5,70 5.78 5,85 5,93 6,01 6,09 6,16 6.24 6.32 6.40
160 6,48 6,57 6,65 6.73 6,81 6.90 6,98 7.06 7.15 7.23
170 7,~2 7.41. 7:49 7.58 ¯ 7,67 ¯ .7,76. 7.94 8.03 8.12
180 8.21¯ 8.30 8.39 8,48 :8,58
...... 8:67 g.76 8.86 8.95 9,05
190 9.14 9,24 9,34 9,44 9.53 9,63 9.73 9.83 9.93 10.03

200 10,13 10.23 10.34 10,44 10,54 10,65 10.75 10,85 10,96 11,06
210 . 11.17 11.28 11,38 11,49 11,60 11.71 11.82 11.93 12.04 12,15
220 12,26 12.37 12.48 12,60 12.71 12.82 12.94 13.05 13,17 13.28
230 13,40 13.52 13.63 13.75 13.87 13.99 .14.11 14.23 14.35 14.47
240 14,59 14.71 14,83 14,96 15,08 15,20 15.33 15.45 15,58 15.71

250 15,83
, ,, .. .. ¸

I
 3-42 © FEM Section II

Table T.3-3,1,3
VALUE OF THE COEFFICIENT,~o IN TERMS OF THE SLENDERNESS RATIO L
. .FOR TUBES IN Fe 360 STEEL

L 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

20 1:00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.01 1,0I 1.02 1.02 1.02
30 . 1.03 : 1.03 1.04 1.04 "1.04 1.05 1,05 1.05 "1.06 1.06
40 ~ 1,07 1,07 1.08 1..08 1.09 1.09 ,’1.10 1.10 1.11 1.11

50 1.I2 1.13 1,13 1.14 1.15 1,15 1.16 1.17 1,17 1.18
60 1.19 1.20 1.20 1,21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27
8"0 1.39 1.40 1,4:1 .:1.42 1.44 1.46 1.47 ’1.48. 1.50 1.51

100 1,70 1,73. 1,76 1,79 1.83 1.,87 1,90 1,94 1.97 2.01
110, . 2.05 2.08 2.!~2 2,16 2.20 2,23

, fo~ ~’ >. !,1,5,,.take the values"~f,o~ from table T,3~3,1,1

Table T.3-3,1,4
VALUE OF THE COEFFiCmNT.m IN TERMS OF SLENDERNESS RATIO
FOR TUBES IN Fe 510 STEEL, "

-,
% 0 1 3 4 5 7 8

20 1,02 1,02 1.02 1.03 1.03 1,03 1.04 1,04 1.05 1.05
30 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.07 1,07 1,08 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.I0
40 1.11 1.11 1.12 1.13 1,13 1.14 1,15 1.16 1.16 1.17

50 1,18 ¯ 1.19 1,20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1,24 1,25 1.26 1.27
60 1 1.30 1.31 1.32 1,33 1.35 1,36 1,38 1.39 1.41
70 1,42 1.44 1.46 1,47 1,49 1.51 1,53 1,55 1.57 1.59
80 1,62 1.66 1.71 1.75 1.79 1.83 1,88 1,92 1.97 2.01
90 2,05

for ,~ > 90, t~ke ihe val,u,.es of ~o frond"tattle T,3-3.1.2

The values of m in tables T,3-3.1,3 and T,3-3,1,4 are valid for an axially loaded bar
consisting of a single, tube whose diameter is equal to at least six times its
thickness,

..,]
© FEM Section II 3-43

3-3.2 CHECKING ELEMENTS SUBJECT TO LATERAL BUCKLING

The manufacturer is free to choose the method for checking the strength of structural elements subject to
lateral buckling. He must justify the origin of the method selected and apply it judiciously to load cases I,
II and TII,

The following list is not exhaustive, but, among the most commonly used methods, there are :

1 - in Germany, DIN 4114

2 - in Belgium the regulat!ons NBN 1
3 - in France the rules CM 1966
4 - in United Kingdom, BS 2573

3-3.3 CHECKING PLATES SUBJECT TO BUCKLING

In determining the new buckling safety coefficients, stated below, it was considered that flat plates under
compressive stresses equally distributed over the plate width are exposed to a greater danger of buckling
than plates under stresses changing from compression to tension over the plate width.
¯-In consequence, safety against buckling was.made dependant on the ratio of stresses at the plat edges
e
In addition it was found necessary to determine the critical buckling stress for circular cylinders and the
spacing and moment of inertia of the transverse stiffeners in order to avoid too great divergences in the
effective safety due to the used of highly divergent data in technical literature..

It shall be verified that the calculated stress is not higher thart the critical buckling stress divided by the
following coefficients Vv :

load ease buckling safety Vv

1,70 + 0.175 (gg - 1)

buckling of plane members 1.50 + 0.125 (W - 1)
1.35 + 0.075 (gg - 1)

buckling or curved members 1.70

circular cylinders 1.50
(e,g, : tubes) 1,35

The edge-stresses ratio R~ varies between - 1 and + 1. For the definition of W, W corresponds to the
plate to be stiffened.
 3-44 © FEM Section II

From a theoretical standpoint, the critical buckling stress (~cVr is regarded as a multiple of theEuler Stress
and is given by the formula :

representing the critical buckling stress for a strip of tkiekness e, having a width equal to b, this being the
91ate dimension measured in the direction perpendicular to the compression forces (see sketch below).

In this formula~ E is the modulus of elasticity, and ~ Poisson’s Ratio.

For norma! steels in which g.= 210,000 N/mma and ~= lJ.3, the Euler Stress becomes

v must
The critical buckling stress ~cr be a .rnultiple of this value, whence, for compression :

For shear the critical buckling stress is :

The coefficients K~r andK~ known as the buckling coefficients, depend on :

the ratio ~x = a~- of the two sides of the plate

- the manner in which the plate is supported along the edges

- the type of loading sustained by the plate in its own plane

- any reinforcement of the plate by stiffeners.

,,0[
© FEM Section II 3-45

Values of coefficients Ka ~ K,c

Without wishing to enter into the details of this problem, which is the. subject of specialized works and of
particular standards, typical values of K~ and K,c are given hereafter (see table T.3-3.3.1).

For more complex cases, reference should be made to specialized literature.

Combined compression and shear

Taking .q and q; to be the calculated stresses in compression and in shear the critical comparison
stress ~cVr.e is determined from the expression : ¯

being defined in the tabie T~3-3-3.1.

.Important note : It is essential to note that the formulae above giving the critical stressesv ~r vand o
apply only when the values determined thus are below the limit of proportionality (i.e. 1~} N/mr~r’~or
Fe 360 steel, 290 N/ram2 for Fe 510 steel).
Similary, the formula giving ¢cr
v applies only when the value ~ "t v
er is below the limit of
proportionality.

Whenever the formulae give values above these limits, it is necessary to adopt a limiting critical value,
obtained by multiplying the calculated critieaI value’ by the coefficient p given in the table
which also indicates the reduced values eo~responding to various calculated values ofa:r and CeVr.

,,,f
 3-46 © FEM Section II

Table T,3-3,3.1
YALUES OF THE BUCKLING COEFFICB3NTS Ko AND K~
FOR PLATES SUPPORTED AT THEIR FOUR EDGES

No. case K~r or K¢

Simple uniform compression
K~r=4
1

Non-uniform compression
a>_l I~=~ 8.4
+1.1
2 ~ -<1
1z 2.1
Ko=(~+~-) .¥ + 1.f
Pure bending W = - I or
bending with tension
preponderant W <- 1 K~ = 23.9.
3
a<2 15,87 + ~7 + 8.6 {x~

Behding with ~ompression

preponderant - 1 < W < 0 K¢~ = (1 + W)K’ -.W K" + 10 ~P (1 + W)
4 where :
K’ = value of Kofor ~ = 0 in case no. 2
K" = value of K~ for pure bending (case no,3)

a>_l
Kx = 5.34 + ---~
5 ~<I
5.34
K~=4+ c¢2
© FEM Section II 3-47

Table T.3-3.3.2
VALUESOF 13 AND THE, RED,U.C.ED_C.RITICAL S~SSES

v v. AND n:Ver (N/mm:)

v V v v
~cr or ~rcr or ~er or (~cr or
v V p v V v P v
Crcr.e ~cr Crcr.e
calculated ealeulated re’luted reduced calculated c~lculated reduced reduced

steel Fe 360 steel Fe 510

192,0 111.0 1,00 1910 111,0
200.0 116.0 0,99 198.3 114.5
210.0 121.0 0.97 203.7 117.6
220.0 127,0 0.94 207.7 119.9
230.0 133.0 0.92 210,9 I21.8
240.0 139,0 0,89 213,6 123,3
250.0 ¯ 144;0 0;86 215,9- 124,6
260.0 150.0 0.83 ¯ 217.8 I25.7
270.0 156.0 0.81 219.4 I26.7
280.0 162.0 0.79 220.9 127.5 280.0 162.0 1.00 280,0 161.7
167.0 0.77 222.2 128.3 290,0 167,0 1.00 289.9 167.4
300.0 173,0 0.74 223.3 t28.9 300.0 173~0 0.99 297.4 171,7
320.0 185.0 0.70 ¯ 225.2 t30,0 320,0 ¯ 185.0 0.96 307.7 177,7
340.0 196.0 0.67 226.7 130,9 340,0’ 196.0 0.93 314.9 181,8
360.0 ¯ 208.0 ¯ 0,63 228.0 131,6 360.0 208,0 0.89 320.4 185,0
380.0 219.0 0,60 229,1 132,3 380.0 219,0 0,85 324.8 187,5
400,0 ¯ 231.0 0,58 230.0 132,8 .400,0 231,0 0,82 328.4 189,6
420,0 243,0 0,55 230;8 I33,3 420,0 243,0 0.79 33i,3 191.3
440.0 245.0 0.53 231.5 133.7 440,0 254:0 0.76 333,8 192,7
460.0 266.0 0.50 232.1 134.0 460.0 266.0 0.73 335.9 193.9
480.0 277.0 0.48 232.6 134,3 480.0 277.0 0.70 337,8 195,0
500.0 289.0 0,47 233. l 134,6 500,0 289.0 0.68 339,4 196.0
550.0 318.0 0.43 234.0 135.1 550,0 318.0 0.62 342,6 197,8
600,0 346.0 0.39 234.8 135.6 600.0 346.0 0.58 345,0 199,2
650,0 375.0 0,36 235,3 135.9 650.0 375,0 0.53 346.9 200.3
700.0 404,0 0.34 235.8 136.1 700,0 4O4.0 0.50 348.4 201.1
800.0 462,0 0,30 236.5 I36.5 800.0 462.0 0,44 350.6 202.4
1,000.0 577.0 0.24 237.4 137.1 I,O00.O 577.0 0.35 353,3 204.0
2,000,0 1,155.0 0,12 238.9 137.9 2,000.0 1,155.0 0,18 357,4 206.3
10,000.0 5,774.0 0,02 239.8 138.5 lO,OOO.O 5,774.0 0.04 359.6 207.6
240.0 138.6 360.0 207.8

,..[
 3-48 © FEM Section II

De.t_ermination of permissible, b.uckling stresses

After the critical buckling stresses have been determdned as indicated above, the permissible stress is
obtained by dividing the critical stress by the coefficient Vv (from clause 3-3.3).

The calculations are then performed as follows :

The maximum.stresses are determined for each load case and a check is made to ensure that these calculated
stresses do not exceed the permissible stresses determined as indicated above.

Note: In the ca~e of combined compression =d shear, the critical comparison stress (rcVr c must be
compared with the equivalent stress calculated from the formula in clause 3-2.1.3: " ’

(Ycp
vv

Example of a check for buckling

Take the case of a plate girder in Fe 360 steel, having a.span of 10 m, a depth of 1.50 m, a web thickness ’
of 0.010 m, a uniformly distributed load of 162 kN/m and stiffeners 1.25 m apart.

: f.~’o0x o~0t0m

Reactions on supports : A = B = 810 k.N

Moment of inertia of the beam I -- 1 419 000 era4
Selected at section MN, located 0.625 m from A
Bending moment at MN :

Mr= 810¯ 0.625""

162.0.625 ~ = 474.7 kN/m
2

Upper stress (compression) :

474.7. 106. 0.84. 10~

C~l =’ 1 419 000. 104 ’= 28 N/ram2
’’ © FEM Section II 3-49

Lower stress (tension) :

474.7. 10~. 0.66. 103

a2 - --22 N/mm~
1 419 000. 104

These stresses are calculated at the upper and Iower edges of the web.

Shear stress :

810 . 10a - 162 . 0.625 . 103

= 47 N/mm~
10. 1,500

Bending (with compression preponderant = ease no. 4 in table T.3-3.3. I.) :

0.22 1.25
-0.28 = - 0.79 =~ = 0,83 (< 1)

giving Ka = (1 + W)K’ - W K" + 10 ~P (1 + W)

2.1
inwhieh K’= (~+~)2’0 + 1.1-(0.83+~)2 2.1
"~T=7’90
.

and K" = 23.9

whence Kg = (1 - 0.79) 7.90 + 0.79.23.9 - 10.0.79 (1 - 0.79) = 18.88

The Euler Stress :

~R = 189 800 ~ = 189 800 = 8.4 N/mm~

giving a critical budding stress :

~rer = Kg. cr = 18.89.8.4 = 158.6 N/mm~

+ 5.34 5. 4
K’t=4 ~2 = 4 + 0.--~ = 11"75
 3-50 © FEM Section II

and

v E
"~cr = K~ ~R = 11.75.8.4 = 99 N/mm~

The critical comparison stress then becomes :

= 168 N/ram~-
1 - 0.79 28 ,i 11-~3 + 0.79 28 1~ °47,2
4 " 158.5 +X/L 4 158.5-~ + ~.~~)
Co_nelu~ig~n :

The comparison stress in the ease of tension (or eornpression) combined with shear is given in clause
3-2.1.3 :

This value is smaller than the admissible buckling stress (eaIeulated with Vv= 1.386) i.e.
168
1.38"-~ = 121 N/rara~ for loading case I.

The permissible.buckling stress is therefore not exceeded in load case I.

Naturally, a check must also be made to ensure that the’ permissible buckling stresses are not exceeded in
load cases II and III.

.Checking for buckling in circular cylinde~ :

Thin wall circular cylinders such as, for example, large tubes, which are subject to central of eccentric axial
compression have to be checked for local buckling if :

t < 25, c~E

r E

where :

t = thickness of the wall

r = radius from the middle of the wall thickness

oE = elastic limit of the steel type, as in table T.3-2.1.1

E = modulus of elasticity see 3-2.1.1

,.,/
© FEM Section II 3-51

The "ideal" buckling stress ~ can be determined from :

ovi E.t
r
In all cases where ~r.v is situated above the limit of proportionality of the structural steel, the "ideal"
buckling stress ~ h~s to be reduced to ~v by means of the factor p. ’

At a maximum spacing of 10r, transverse stiffeners have to be provided whose moment of inertia has to be
at least :

the moment of inertia is calculated from the following formulae :

1 - Central disposition of the stiffener(s) F (centre of gravity of the stiffener section in the median plane
of the wall thickness)

I=Iz

2 - Eccentric disposition of the stiffener F2 (centre of gravity of the stiffener section F2 outside the median
plane of the wall

It is accepted that in the calculation of ai and cr account is taken of geome~eal divergence due to
local construction defects between the real and the idea1 cyhnder surfaces up to a maximum of
 3-52 © FEM Section II

3-4 CHECKING MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE

A risk of faiture from fatigue occurs when a member is subjected to varying and/or repeated loads which
may be considerably smaller than the static load capacity of the structure.

For structural members and joints the fatigue strength shall be checked for load case I forces (main loads)
where these are expected to fluctuate significantly and where the total number of load cycles is expected to
be more than 2.5. 10~ in the anticipated lifetime of the machine,

All the static loads which may also occur in various magnitudes, for example incrustation, have to be
ealculated with that value which produ~esthe highest tensile stress,

Fatigue strength is calculated by considering the following parameters :

1 - the scheduled number of cycles.of 10ad variations to which the member is subjected

2- the material used and the notch eateg0ry at the point being considered

3 - the extreme maximum stress Omax which can occur in the member

4 - the ratio ~ between the values of the extreme stresses.

With these parameters, it is possible for the given number of load cycles to determine a permissible stress
below which no damage is expected 0f variations of loading.

3-4.1 PREDICTED NUMBER OF CYCLES AND STRESS SPECTRUM

The number of load cycles and the stress spectrum to be taken into consideration are discussed in clause
2,1.4.2 and in clause 2-1.4.3.

These two parameters are taken into account when considering the group in which the member is classified
in accordance with clause 2-1.4.4.

This group classification is later used in the determination of the allowable stress for fatigue.

3-4.2 MATERIAL USED AND NOTCH EFFECT

The fatigue strength of a member depends upon the quality of the material used and upon the shape and the
method of making the joints. The shapes of the parts joined and the means of doing it have the effect of
producing stress concentrations (or notch effects) which considerably reduce the fatigue strength of the
member.
© FEM Section 1"I 3-53

In order to classify the importance of these notch effects, the various joint details are divided into categories
as follows :

Unwelded parts :

These members present three classes of notch effect :

Case W0 concerns the material itself without notch effect.

Cases W1 and W2 concern perforated members (see tables T,3r4,5.2.3).

Welded parts :

These joints are arranged in order of the severity of the notch effect increasing from K0 to K4, and relate to
structural parts located elose to the weld details.

The table T.3-2~2.1gives some indications as to the quality 6f the welding required and the weld
classification and tables T.3,4..5.2.3 give the various types of joints that ate most often used in the
construction of handling appliances.

3~4.3 DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM STRESS. CYmax:

The maximum stress ~max is the highest absolute stress (i.e. it may be tension or compression) which
ocen.rs in the member in load ease I (see clause 2-3.1),
When eheeldng members in compression for fatigue the crippling coefficient, ~o, given in clause 3-3
should not be appl!e&

4 RATIO ~ BETWEEN THE EXTREME STRESSES

This ratio is determined by caIculating the extreme values of the stresses to which the component is
subjected under case I loadings.

The ratio may vary depending upon the operating cycles but it is on the safe side to determined this ratio
by taking the two extreme values which can occur during po.~sible operations under ease 1 loadings.

Where e~max and ~min are the values of these extreme stresses, ~max being the extreme stress having the
higher absolute value, the ratio ,: may be written :

Crmin Xmin
or, in the ease of shear,
¢rmax "~max

This ratio, which varies from + 1 to - 1, is positive it the extreme stresses are both of the same sense
(fluctuating stresses) and negative when the extreme stresses are of opposite sense (alternting stresses).

,.,]
 3-54 © FEM Section II

3-4.5 CALCULATING MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FATIGUE

Using the parameters defined in clauses 3-4.1 to 3-4.4 the adequacy of structuraI members and joints
subject to fatigue is ensured by checking that the stress ~rmax, as defined in clause 3-4.3, is not greater
than the permissible stress for fatigue of the member under consideration.

This permissible stress for fatigue is derived from the critical stress, which, on the basis of tests made with
test pieces, corresponds to a 90 % probability of survival. To this, a coefficient of safety of.1.33 is applied
thus :

for fatigue = g(at 90% surviv,91),= 0.75.~ at 90% survival

1.33

The determination of these permissible stresses is a complex problem and it is generally advisable to refer
to specialized books on the subject.

Table T.3-4.5.1.1 gives basic values Crw, based on the result of research in this field, for the determination
of permissible stresses in Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 steels, according to the various groups in which the
components are classified, and the notch effect classes for the main types of joints used in the manufacture
of handling appliance.

3- 4.5.1 FATIGUE CHECK FOR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

(DETERMINATION OF THE PERMISSIBLE STRESSES FOR
FATIGUE)

3.4.5.1.1 TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE LOADS

The number of cycles and Stress spectrum has been taken into account in determining the group
classification for each member. A value of crw can therefore be selected from a knowledge of the
component classification group and the material concerned.

For unwelded parts, the values ~w are identical for steel Fe 360 and Fe 430. They are higher for
Fe 510.

For welded parts, the values ffw are identical for the three steel grades.

It is to be noted that, these basic values for permissible stresses are also applicable to weld searas
(see 3-4.5.2.1).
© FEM Section II 3-55

Table T.3-4.5.1.1
VALUES OF crw, (’N/mm2). DEPENDING ON THE COMPONENT
GROUP AND CASE OF NOTCH EFFECT

compo- unwelded components - notch effect welded components - notch effect

nent ,, (steels Fe 360 to Fe 510)
g~oup w1 W2
Fe510 F0360 FeS10 Fe360 Fe510 K0 K1 K2 X~
Fe430 Fe430 Fe430

E1 249,1 298.0 211,7 253,3 174,4 208.6

361,9 323.I 271.4 193,9
224.4. 261.7 1903 222,4 .157,1 183,2
293,8. 262..3 2~Q.3 ..157,4 94.4
’202~ 229,8 171.8 195,3 141~s16o,8238.4 212.9 178.8 127,7 76.6
E4 182.1 201.8 154,8 171,5 127,5 141,2 193,5 172.8 145.1 103,7 62.2
E5 164,1 177.2 13g5 150.6 114.9 124.9 15~1 140,3 117.8 " " 84.2
E6 147,8 155.6 12£7 132,3 103.5 108.9 12Z5 113,8 95.6 68.3 41.0
E7 133.2 136.6 113,2 11~2 932 95.7 103,5 92.4 77,6 55.4 33,3
E8 120.0 120.0 ¯ 102.0. 102,0 84.0 84.0 84.0 75.0 63.0 45.0 27.0

Note : All values which are greater than the admissible values with respect .to the elastic limit are
the0ietieai values only (see note a[th~:end ofdaus03-4,5.1.3). " "

For all values of re, the following formulae giv~ the permissible stresses for fatigue :
¯ ~<0 " .... ’

for tension : . crt = Ow 3 5- (1)

for compression : 2
Oc = Gw ~

crw is given in table above.

b) K>0

(~0
for tension : (3)

for compression : Gc = 1.2 Gt (4)

where Go = tensile stress for ~¢ = 0 is given by the formula (1) that is :

.66 crw

,.,[
 3-56 © FEM Section

~r+l = tensite stress for ~ = + 1 that is the ultimate strength ~R divided by the coefficient of
~ safety 1.33 :

~+1 = 0.75

ot is limited in every case to 0.66 gE.

3-4.5.1.2 SHEAR STRESSES IN TI~ MATERIAL OF STRUCTURAL PARTS

For each oftthe group from E1 to E8 the permissible fatigue stress in tension of the case WO
divided by ~/3 is taken :

~t of case We

3-4.5.1.3 COMBINED LOADS IN TENSION (OR COMPRESSION) AND .SHEAR

In this ease the permissible stresses for fatigue for each normal load in tension (or compression) ~rxa
and ~rxa and shear’txya are determined by assuming that each acts separately taking respectively ~e ¯
following values of ~ in accordance with clause 3-4.4 :

_~
Kx = ¢rx mien
~x max ; ~¢y -~ and KxY -’txy max
- ~y max

Then the following three conditions are checked :

max < ffxa ; fly max < ~ya and ’~xy max ~ ’gxya

None of the calculated stresses should exceed the permissible value of ~a (or "~a) in case I loading
(see table T.3-2.1.1).

Then for the verification under the effect of a combination of these three types of loads, the
following two eases are considered :

If any one stress is markedly greater than the other two for a given load case, it is only necessary to
check the member for fatigue under that load, neglecting the effect of the other two.

b) In the other cases, in addition to checking for each loading assumed to act alone, it is recommended
that the following relationship be checked :
© FEM Section 3-57

* (1) (5)

where the stress values (rxa, 6ya and Zxya are those resulting from the application of formulae (1),
(2), (3) and (4) of clause 3-4.5.1.1 and limited to 0.66 fiE.

In applying this formula, reference should be made to the indications given in clause 3-2.1.3
(including the note at the end).

In orderto facilitate the calculations, table T,3-4.5.1.3 gives the permissible values of:

~Xxy max as a function of Crx max and of

Xxya ffxa

~ ~x.max :
this: table, .the values o ~xa " are given in the left hand column with the following
convention : the ratio is considered to be positive if ~xmax and try max have the same sign, and
negative otherwise~

*(1) As this inequality constitutes a severe requirement, values slightly higher that 1 are acceptable, but
in this case it is necessary to cheek the relation :

~/ £6x max’12 (~)2 Crx max, Cy max (’tx]~ max’}~

taken as absolute values, ¢rx max and ~ry mhx beihg as]gned their algebraic values.
 3-58 © FEM Section II

Table T.3-4.5.I,3
VALUES OF ’rxy max IN TERMS OF Ox ma._..._.~x
’Cxya Oxa

max
O~xa

1,O o19 0.8 0,7 0.6 0,5 0,2 0.1 0

0 0,300 0.400 0.458 0.490 (0.500 0.490 0.458 0.400 0.300 0
+ 0,9 0.300 0.436 0,520 0,575 0.608 ! o.6 5 0.625 0,608 0,575 0,520 0,436
+ 0.8 0.400 0.520 0,600 0.656 0.693 0.714 0.72i 0.714 0.693 0.656 0.600
+ 0,7 0.458 0.575 0.656 o.714 0.755 0.781 0.794 0,781 0.781 0.755 0.714
+ 0.6 0.490 0.608 0.693 o,755 0.800 0.831 0.849 0,854 0.849 0.831 0.800
+ 0.5 0.500 0.625 0.714 o.781 0.831 0.866 0.889 0,900 0,900 0.889 0.866
+ 0.4 0.490 0.625 0.721 0.794 0,849 0.889 0.917 0,933 0,938 0,933 0.917
+ 0.3 0.458 0.608 0,714 0.794 0.854 0,900 0.933 0.954 0,964 0,964 0.954
+ 0.2 0.400 0.575 0.693 o.781 0,849 o. oo 0,938 0.964 0,980 0,985 0.980
+0.1 0.300 0;520 0.656 0.755 0,831 0~889 0.933 0.964 0.985 0.995 0.995
0 o 0.436 0,600 o,714. 0.800 0:866 0.916 0.954 0.980 0,995 1.00o
0.300 0,520 0.656. 0,755 0,889 0,933 0,964 .0.985 0.995
- 0~2 0.’400 0.575 0.693 0,781 0.849 0.900 0.938. 0.964 0.980
- 0,3 0,173 0,458 0,608 0.714 0,794 0.854 0,900 0.933 0.954
- 0.4 0.265 0,490 0.625 0.721 0.781 0.849 0.889. 0.917
- 0.5 0,300 0,500 0.625 0314 0,781 0.831 0.866
- 0,6 0,30O 0.490 0.608 0,693 0,755 0.800
- 0,7 0,265 0.458 0.575 0.656 0.714
- 0.8 0.173 0.400 0.520 0.600
- 0.9 0.300 0.436
0

If gx max and ~ry max are of opposite sign (tension or compression) read the values of
~ starting from the negative values of ~rx ma.__..~x.
Zxya {rxa

Not._.~: From table T.3-4,5,1.1 it can be seen that in groups E1 and E2 much higher stresses than
those usually permitted in structures am quoted. These values are theoretical values obtained by
extrapolation of the test results on higher groups (E3 to .ES) with medium or severe notch cases
(K2, K3 and K4). Therefore there is no need tO attach any material signifieance to these values in
brackets, consideration of which could in some cases lead to the conclusion that an assembly of type
K0 or K1 could resist fatigue better than the unwelded metal (ease W0), Thi~ apparent anomaly
illustrates the well known fact that it is not always necessary to carry out fatigue checks for the
lower groups with slight or moderate notch effect classes,

For the purpose of calculation it must be remembered that these theoretical ¢rw values are used only
to determine the permissible fatigue stresses Crxa, Oya and %xya for use in the formula which covers
the case of combined loads.

.,./
© FEM Section II 3-59

3- 4.5.2 JOINTS (WELDS AND BOLTS)

Tersil~ and compressive loads in. welds

Welds subject to fatigue under tensile and compressive loads are checked using the same permissible
stresses as those of the metal joine.d. Tables T.3-4.5,3.1 .to T.3-4.5,3.4 give the permissibIe stress
according to ~ and the group of the component.

Note : The limits indicated urtder 3-2.2.2 for certain particular cases of transverse tension and
compression in weld seams must be observed.

Chapter 3-2.2,3 gives, in addition, some indications for the determination of the stresses in the weld
seams.

b) ShearAoads in. the welds

The permissible shear fatigue str_e~es in the welds are determined by dividing the permissible
stresses in tension for case K0 by ~/2. Tables T.3-4.5.3~5 give the permissible stress according to ~
and the group of the component.

Combined loads

The method set out above for structural members is used when considering the effect of fatigue in
weld seams subjected to variable combined loads.

3-4.5.2.2 BOLTED JOINTS

PRECISlONBOLTS

Sheax..!0ads and beadn~ pressure

Single and double shear loads as defined under 3-2.3.3.2 must be treated separately :

The permissible shear stresses for fatigue in bolts are fixed by multiplying the permissible stresses
intension for ease W2 by :

0,6 for single shear

0.8 for double shear

The permissible bearing pressure values are obtained by multiplying the permissible shear values in
the boIts by 2.5.

The permissible fatigue stresses are given directly, according to factor ~ (ratio between extreme
stresses) on the following tables :
 3-60 © FEM Section II

singIe and double shear in fitted bolts, grade 4.6 and 5.6 for groups E5 to ES, table T.3-4.5.3.6

bearing stresses for fitted bolts, grade 4.6 and 5.6 for single and double shear and for groups E5
to ES, tabIe T.3-4.5.3.7.

b) Bolts with controlled tightenin~

Under the effect of the service load F1, the true tensile stress varies between the values :

F1.8b
Op and Op +~"~--

where :

op = theoretical tensile stress under the tightening effect

Sb = section of the root (< section of the shank)

All
8b =all + A12 (see 3-9..3.3.1)

The following equation must be verified :

F1 2 ~A

ga is the amplitude of the maximum permissible stress for fatigue given in the following graph
3-4.5.2.2.

For any other type of belt or design method the Oa value should ensure at least an equivalent level
of safety against fatigue.

Any conformity tests should be carried out according to ISO specification ISO 380011 (Threaded
fasteners - Axial load fatigue testing - Part 1 : Test methods) with ~m = 0.8 RE

Bolts in friction grip joints with controlled tightening

High tensile steel bolts with controlled .tightening as defined in 3-2.3.4 have not to be verified for
resistance to fatigue.
© ~M Section 3-61

Graph 3-4.5.2.2

£3"

d~ traml

Amplitude of maximum permissible fafigu~ stress ira

Graph for ISO bolts

- standard thread
- classes 8.8, 10.9, 12.9
- cold rolled thread with heat treatment after rolling.
 3-62 © FEM Section II

Tables T.3-4.5.2.3
CASES OF NOTCH EFFECT

In the tables below the various joint details are classified in terms of the magnitude of the notch effect they
produce.

It should be noted that, for any given weld, the notch effect differs according to the type of Ioading to
which the joint is subjected.

For example, a fillet welded joint is class~.fied under case K0 for longitudinal tehsion or compression loads
(ref, 0,31) or longitudinal shear (ref. 0.51), and under ease~. K3 or K4 for transverse tension or
compression ~oads (ref, 3,2 or 4,4).

. 1 - NON W~LDED PAKTS

" Case We’

Reference Deseri.’ption Symbol,

Parent metal, homogeneous surface. Part
W0 without joints or breaks in continuity,,
(solid bars) and wffhbut notch effects
urd~s the latter can be defined by
calculation

C~e W1,

Reference Description ....... Symbol

Part dfilled for riveting or bolting with
rivets and bolts loaded up to 20 % of
permissible values. Parts drilled for joints
W1 using high strength bolts (el. 3-2.3.4)
loaded up t6 100 % or permissible values
(C1. 3-2.3.3)
I ~ ~ I I I
¯ .
© FEM Section II 3-63

Case.w2

Reference ,Descn.-ption , Figure Symbol

Parts drilled for riveting or bolting in ~l~j ~.,~

W2.1 which the rivets or bolts are loaded in
double shear l

Parts drilled for riveting or bolting, in

,which the.rivetS or b01ts ’are!0aded in
single ~h~ar (allowing for e~eattiO 1cads)
the parts being .........Uasupported ’
~.’? , v. ~.. ,y.

Patti drilled for assembly bymeans of

rivets and bolts loaded iu single shear, the ~
W2.3 ¯ parts being supported or guided " ’

2 -.WELDED. PARTS_
..... i ’ i Case K0 - S1i~ ht stress concentration" Kí hiệu
mài
"Symbol
Reference ....
Figure s~e page
3-14

0.I Part of equal thickness, butt-welded

(special quality) at right angles to dir~Ction
of forces

Parts of different thickness butt-welded

(special quality) at right angles to direction
0.11 of forces PIO0
As~mmetrical slope : 114 tO 1/5
Symmetrical slope : .N
0.12 i Butt-wdd (special quality) forming PtOO
t~ansverse joint in web plate

Gusset secured by butt-welding (special

0.13 quality) at right angles to the direction ef p
the forces

Pm-ts joined by butt-welding parallel to the

0.3 direction of the forces oo/.P
×
.,,I
 3-64 © FI~M Section II

Case K0 - Slight stress concentration (continued)

;ymbol
Reference Description Figure ;e~.ptag4 e

0,31
Parts joined by filled welds parallel to the
direction of the forces

0.32 Butt weld between Sections forming flange

and web of a beam (combined bending and
tension)

0.33 K- or fillet wdd between flange and web

of a beam ’(combined bending and tension)

0.5
Butt-weld in longitudinal shear

,~~~’

0.51 K-welded or fillet weld in longitudinal

shear

Case K1 - Moderate stress concentration

Symbol
Referer~ce Deseriptior~ ,,, Figure see page 3-1~

1,1 Parts joined by butt-welding at right

angIes to the direction of the forces
’P OO/P.

Parts of different thickness butt-welded at

right angles to the dlreetion of the forces :
1,11 Asymmetrical slope : 114 to 1/5 PIOO/.P.
(or symmetrical slopes : 1/3)

1.12 Butt-weld executed for transverse joint of

web plate r, ool
© FEM Section II 3-65

Case KI - Moderate stress concentratio.n (continued)

Symbol
Reference Description Figure see page
3-14

’ 1.13 Gusset joined by butt-welding at right

angles to the direction of the forces
PtO0/F

Continuous main member to which parts

1.2 are joined at riglit ang!es to the direction.
of forces by continuous K-welds (special
quality)

Compressed flanges and webs fixed by

fillet weld (special quality) to lransverse
1.21 web or stiffeners with comers cut-off
(classification only applies to f’dlet weld
area), the welds extending round the
comers of the web stiffeners

Parts joined by buR-welding parallel to the

1.3 direction of the forces (without checking
the weld)

1.31 K-weld (special quality) between curbed

flange and web

Case K2 - Medium stress concentration

Symbol
Reference Description Figure see page
3-14

Parts of different thickness butt-welded at

2.1 fight angles to the direction of the forces,
Asymmetrical. slope : 1/3
Symmetrical slopes : 1/2
 3-66 @ FEM Section II

Case K2 * Medium stress concentration (continued)

Symbot-
Reference Description Figure see page
3-14

Sections joined by butt-welds (speeiaI

2.I1 quality) at tightangles to the direction of
the forces PIO0/.I~

Section joined to a gusset by a butt-weld

2.12 (special quality) at right angles to the
direction of the forces PIOO

Butt-weld (special quality) at righi angles

2.13 tO the direction of the forces, made at
intersection of fiats, with welded auxiliary p too
gussets, The ends of the welds are g~ound,
avoiding notches

Continuous main member to whioh

2.2 transverse diaphragms, web stiffeners,
rings or.hubs are fillet welded (special
qu.ality) at right angles to the dlr~ction of
the forces

Web in which fillet welds (special quality)

2.21 are used to secure transverse web stiffeners
with cut comers, the welds not extending
round the comers

,.

Continuous main member to the edges of

wkich are butt-wdded (special quality)
2.3 parts parallel to the direction of the forces.
These parts terminate in rebels or radii.
The ends of the welds are ground avoiding
notches
© FEM Section II 3-67

Case K2 - Medium stress concentration (continued)

Symbol
Reference Descripl2on Figure see pag~
3-14

Continuous main member to which are

welded parts parallel to the dkection of the
forces, These parts terminate irt bevels.or
2.31 radii, Valid where fine ends of the welds are
K-welds (special quality)over a length
equal to ten times the thickness provided
that the ends ’0f the welds are ground
avoidirig notches

Continuous member to which a fiat (I/3

2.33 bevel) is joined by a fillet weld the fillet
weld (special quaIity) being execu{ed in
X area, with : a = 0.5 e

2.34 K-weld made between curved flange and

web

Cruciform joint made with K-welds

2,4 (special quality) perpendicular to the
direction of the forces

K-weld "(special quality) between flange

2.4I and web in the case of load concentrated in
the plane of the web at right angles to the
weld

2.5 K-weld (special quality)joinLug parts

stressed in bending or shear

Case K3 - Severe stre~s concentration

Symbol
Reference Description Figure see page
3-14

Parts of different thickness connected by

butt-welds at right angles to the direction
3.1 of the forces, 1t2 asymmetrical slope, or
symmetrical position without blend slope

.,./
 3-68 © FEM Section

Case K3 - Severe stress concentration (continued)

Reference Description Figm’e see page

3-14

Butt-weld with bacldng strip and ao

3.11 backing run.
03a¢Idng strip secured by intermittent tack
welds inside the bevel)

Tube~ joined by butt-welds whos~root is

3,12 supported by a backing piece and not ’
covered by a ba,~king mn

Butt-weld at right angles to the direction

3.13 of the forces ht the interseeti0n of fiats PIOO/P
with welded auxiliary gussets. The ends of
the welds are ground, avoiding notches

Continuous main member to which parts

are fillet welded at right angles to the
3.2 direction of the forces. These parts take
only a small portion of the loads
transmitted by the main member

Web and stiffener or transverse diaphragm

3.21 secured by uninterrupted double fillet weld

Continuous member to the edges of which

are butt-welded parts parall.el to the i
3.3 direction of the forces, These parts
terminate kt bevels and ends of the welds
are ground avoiding notches \/
/\

Continuous member to which are welded

parts parallel to the direction of the forces,
These parts terminate in bevels or radii.
3.31 Valid where the ends of the welds are fillet
welds (special quality) over a length equal
to 10 times the thickness, provided that
the ends of the welds are ground, avoiding
notches

.,,[
@ KEM Section 3-69

Case K3 - Severe stress concentration (continued)

Symbol
Reference Description Figure
3-14

Continous member through which a plate

3.32 extends, terminating in bevels or radii
parallel to the direction of the forces,
secured by K-weld over a length equal to
10 times the thickness

Continuous member to which a flat is

3~33 welded parallel to the direction of the
forces, by means of fillet weId (speeiat
quality) in the indicated area when :
el < 1.5 e2

Members at the extremity of which .

3.34 connecting gussets are secured by a fillet
weld (speeinl quality) e1 .~ e2. In the case
of a singls gusset, allow for eccentric load

Continuous member to which stiffeners

3.36 are secured paraltel to the direction of the
forces by f’filet welds which are
intermittent

3.4 Cruciform joint made with K-wdd at right

angles to the direction.of the forces

3,41 K-weld between flange and web with a

concentrated load in the plane of the web
at fight angles to the weld
 3-70 © FEM Section

Case K3 - Severe stress concentration (continued)

Sym~oi
Reference Description Figure see page
3-14

3.5 K-weld joining parts stressed in bending

and shear

Continuous member to whleh sections or

3.7 tubes are fillet welded (special qua!ity)

Case K3 - Very sex;ere stress concentration’

Symb,.91
Reference Description Figure see pag~
3-14
Parts of different thickaess’butt-welded at
¯ 4.1 fight angles to the direction of the forces.
Asymmetrical position without blend
slope
,,

Butt-welds at fight angles to the direction

4,11 of the forces, at the intersection of flats
(no auxilia~-y gussets)

Single bevel weld at fight angles to the

4.12 direction of the forces, between
intersecting parts (cruciform joint)

4,21 Flanges and webs fi.xed by one-side

continuous fillet weld to the traverse web,
perpendicular to the stress direction

~. [..~.1

Continuous member to the sides of which

4.3 are welded parts ending at fight angles,
parallel to the direction of the forces

Continuous member to which parts are

filled welded ending at right angles,
4.31 )arallel to the direction of the forces, and
receiving a large proportion of the loads
transmitted by the main member
 © FBM Section II 3-71

Case K3 - Very severe stress concentration (continued)

Symbol
Reference DesC .ription ISO 2553

4.32 Continuous member through which

extends a plate ending at fight angles and
secured by fillet welding

4.33 Continuous member on which a fiat is

secured by means of a fillet weld parallel
to the direction of the forces

]~oint plate secured by fillet welds

4.34 (e~. ~ e2), In the case of a slngle joint
plate, allow for eceentrlo loads !

Parts welded one on theother secured by

4,35 fillet welds in a slot or in holes

Continuous members between which

4.36 connecting gussets are secured by fillet
welds or butt-welds
! 1
,, D
Cruciform joint made with fillet weld at
fight angles to the directioia of the forces

Fillet weld between flange and web with a

4.41 case of concentrated load in the plane of
the web at right angles to the weld

Fillet welds joining ’parts stressed in D

4,5 bending mad shear

4.7 Continuous member to which sections or

tubes are connected by fillet welds
 3-72 © FEM Section II

3-4.5.3 PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES

The pemaissible fatigue stresses are given directly according to the ratio between extreme stresses
on the following tables :

Tension and compression in the material and in the weld seams :

Components of group E5 Table T.3-4.5.3.1

Components’of group E6 Table T.3-4.5.3.2
Components of group E7 Table T.3-4.5.3.3
Components of group E8 Table T.3-4.5.3.4

Shear in parent metal and weld seams :

Components of groups E5 to E8 Table T.3-4.5,3.5

Single and double shear in fitted bolts :

Components Of groups E5 to E8 Table T.3-4.5,3.6

Bearing stresses for fitted bolts for single and double shear :

Components of groups E5 to E8 TabIe T.3-4.5,3.7

 3-73

Table T.3.4,5.3.1
PERMIS S IBL~ FA’rIGLTI~ STRESSE__S.S
Tension and compression in the material and in the weld seams
for construction cases W0 to W2 and K0 to K4
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510

¯ I C01VIPO~S OIa GROUP lJ5

 Table T.3-4.5.3.2
PERMISSIBLE FATIGUE STRESSES
Tension and compression in the material and in the weld seams
for construction cases W0 to W2 and K0 to K4
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 aad Fe 510

I COMPON~N-TS OF GROUP E6

25O

v
© R~M Section

TabIe T.3-4.5.3.3
pBRMISSIBLE FATI~
Tension and compression kl ~e material and in ~e weld se~s
for construction cases WO to W2 and K0 to ~
and for steals Fe 360, F~ 430 and Fe 510

COMPONENTS OF GROUP E7

V
 3-76

Table T.3-4.5,3,4
__PERMISSIBLE FATIGU]~ STR_~SSES~
Tension and compression in the materlal and in the weld seams
for cons~-uction cases W0 to W~. and K0 to K4
and for steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510

COIvIPONENTS OF GROUP E8

o
-187

150.
© FEM Section 1"I 3-77

Tables T.3-4.5.3.5
PERMISSIBLE EATIGU~ STRESSES.
for shear in parent metal and in weld seams steels Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510
and for eomponent~ ofggA~.~SAg_F~

Shear in.p~ent r~e, tal

200

Shear in weld seam~

20O

- 0,6 - O,t~ - O,Z 0 0~?. 0~,~ 0~6 0,8

- 0~8

..,/
 3-78 © FEM Section II

Tables T.3-4.5.3.6
PERMIS,SmLB FATIGUE S.Ty~.SS.E~

Shear in fitted bolts - grade 4.6 and 5.6

for ~..oups ,E5 to, ES,.

Double shear joint

E6

- 0,6 - 0,& - 0,2 0 0,2

t’it bolt Hll/k6 Hll/hll

...]
© FEM Sectioa II 3-79

Tables T.3-4.5,3.7
pERMISSIBLE B~,AR]~G STRESSES

for fitted bolts - grad~ 4.6 and 5,6

for groups E5 to ES.
Single shear joint

Double shear joint

t~20 1~ Imp,

~8

.,./
 3-80 © FEM Section II

3-5 CHECK ON "AS BUILT" STRUCTURE

The final construction weights must be compared with the weights used in the static calculation, Where the
final dead loads do not exceed the weights used in the static calculation by more than 5 %, there is no need
to carry out a new check.
© F~M Section II 3-81

3-6 SAFETY AGAINST OVERTURNING

3- 6.1 CHECKING FOR STABILITY
For safety against overturning, the following ratio shall be applied :

Ms is the stabilizing moment of the total permanent load G referred to a possible tipping axis

Mk is the overturning moment resulting from all the variable horizontal mad vertical forces
(ZPH + ZPv) of load cases I, II and III, to the extent these forces increase the overturning moment.

The cheek must be carried out for the tipping axis with the smallest overturning safety, by assuming that
the movable parts of the dead load are in the most unfavourable position..
The same safety regarding overturning can be written in the following form :

where

f is the horizontal distance of the center of gravity of the dead load G with respect to a possible
overturning axis

e is calculated from the following formula :

Z,PH . h + ZPv ¯ (a + f)
e= G + F.,PV

h is the vertical distance of the sum of all (T.,PH) from the tipping axis

a is the horizontal distance of the sum of all the vertical forces (EPv) from the tipping axis.

The following safeties against overturning are at least request for the load eases I to IH :
 3-82 © FEM Section II

Load case VK

> 1.50
> 1.30
>- 1.20

End view

,ing axis (rai!)

Plan

C ~5~

3- 6.2 ADDITIONAL PRECAUTIONS

In agreement with the user, it can be specified that for special situations, some structural members must
occupy definite positions, taking into account the stability of the appliances when idle or out of service
(for example : reclaimer boom). Such measures must appear in the operating instructions.

.,,/
© FEM Section II 3-83

3-7 SAFETY AGAINST DRIFTING

As safety regarding drifting, the ratio is taken between the sum of the drag forces by the sum of the drift
forces due to the wind or the inclination. The calculation shall be based on the greatest inclination at which
the machine has to work. The resting of the tee!aiming device on the face or ground (see 2-2.3.2) must not,
in this case, be taken into consideration.

The friction values to be used are as follows :

- for driven wheels on rails : IX = 0.14

- for non driven ball mounted wheels : g = 0.01

for non driven wheels with bushes : !.t = 0.015

for rail clamps, if no higher values are found by testing : Ix = 0.25

Note : the values of friction coefficients given above are greater thant the minimum values of
ehapter 2-4.2.1 since they correspond to a static state.

The safety regarding drifting must be :

a) during operation, when only the automatic brakes of the drive motors act, in case of wind induced load,
according to 2-2.2.1.2 : v _> 1.30,

b) outside of operation, with wind induced stresses aeegrding to 2-2.3.6 : v _> 1.20,

-o0o- -
© FEM Section II

CHAPTER 4

CALCULATION AND CHOICE OF MECHANISM COMPONENTS

CONTENTS

CALCULATION PROCEDURE 4-1 4-3

Checking for ultimate strength 4-1.1 4-3

Value of the permissible stress 4-1.1.1 4-3
Values of the coefficient VR 4.1.I.2 4-3
Relations between the calculated stresses and the permissible stresses 4-1.1.3 4-4

Checking for crippling 4.1.2 4-4

Checking for fatigue 4-1.3 4-4

General method 4-1.3.1 4-5
Endurance limit for a polished specimen under alternating loading 4-1.3.2 4-6
Influence of the shape, size, surface condition and corrosion 4-1.3.3 4-8
Endurance limit as a function of ~: 4-1,3.4 4-9
W6hler curve 4-1.3,5 4-10
Fatigue strength of a mechanical component 4-1.3.6 4-12
Permissible stresses and calculations 4-1.3.7 4-12

Checking for wear 4-1.4 4-14

DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR COMPONENTS 4-2 4-14

Choice of anti-friction bearings 4-2.1 4-14

, Theoreticallife 4-2.1.1 4-14
Mean loading of bearings 4-2.1.2 4-14
Choice of bearings 4-2,1.3 4-15

Choice of ropes 43.2 4-15

Rope diameter 4-2.2,1 4-15
.. Maximum tensile force S 4-2,2.1.1 4-16
.. Practical factor of safety Zp 4-2,2.1,2 4-16
Minimum breaking load Fo 4-2,2.1.3 4-17
.. Rope diameter selection 4-2.2.1.4 4-17

Choice of pulleys, drums and rope attachment means 4-2.3 4-18

Minimum winding diameter 4-2.3.1 4-18
,. Values of H 4-2.3,1.I 4-18
Radius of the bottom of the groove 4-2.3.2 4-19
Rope attachment means 4-2.3.3 4-19
 © FI~M Section II

Choice of rail wheels 4-2.4 4-20

Rail wheel size :¯ 4-2.4.1 4-20
., Determining the mean wheel load 4-2.4. I. 1 4-21
.. Determining the useful rail width b 4-2.4.1.2 4-21
., Determining the limiting pressure PL 4-2.4.1.3 4-22
., Determining the coefficient C1 4-2,4.t.4 4-23
.. Determining the coefficient C2 4-2.4,1,5 4-24
Notes 4-2,4.2 4-24

Design of gears 4-2.5 - 4-25

APPENDIXES

Determination of permissible stresses in mechanism components subjected

to fatigue and example of calculation A.4-1,3 4-26

4-34

List of Some works dealing with fatigue problems ¯ 4-34

© FEM Section II 4-3

4-1 CALCULATION PROCEDURE ’

Mechanism components are designed by checking that they offer adequate safety against failure due to
fraoture, crippling, fatigue or excessive wear.

Ot~aer factors must also be taken into consideration and it is particularly important to avoid overtheating or
deflection which could interfere with correct funetionning of the mechanism.

4-1.1 CHECKING FOR ULTIMATE STRENGTH

Mechanism components are checked for ultimate strength by verifying that the calculated stress does not
exceed a pen’nissible stress which is dependent on the breaking strength of the material used.

4-1.1.1 VALUE OF THE PERMISSIBLE STRESS

The value of the permissible stress ffa is given by the following formula : ~

where :

~R is the ultimate stress for the materlal

VR is a safety coefficient corresponding to each load case mentioned at section 2-5,

4-1.1.2 VALUES OF THE COEFFICIENT VR

The values to be adopted for VR are given intable T.4-1.I.2.

Table T.4-1.1.2
Malues of v R

case of loading I

value of VR 2.2 1.8

In the case of grey cast iron, the values ofvR are to be multiplied by 1.25.

...]
 4-4 © FEM Section II

4-1.1.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CALCULATED STRESSES AND THE

PERMISSIBLE STRESSES
Aecordin~g to the type of loading considered, the following relations must be verified in which :

ert is the calculated tensile stress,

ere is the calculated compressive stress,
~f is the calculated bending stress,
’~ is the calculated shear stress.

1) Pure tension : 1.25..trt <

:~) Pur~ compression : ¯ erc -<. era

3) Pure bending : err <
4) Combined bending and tension : 1.25 ~t ÷ ~f <

5) Combined bending and.e0mpression :

6) Pure shea~ ;. ’ . . ..

7) Combined tension, bending .and shear :

8) Combi~ied compression, bending and shear

4-1.2 CHECKING FOR CRIPPLING

Parts subject to :crippling .s!)ou!d be designed in accordance with section 3-3, checking that the calculated
stress does not exceed a limiting crippling stress.

4-1.3 CHECKING FOR FATIGUE

General remark :

The manufacturer shall be free to choose the relevant method to check the fatigue strength of an element.
He shouId of course refer to a recognized and proven method, thus being able to justify his choice.

Many books have been written on this subject and a list of a few books dealing with fatigue problems is
given at the end of tiffs chapter

Many studies are also under way and these will no doubt help to improve current knowledge in this area.

If a manufacturer does not use an alternative method, he can use the method described hereafter which is
based on specimen tests.
© FEM Section II 4-5

4-1.3.1 GENERAL METHOD

The fatigue strength of a given component is mainly deternfined by :

the material from which the component is constructed,

the shape, surface condition, state of corrosion, size (scale effect) and other factors producing
stress concentrations,

the ratio ~ between the minimum and maximum stresses which occur during the various stress
cycles,

the stress spectrum,

the number of stress cycles.

The fatigue strength of a complete mechanical component is known only in exceptional cases.
Generally speaking, it has to be derived from the characteristics of the material and the component
and from accepted laws concerning their behaviour.

The starting point is provided by the endurance limit under alternating tensile fatigue loading
(~ = -1) of a polished specimen, made from the material under consideration. The reduction ofthis
fatigue strength as a result of the geometric shape of the piece, its surface condition, its state of
corrosion and its size is allowed for by introducing appropriate factors.

From the endurance limit under alternating loading the corresponding limit With respect tO other
values of 1~ can be obtained with the aid of a Smith diagram, in which certain hypotheses are mad~
as to the shape of the strength curve.

The endurance limtit thus determined for the actual component, with respect to a given ratio ~
between extreme stresses, is taken as the basis for plotting the Wfhler curve. From this Wrhler
curve (fatigue strength under the effect solely of stress cycles, all having the same ratio ~¢ between
extreme stresses), and by using the Palmgren-Miner hypothesis on fatigue damage accumulation,
the fatigue strength of a component can be determined according to the component group in which it
is classified.

This method for determining the fatigue strength is applicable only to components in which the
structure of the material is homogenous over the entire section being considered. It cannot,
therefore, be used in the ease of components which have undergone a surface treatment (e.g.
hardening, nitriding, casehardening). In such cases the fatigue strength can be derived from the
W~Shler curve only if the latter has itself been determined for components which have been made
from the same material, have a comparable shape and size and have undergone exactly the same
surface treatment.

Cheeldng for fatigue strength only needs to be performed for load ease I.

Where the number of stress cycles is less than 8.103, such checks are not necessary.

..,/
 4-6 © FEM Section II

4-1.3.2 ENDURANCE LIMIT FOR A POLISHED SPECIMEN. UNDER ALTERNATING

LOADING

The specialized works on the subject provide the endurance limit value gbw under alternating
rotational bending of a polished specimen for materials used regularly in the construction of
mechanisms.

The tables T.4-1.3.2a and b give this fatigue strength Obw for some commonly used steels as an
example.

The samevalues of ~rbw may beaccepted as an approximation for the endurance limit under
alternating bending in a plane.

To obtain the endurance limit under alternating axial tension and compression, the values of Obw
have to be decreased by 20 % *(1).

The endurance strength ’tw under alternating shear (pure shear or torsion) is derived from ~bw by the
relation :

The values given for t~bw are generally those corresponding statistically to a 90 % survival
probability.:. In the case.,, of carbon. . steels, commonly used in -.mechanisms,. it is permissible to adopt :

Crbw = 0.5 o’1t

~R being the minimum ultimate strength.

The components subject to combined Ioads must be checked using methods from specialized works.

*(1) An element of material, when subjected to the same stress as an adjacent element, supports the latter
less effectively than if it were subjected to a lower stress, as is the ease with bending. A stress
gradient, i.e. :

difference in stress,, between two adjacent elementary_ parts.

distance between these two elementary parts
which is higher, produces a strengthening effect.

...]
© FEM Section II

Table T.4-1.3.2.a
¯ ’ Characteristics of some c0romonly..used.steeIs

Ultimate strength ~R, yield strength o’E and fatigue strength ~bw, at room temperature. For other
steels or others temperatures, refer to the relevant standard.

Note: The new european standards under preparation give comparison tables for steel grades
between european standards, ISO 683 -. 1 (1987) and other anterior national standards.

We give, in appendix, at the end of chapter 4, a comparison table taken from EN 10 083, I.

symb01s acc0rdi0g’io Obw (*2)

[N/mm~] [N/mm~] [N/mm~]
1 Fe 360 B iso 6,~,o, ,, 240 370 185
d <16. :, ,,.260 ..... 205
A St 41 16 < d <40 :"250. ’ 410 200
40.< d ~60 :.240 195
St 50 DIN 17 100 25O
260
C !6 < d.<30 :.350 ..... 520 255.
..... 30 < d-<50 : 340 ¯ 250
¯ St 60 DIN17 100 340 600 3O0
St 70 DIN I7 100 ¯ 370 700 350
7 C 35N DIN17 200 5OO 250
.... d-<16.,:,430 ¯ 630 ’ 3’15
C 35 V Ck 35 V , DIN 17 200 16 < .d~46’"’: 370 590 295
4.0 < d_<.lO0: 330 ’ 550 " 275
9 C45 N DIN"’17 200 340 " 600’ 300
d-<16 : 490 ¯ 710 . 355
10 C45 VCk45V DIN 1-7 200 16 < d:.-<40 :. 420 -. " 670 ¯ 335
40’ < d~i00:,"~O ’" ’ 630 315
ii C 60 N DIN 17 200 390 700 35O
d <16 : .580 85O 425
12 c 60 v Ck 60 V DIN 17 200 16 < d-<40 ,,:,5~00 800 40O
40 < d -<100:400 75O 375
13 34 CrMo 4 iSo 683-1 380 (*3) 650 325
d <16 : 800 1,000 5OO
16 < d-<40 : 680 900 45O
14 34 CrMoS 4 ISO 683-1 40<, d -<100: 570 800 400
i00 < d-<160:520 750 375
160 < d,~250:479 ..... 700 350
15 42 CrMo 4 ISO 683-1 . 400 (,3) ,,,7,00 350
d,-<~,6’ : 900 1,100 55O
16 %....d -<40 : 780 ...... 1,000 500
16 42 CrMoS 4 ISO 683-1 40 < d -<100:650 9OO 450
100 < d-<160:~70 80O 400
160 < d~250:520 750 375
17 50 CrMo 4 N i~’0 683-t 4%o. ,(.3) 750 375
d -<16 : 900 1,100 550
__16 < d_<40 : 800 1,000 500
18 50 CrMo 4 V ISO 683-1 40 < d ~100:700 900 450
100 < d 5160:650 850 425
160, ~ d,,,$250:600 800 400
 4-8 © FEM Section II

Table T.4-1.3.2.b
Characteristics of soln commonly used cast materials

Ultimate strength OR, yield strength ~IE and fatigue strength Obw at the normal ambiant
temperature. For other east materials or others ’temperatures refer to the relevant standards.

order symbo!s according to OE(*I) ¯ ~R Obw (*2)

IN/turn2] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]

20: OS~60 DIN 1 681 300 600

21 GS~70 420 700
22 GS~34 CrMo 4 V -<30 : 520
30 < <100: 450... 700
_<.3o, ,;,,55o 750
~ . ,..30 < <,,1,o0 : 5,00 700
280 420 2 0,
GGG260 " iDIN 1 693 ,420 600 300
,26,,, .500 700 350

Notes on tables T.4-1.3.2.a and b

.(*i)" Iii this column d is the diameter of th~ part in mm accordingto DIN I~i35 (March 1964 edition)
table2, or DiNI~00 (December1969 edition) table6; other section shapes according to
DIN 17200 (December 1969: .edition), figure 3. For.the cast materials, S, is. the maximum wall
tmclcaess. ~. :. ’’
¯ (*2) The values given will most probably be~eaehed in 90 % of the test With the polished test sample
for the rotary bending testaecording to DIN 50113 (December 1.972 edition) .(profiled test sample,
ra : do > 3 and constant moment over the whole length, of..the, re.st sample)
(*3) Approximate values.

4-1.3.3 INFLUENCE OF THE SHAPE, SIZE, SURFACE CONDITION AND

CORROSION¯
The shape, size, surface finish (machining) and state of corrosion of the component under
consideration bring about a decrease in the endurance limit under alternating loading for the ideal
case of a polished specimen.

These influences are allowed for bY introducing factors ks, kd, ku (or kuc) respectively. Examples
illustrating the determination of these factors are given in appendix A.4d.3.

The endurance limit under alternating loading gwk or ’twk for any component is given for tension,
compression, bending and torsional shear by the equation :

.,,]
© FEM Section II 4-9

~wk = ks.kd.ku(e)

or
’~w
Xwk - ks.kd.ku(c)

In the case of pure shear we take :

"~wk = "l;W

4-1.3.4 ENDURANCE LIMIT AS A FUNCTION OF ~

Fig. 4-1,3.4 expresses, in the form of a Smith diagram, the hypotheses made concerning the
relationship between the endurance limit ~d (or "Cd) and the ratio ~ between the extreme stresses.

Ttiis gives the following relations :

..

-1~<0 5 alternating stresses

normal stresses
~’Owk
O_<r¢_< 1 5 pulsating stresses

-1-<~¢<0 5 alternating stresses

xa=3" - - 2 ~ ’~wk
shear stresses
5
~’¢wk
0<~<1 Cd- pulsating stresses
w
.....
~R

in which"

= tensile strength of the material

~wk and Xwk = endurance limit of the component under altemafing loading, ~: = -1

,.,/
 4-10 © FEM Section II

Figure 4-1.3.4

Tension, ICompression ~aw~ .w,~

Shear

o" (Average]

4-1.3.5 WOHLER CURVE

In this context, the "W6hler curve" is showing the number of stress cycles n which can be
withstood before fatigue failure, .as a function of the maximum stress ~ (or ’r), when all stress
cycles present the same amplitudo aud the same ratio lc between extreme values.

The following hypotheses are made :

for n<8.103 :

or

for 8 . 103 _< n -< 2 . 106, the area of limited endurance, the function is represented by a
straight line TD in a reference system comprising two logatithmic scale axes (fig. 4-1.3.5).

In this region, the slope of the Wfhler curve is given by the factor :

e = tg ~0 =~2.10~),-, ,tog (8.10s)

log ~R - log Gd

or
c = tg q~ = log (2.10~) - log (8.I03)
log (---~) - log ’td
"q3
© FI~M Section II 4-11

o~

Figure 4-1.3,5

I
I
I
1
8 10a 2 10~

The spectrum factor ksp of the component (see section 2-1.4.3) is determined by means of the above
mentioned value of e.
 4-12 © FEM Section II

4-1.3.6 FATIGUE STRENGTH OF A MECHANICAL COMPONENT

The fatigue strength Ok or "~k of a given mechanical component is determined by the following
expressions :

ok--(2 c
or
e
where j is the eomponent’s group number (see section 2-1.4.4)

The classification of components, grouped on the basis of their total duration of use N and theix
spectrum factor ksp, as well as the critical fatigue stresses associated with each group, is illustrated
in figure 4-1.3.6 where Ojk represents the critical stress applying to group ]~j. For the critical shear
stresses, the letter tr must be replaced by x.

4-1.3.7 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND CALCULATIONS

The permissible stresses oaf and Xaf are obtained by dividing the stresses ok and ’~k, defined in
4-1.3.6, respectively by a safety factor Vk.
One takes :

vk = 3.2 c

Oaf and ’~af will therefore be obtained by the relations :

and one verifies that :

with

~ maximum caleulated normal stress

x maximum calculated shear stress

.,,/
© FEM Section 4-13

Figur~ 4-1.3.6

k,~--I 0,5 0.25 0.125

~7~

For components simultaneously experiencing both normal and shear stresses with different ratios
between extreme stresses, the following condition must be satisfied :

in which :

~x, maximum normal stresses in the directions x and y respectively

maximum shear stress

Ok.x, O’ky fatigue strength for normal stresses-, in the directions x and y respectively

shear fatigue strength

If it is not possible from this to determine the most unfavourable case calculations must be
performed separately for the loads ~x max, ~y max and max and the most unfavourable
corresponding stresses used.

It should be noted that the checks described above do not guarantee safety against brittle fracture.
Such safety can be ensured only by a suitable choice of material quality.
 4-14 © FEM Section II

4-1.4 CHECKING FOR WEAR

Inthe case of parts subjected to wear, the specific physical quantities which affect this, such as the surface
pressure or the speed, must be determined. The figures must be such that they will not lead to excessive
wear on the basis of present experience,

4-2 DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR PARTICULAR COMPONENTS

4- 2.1 CHOICE OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS

To select anti-friction bearings, it is first necessary tocheek that the bearing is capable of withstanding :

- the ~tatiq 1.end to which it cart be subjected under either load case I or II, whichever is the most
unfavourable, and
- the maximum dynamic load in the more unfavourabte of load ease I or !I.

4-2.1.1 THEORETICAL LIFE ~i

In addition, anti-friction bearings must be selected to give an acceptable theoretical life in hours (se~
table T,2-1,3.2) suitable for the mechanism’s class of operation under an "equivalent’~ Constant mean
loa.__~d as defined below,

4-2.1.2 MEAN LOADING OF BEARINGS

In order to allow for variations in the loads during the cycles of operation, art equivalent mean
loading Smean is determined which is supposed to be applied constantly during the theoretical
expected life.

Smean is obtained by multiplying Smaxi defined by clause 2-5.1, by the cube root of the spectrum
factor km defined in 2-1.3.3.

Smean = ~m ¯ Smax I

Specific case :
The bearings of tr_avelling wheels, are designed as follows :

The extreme loads Smax and Stain developed in loading case I are considered and the bearing is
designed for an equivalent mean load given by the expression :

2 Smax I + Smin I
Smean - 3

and applied for the theoretical expected life.

© FEM SectiOn II 4-15

4-2.1.3 CHOICE OF BEARINGS

After defining the maximum andthe equivalent mean values of loads, both radial and axia! loads, it
is necessary to combine these values in accordance with the recommendations given by the bearing
manufacturer. It is then possible to select the appropriate type of bearing from the catalogue.

For special bearings such as slewing rings for instance, the seIection should bemade by the bearing
manufacturer once he has beeninformed of critical values such as: axial and radial loads,
overturning moments .in ."normal" operation, in "maXimum" operation, maximum (static)
out-of-operation conditions, ete, as well as tooth forces in the case of a toothed ring.

It is absolutely necessary for the beating manufacturer to have, together with all.these values, a clear
understanding as to the operation of the eqnipemrit ai~d therefore bf What the given values correspond
tO.

4-2.2 CHOICE.OF ROPES

The following rulesare aimed at defining reasonable minimum requirements for the choice Of ropes.

They do not purport to resolve every problem not to serve as a substitute for the dialogue which is
essential between the rope.manufacturer and the manufacturer of handling appliances.

They apply to preferred ropes conforming to ISO recommendation .2408 "Steel ropes for general use -
Characteristics". .

They do not exclude, however, ropes which are n0tspeeified in ISO recommendation 2408, for which it is
incumbent upon the rope manufacturer to validate for the user the minimum values of parameters detailed
in the ISO recommendation..-

The terminology of the rope parameters complies with that used in ISO recommendation 2408.

The methods stated hereafter assume that the ropes are greased correctly, that the winding diarrteters of the
pulleys and the drums are suitably selected in compliance with 4-2.3 and that, when in service, the ropes
are properly maintained, inspected and periodically replaced in accordance with ISO recommendation 4309
"Rope inspection".

The selection of rope diameter (and winding diameters in 4-2.3) is based on the group of the mechanism.

4,2.2.1 CHOICE OF ROPE DIAMETER

The following method is applicable to running ropes (active ropes).

 4-16 © FEM Section II

4-2.2.1.1 MAXIMUM TENSILE FORCE S

The maximum tensile force S in the rope is obtained by taking account Of the following factors :

maximum safe wofkingiload of the appliance,

mechanical advantage due to the rope reeving,
efficiency of the rope reeving,
loads due to.accelerati0n if.they exceed 10 % of the main loads,
rope inclinati.0n to the load axis in the "Worst cas.e" if this angle exceeds 22030’.

4:2.2.1.2 PRACTICAL FACTOR OF SAFETy Zp

The practical factor of safety Zp is the ratio between :

the minimum breaking load F0 of the rope (minimum load which must be attained when
carrying out the rope breaking test),
and the maximum tensile force S in the rope : "

Zp -- "if" min

The ct~osen rope must have a practicaI factor of safety at least equal to the minimum value Zp for
the mechanism group to which the rope in question belongs (see table T.4-2.2.1.2).

Table T.4-2.2.1.2

,,1

group of mechanism minimum value Zp

(running ropes)

M1 3.15
M2 3.35
M3 3.55
M4 4
M5 4.5
M6 5.6
M7 7.1
M8 9
© FEM Section H 4-17

Nevertheless in the case where the failure of a running rope (luffing mechanism for instance) would
affect the stability of the machine, these ropes must be chosen with the following minimum safety
coefficients :

winch rope (running) safety coefficient

I andll one rope system 6

two ropes system 6
two ropes system after failure of one rope 3

Note : Two ropes systems should be preferred.

4-2.2.1.3 MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD F0

The minimum breaking load is :

F0 = d2.~" ¯ f. k. R0 = d2. K’. R0

where :

nominal diameter of the rope (dimension by which the rope is designated)

fill factor of the rope
spinning loss faetor due to the rope construction .
minimum ultimate tensile stress of the wire composing the rope

and

4-2.2.1.4 ROPE DIAMETER SELECTION

For a rope of a given construction, having a given minimum steel strength, and for a given
mechanism group there is a factor C which is expressed by the formula :

C= ]-Zl~min, ,~ Z~
~k.f.~..Ro = ~/K’’Ro
 4-18 © FEM Section II

where Zpmin is the minimum value for running ropes in tabIe T.4-2.2.1.2.

The nominal diameter d must be such that :

The factor K’ (or factors k and f) can either.: ¯’

be taken from ISO recommendation 2408 for the.r0pes covered therein,

or be guaranteed by the rope manufaetttrer if the rope is of special Construction. In this case, the
certificate supplied by the rope manufacturer must clearly state the guaranteed values.

4-2.3 CHOICE OF PULLEYS, DRUMS AND ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS

4-2.3.1 MINIMUM WINDING DIAMETER ". :. " ..

The minimum winding diameter for the rope is determined by eheeldng the relationship

D_>H.d

D is the winding diameter on pulleys, drums orcompensating pulleys measured to the axis of the
rope
H is a coefficient depending upon the mechanism group
d is the nominal diameter of the rope,

4-2.3.1.1 VALUES OF COEFFICIENT H

The minimum values of the coefficient H depend upon the group .in which the mechanism is
classified, and are given in table T.4-2.3.1.1 for drums, pulleys and compensating pulleys.

They correspond to ropes in common use and are based on experience of their working conditions.

These guidelines do not however serve as substitute for the dialogue which is indispensable between
the rope manufacturer and the manufacturer of handling appliances, especially when the use of new
ropes with non standard flexibility characteristics is being considered.
© FEM Section II 4-I9

Table T.4-2,3.1.1
VALUES OF H

mechanism group dnlms pulleys equalizing sheaves and

compensating pulleys

M1 11.2 12.5 11.2

M2 12.5 14 12.5
M3 14 16 14
M4 16 18 14
M5 18 20 14
M6 2O 22.4 16
M7 22.4 25 16
M8 25 28 18

N(Y’FE : When the formula given in clause 4-2.2.1 has been used to determine a minimum rope
diameter from which in turn the minimum diameters for drums and pulleys have been determined, a
rope of diameter greater than the minimum calculated diameter ean’be’ used with these latter
diameters, provided that the diameter of the rope used does not exceed the minimum .diameter by
more than 25 % and that the pull in the rope does not exceed the value S used for calculating this
minimum diameter.

4-2.3.2 RADIUS OF THE BOTTOM OF THE GROOVE

The useful life of the rope depends not only on the diameter of the pulleys and drums, but also on
the pressure exerted between the rope and the groove supporting the rope.

The winding ratios above are given on the assumption of a radius of supporting groove r where :

r --- 0.53 d

d being the nominal diameter of the rope.

4-2.3.3 ROPE ATTACHMENT MEANS

Rope attachment must be so designed as to withstand a tensile force at least 2,5 times the
maximum force S without showing permanent deformation.

The means attaching the rope to the dram must be of such a design that, taking account of th~
friction in the turns remaining around the drum, the sum of the frictional and fixing forces
withstands a tensile force at least 2.5 times the maximum tensile force S.
 4-20 © FEM Section II

The coefficient of friction between the rope and the drum used in the calculations shall be :

g=O.l

when the rope is unwound from the drum for the length corresponding to the maximum service
position, .at least two complete turns of rope must remain on the drum before the rope end
attachment.

4-2.4 CHOICE OF RAIL WtllgELS

In order to choose a rail wheel, its diameter should be determined by considering :

- the load on the Wheel,

- the quality of ~h.e mat~ria! frpm which it is. made,
- the type of rail On which it runs,
the speed of rotation of the wheel,
- theclass of utilization of the n~echanism i
Studies.concerningthe choice of rail .wheels exist or are in progress, but the .method given hereafter can be
usei! as.proved method which lead to satisfactory results in the case of.handling machines.

4-2.4.1 RAIL WHEEL SIZE

To determine to size of a rail wheeI, the following cheeks must be made :
that it is ’capable of withstanding the maximum load to which it will be subjected, and
that it will allow the appliance to perform its normal duty without abnormal wear.

The two requirements are checked by means of the following two formulae :

Pmean II =
b.D -< PL ’ Clmax ’ C2max -< 1.38 PL 1,.4 PL

taking Clmax = 1.2 and C2max = 1.15

rPmean___.._~ < PL ¯ C1 ¯ C2
b.D
© FEM Section 4-21

where : ......

D the wheel diameter in mm .

b the useful width of the rail in mm "’
PL a (admissible) pressure dependent upon the material used for the wheel, in N/mm2
CI a coefficient depending on the speed of rotation of the wheel
C2 a coefficient depending on the class of utilization of the mechanism
Pmear~ the mean wheel load, in N, in load case II calculated according to the formulae hereafter
(see 4-2.4.!,1)
PmeanI the mean wheel load in case I.

DETERMINING THE MEAN WHEEL LOAD "

In order to determine the mean whe~l loads~ themaximum and minimum loads on the wheel should
be considered for the appropriate load case I and II.

lIIl ,. ’ " 2Pmax

....... ’ Pme,an = ’ Pm~n .~-------. ...

For, rails having a fiat bearing surface and a total width I with rounded comers of radius r at each
¯ side, we have : " ,: i : ’ " .... . ’"

b=l-2r
For rails with a convex bearing surface, we have. :.

4
*(1)

*(1) For the same width of rail head, these formulae give a greater useful bearing width for convex rails
than for flat rails. This allows for the superior adaptation of a slighfly convex rail to the roiling
motion of the wheel.

o../
 4-22 © FEM Section

4-2.4.1.3 DETERMINING THE LIMITING PRESSURE PL

The value of PL is given in table T.4-2.4.1,3 as a function of the ultimate strength of the material
of which the rail wheel is made.

Table T.4-2.4.1.3
VALUES OF PL

Ultimate strength for material

used for rail wheel
in N/mm~
gR > 500 N/mm~ 5.0
5.6
OR > 700 N/ram~ " 6.5
OR > 800 Nlmma
OR > 1,000 N/mm: 8

The qualities of material refer to cast, forged or roiled steels, and spheriodal graphite cast iron.

In the case of rail wheel with steel.tire, consideration must obviously be given to the quality of the
steel tire, which should be sufficiently thick not’to rolI itself out.

In the case of wheels made of high tensile steel and treated to ensure a very high surface hardness,
the value of PL is Iimited to that for the quality of the steel composing the wheel prior to surface
treatment, according to table T.4-2.4.1.3, since a higher value would risk causing premature wear of
the rail.

For a given load, however, wheels of this type have a much longer useful life than wheels of lesser
surface hardness, which makes their use worthwhile for appliances performing intensive service.

Alternatively, it is possible to use wheels of ordinary cast iron, especially chilled cast iron, which
has good surface hardness.

It must be remembered that such wheels are brittle and that their use should be avoided for high
speed motions or when shock loadings are anticipated.
@ FEM Section II 4-23

When these are used, their diameter is determined by taking PL equal to 5 N/rnm2.

4-2.4.1.4 DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENT C1

The values of C1 depend on the speed of rotation of the wheel and are given in table T.4-2.4.1.4.a.

These same values are also given in table T.4-2.4.1.4.b as a function of the wheel diameter and the
speed in m/ran.

.... TableT.4:2.4A.4.a

wheel rotation wheel rotation wheel rotation

speed in R.p.M. speed in R.P.M. C1
speed in R.P.M.

200 0.66 50 16 1.09

160 " 0.72 45 0.96 14 1.1
125 0.77 0.97 12.5 1.11
112 0.79 35.5 0.99 11.2 1.12
100 0.82 31.5 1 10 1.13
90 0~84 28 1.02 8 t.14
80 0.87 25 1.03 6.3 1.15
7i 0.89 22.4 1.04 ’5.6 : 1.16
63 0.91 20 1.06 5 1.17
56 0.92 I8 1.07

,V, ALUES OF C 1 AS A FuNcTIo~ O~ THE WHEEL DIAMETER

AND TI-IE SPEED OF TRAVEL

wheel values of C1 for travel speeds in m~mn .....

diameter
inmm I0 12.5 16 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 8O lOO 125 160 20O 250

200 1.09 1.06 1.03 1 0,97 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.82 .0.77 0.72 0.66

.250 1.11 i.09 1.06 1.03 I 0.97 0.94 0,91 0.87 I).82 0~77 0.72 0.66
315 1.13 1.11 1.09 1.06 1,03 1, 0.97 0.94 0.9I 0.87 0.82 037 0.72 0,66
400 1.14 1.13 1.11 1.09 i .od 1.03 1 0,97 0.94 0,91 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.72 0.66
500 1.15 1.14 1,13 I.II 1,09 1.06 1.03 1 0.97 0,94 0.91 0.87 0,82 0,77 0,72
630 1,17 1,15 1.14 1.13 1,11 1.09 1,06 1.03 1 0,97 0.94 0.91 0,87 0.82 0,77
710 1.16 1.14 1.13 1.12 1,1 1,07 1,04 1.02 0.99 1.96 0.92 0,89 0.84 0,79
800 1.17 1.15 1.14 1.13 1.11 L09 1.06 1,03 1 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.82
900 1.16 1,14 1.13 1,12 1.1 !.07 1,04 1.02 0,99 0.96 0.92 0,89 0.84
1,000 1.17 1,15 L14! 1.13 [ .09 1,06 1.03 1 0.97 0.94 0,91 0.87
1,120 1.16 1.14 1,13 1.1 1.07 1,04 1,02 0.99 0.96 0,92 0.89
1,250 I- 1.17 1.15 1,14 1,11 1,09 1,06 1.03 1 0,97 0.94 0,91
 4-24 © FEM Section II

4-2.4.1.5 DETERMINING TILE COEFFICIENT C2

The coefficient C2 depends on the class of utilization of the mechanisra and is given in table
T.4-2.4.1.5.

Table T.4-2,4,1.5
~rALUES OF C2

,,,

classes of utilization ’

TO to T2 1,25
T3 to T5 1.12
T6 " 1
T7 0.9
T8 - T9 0.8

4-2.4.2 NOTES
Note 1

The formulae apply only to wheels whose diameters do not exceed 1,250 m. For larger diameters
experience shows that the permissible pressures between the rail and the wheel must be lowered.
The USe of wheels Of greater diameier is not recommended.

It should be noted that the limiting pressure PL is a notional pressure determined by supposing that
contact between’ the wheel and the rail takes place over h surface whose width is the useful width
defined earlier (clause 4-2.4,1.2) and whose length is the diameter of the wheel. The calculation
method set out above is derived from the application of the Hertz formula, which may be written :

~ P
0,35 E - b.D

where :

is the compressive stress in the wheel and the rail in N/ram2

the modulus of elasticity of the material in N/ram2
the wheel load in N
in mm, being as defined above (clause 4-2.4.1)

,,,/
© FEM Section II 4-25

Taking KL to represent the value ~eg= which has the units of a pressure (in N/mm~), the relation
¯ may be written : 0.35 E -

KL characterizes the wheel )ressure on the rail. The formula 0fclause 4-2.4.1 is obtained by
putting :
¯
KL<PL.CI C2

4- 2.5 DESIGN OF GEARS

The choice of the method for design calculations for gears is left to the. manufacturer, who must indicate
the origin of the method adopted, the loads to be taken into aceotmt being determined in accordance with
the directions given in 2-5.

For calculations which take aee0unt of.the operating time the c0n),.enti0nalhours determined in 2-1.3.2
should be used.
 4-26 © FEM Section

APPENDIX A - 4-1.3
DETERMINATION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN MECHANISM
COMPONENTS SUBJECTED TO FATIGUE

The enduran.ee limit for a polished specimen is a laboratory value, which is practically never attained in
parts actually used. Numerous factors - shape, size, surface condition (machining qu~ty) and possible
corrosion - induce discontinuities resulting in stress concentrations or "notch effects", which increase the
actual stresses in the part. For a given section the load must therefore be reduced to maintain the actual
stress (including stress concentration effec0 below any allowable value. This is allowed by introducing
factors ks, kd, ku, ktic (refer to 4-1.3.3). These factors are respectively all greater than or equal to unity, by
the product of which the endurance limit for a polished specimen is devided.

Guidelines concerning the determination of these coefficients are set out below :

DETERMINATION OF ks
This Coefficient specifies the stress concentrations caused by. changes of section at radii, annular grooves,
¯ transverse holes keyways and other me’hods of securinghubs. ..

Figures A.4-1.3.1,a and b give the values of the shape coefficient ks, as a function of the ultimate strength
of the material, valid for a diameter D of 10 ram.
The curves A.4-1.3.1.a give the coefficient ks for a change of section of ratio D/d = 2, with a correction
table T.A.4-I.3.1 for other values of Did.

Figure A.4-1.B.l,a
,SHApE COEFFICIENT ks ,(DIAMETER D, = I 0 mm~
CHANGE OF SECTION Did = 2

sI

,,,

_.

~oo ~0o ~oo " 4000 ,~oo

...]
© Ft~M Section II 4-27

For other values of D/d read ks from the curve (r/d) + q with the following values for q :

CORRI~CTION FACTORS q FOR Did _< 2

Did 1.05 1,1 1.2 1:3 1.4 1.6 2

q 0.13 0.1 0.07 0,052 0.04 0.022 0

The A.4-1,3.1.b curves give, for guidance some values of ks for holes, annular grooves k~yways and press-
fitted hubs.

Figure A.4-1.3.1.b’
S~CO]~PI=rlCI~NT ks (DIAM~Tt~R. D -- 10
HOLI~, ANNULAR GROOVt~, KBYWAY, PI~SS-HTI~D HUB .

I : transverse hole dI = 0.175 d

II : annular groove : depth I mm
Ill I keyed hub
IV : press-fitted hub
 . 4-28 © FEM Section

DETERMINATION OF SIZE COEFFICIENT kd

For diameters greater than 10 mm the stress concentration effect increases and this increase is allowed for
by introducing the size coefficient kd.

The values of the coefficient kd are given in table T.A.4-1,3,2 for values of d from 10 mm to 400 ram,

Table T.A.4-1.3.2
VAlUeS OF ~

d rnm 10 20 30 50 100 200 400

kd 1 1.i 1.25 1.45 1.65 1.75 1.8

DETERMINATION OF SURFACE CONDITION COEFFICIENTS

1. INITIAL SURFACE FINISH DUE TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES -

COEFFICIENT ku

Experience shows that parts produced with ~ rough finish have a lower endurance limit than carefully
polished parts.
This is allowed for by applying a mdehining coefficient ku given in figure A.4-1.3.2 for ground or
finely polished surfaces, for rough macl3ined parts and for forged and rolled sections.

INFLUENCE OF,C,ORROSI,ON,
Corrosion can ha{re a very appreciable effect onthe endurance limit of steels ; this is allowed for by
applying a correction to factor ku which becomes kue,

In the case of particular hazard or corrosion, the values of kuc to be used are those given for ku for
forged or rolled pieces and this without taking into account the method of machining.
Obviously, the used.of the factor kuc does not expect to take into account the effects of the possible
corrosion on the time, as for instance the reduction of the size of the structural components, effects
which must be taken into account separately. The factor kuc only take into consideration the fact
that the surface condition of the component subject to corrosion will be rapidly modified.
 4-29

Figure A,4-1.3.2 ’
VALUES.OF.THE MACHIN1-NG COEFFICIEN~£~ ku {CORROSION COEFI~ICIE~ kuc)

40o GoD ’1000 d200

~ku

Curve I surface ground or finely macldned : 6.3 < Rt _< 16 ~m

surface machined : 16 < Rt f 63 Urn
surface rough machined : 63 < Rt ~ 160 ~m
properly forged or rolled part
rough forged or rolled pa~t or properly cas~ (sand mould)

Note : In the case of hazard of corrosion, kuc must be chosen in curves IIc or IId.
 4-30 © FEM Sectioa II

Examp.,le of application

Shaft in A-550 steel with change of section.

Diameter D=70mm and d=50mm with
transition radius r = 5 ram. Turned. on lathe,
with keyed wheel.

The component will be deemed to be classified in group

We shall assume alternating loading (~ = - 1) and the shaft to be of A-550 steel (minimum
~R = 550 N/mm~). We can therefore adopt :

~bw = 0,5. 550 = 275 N/ram2

Section A-B

D/d = 70/50 = 1.4

r/d= 5/50 = 0.1

Determination of ks (shape)

For D/d = 1.4, we have :

q = 0.04 (table T.A.4-1.3,1)
From the ¢ttrve (r/d) + q = 0.1 + 0.04 -- 0.14, we fred by interpolation :

ks= 1.4 (figure A.4-1.3.1.a)

Determination of kd (size)

For d = 50, we have :

kd = 1,45 (table T.A.4-1,3.2)

Determination of ku (machining)

For a part turned on a lathe, we have

ku = 1.15 (figure A.4-1.3.2

curve II)
© FEM Section II 4-31

From the foregoing values, we derive :

275
~rwk =1.4. 1.45 . 1.15 = i 17,8 N/ram2

For ~: = - 1, we have :
crd = ~rwk 17.8 N/mm2

e = log (2, 000 000 / 8 000) = 3.58

log (550 / 1t7.8)

For group E4, the fatigue strength is therefore :

= 117.8 ¯ 2 (4 / 3.58) = 255.4 N/mm2

The safety coefficient vk is given by :

Vk = 3.2 I/e = 3,21/3.58 = 1.38

The permissible stress Oaf is therefore :

255,4
1.38 = 184.6 N/mm~

Section C-D

We have :

ks = 2.2 (figure A 4-1,3.1.b)

kd = 1.45 (same value as above)
ku = 1.15 (same value as above)
H~nce :
275
~wk = 2.2 ¯ 1.45 , 1.15 = 75.0 N/ram2

75.0 N/ram=

!og (2 000 000 / 8 000),

log (550 1 73) = 2,77

,,./
 4-32 © FEM Section II

6k = 75 ¯ 2(4/2"77) 204,0 N/ram2

Vk= 3,21 / 2.77 = 1,52

204
= 134 N/mm2

,,,/
© FEM Section II 4-33

ANNEXE -
Comparison of steel grades as per the European standard EN 10083-l, the standard ISO 683.I
and other national standards previously issued

~/10os~:1 1SO 683.1 7 UnRe¢ Sweden " Spain

19e7 (I)Abbreviated I Kingdom SS-Stahl Abbreviated | No. of
ra~t~rial ,, de~i_gnation | mnt~ria|
2C 22 (Ck 22) , (L11.51} [xc 18]
2C22 (1.1149) t’XCl8 u]
,,
[C 25 E4) Ck 25’ (070M26) txc :~ .C~Sk P1120
(C 2~ ld2) Cm 25 1.1163 ,," ¯ C25k-1 F1125 (1)
(c 30 Ck ~0 1.1i78 (080M30) [xc
3C30 (c 30 Cm 30 1.1179 ,*
2c~5’ (C 35E4) 1AISI ’c 35 (080M36) 1572 C35k F[]30
~C35 (C 35 M2) Cm35 1.1180 .[XC38H 1 U] C 35k-I ~i135
2C40 id’~io Ll186 (O80M4O) ! (!)
3 C40 (c 4o M2) Cm 40 1,1189 [XC 42 H l u)
,,
2C45 (c 45 E4) Ck 45 1.1191 C 45 (080M46) 41! H H 1672 FII40
3 C45 (C 4S M2) Cm 45 t.t2qt F1145 (1)
"2 C 50 (c ~o ek 50 1,1206 (080M50) 1674
3 C50 (C ~0 M2j 1,1241 ¯,

Ck 55 Li’203 FiiS0
1.12~9 ’ ’[XC 55H 1 "1 55~-1
2CdO (c ~ ~) 60 1,1221 (070M60)
, .
;3 C60 (c 60 M2) Cm ’60 1.1223 (070M60)
28’bin 6 (’~. 6) 28.Mn 6 1,11~0 (150M19)
,, 3~cr2 L17~o3 ..
38 CrS 2 38 CrS 2 1,7023 08 C 2 u)
’~6 Cr 2 46 Cr2 i,7006
46 CrS 2 1.7025 ..

"’~ c~ 4 34 C’r’ 4 34~x4 13033

34 CrS 4 34 CrS 4 1,7037 (32C4 u)
37 Cr 4 ’ I 37Cr4 37 cr 4 L7034 (530~36) FI201
37 CrS 4 37 ¢rS 4 36 CrS 4 12038 (38 C 4 u) 38Cr4-1 F1206 (1)
41 Cr 4 41 C~ 4 1.7035 (530M4~ ’42 C 4 FI~02
41 OrS 4 4I C~S 4 41 CrS 4 "1.7039 42C4u 2245 F1207 (1)
,
25 CrMo 4 25CrMo 4 25 CrMo 4 1.7218 2~ CtM04 (708M25) 25 CD 4 2225
2~CrMo$ 4 25CrMoS4 25 CrMoS 4 1.7213 25 CD4u
34CrMo4 ~4 CrMo 4 13220 34 Cdvlo 4 UOI]M.32) (34 CD4~ 2234
34CrMoS4 34 CrMoS 4 1,7226 (34 CD 3 a)
42 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4 42 CrMo 4 1,72~ ~~ CrMo 4 U08M40) ..... 42~D4 2244 4(2’ CrM0 4 F1252
’ 42 CrMoS 4 42 CrMoS 4 49. CrMoS 4 1,7227 42CD 4u ! 40CrMo4-1 F1257 (I)
,¸.,
50 CrMo 4 50 CrMo 4 5~ CrMo 4
"’36 CrNiMo 4 36 CrNIMo 4 36’CrNLMo 4 1.6511 (817M371
34 CrNiMo 6 (34CrNiMo (z:d~e~) ~4 CrNi~o 6 25.41
6) ,
i 30 CrNIMo 8 (31 CrNLMo 30 CrNtMo 8 1.6580 (823M30) 30 CND8
36NiCrMo 16 35 CND 16
51 CrV 4 (51 CrY 4) 50CrV 4 1.815 " [735~k501 (~o cv 4) 51 crv 4 F1430

(1) The use of steel grade in plain brackets means that its chemical composition is only slightly different
from that of EN 10083-1. The indication of a steel grade in square brackets means that its chemical
composition differs to a greater extent from that of EN i0083-1. Grades which are neither in plain nor
square brackets have virtually the same chemical composition as that of EN 10083-1.

.../
 4-34 © FEM Section II

LIST OF SOME WORKS DEALING WITH FATIGUE PROBLEMS

(1) Niemann, G. "Maschinenelemente"

Band 1
Springer Vedag - Berlin/GiStfingen/I-Ieidelberg - 1975

(2) Niemann, G. "Maschinenelemertte"

Band 2
Springer Veflag - Berlin/Gfttingen/Heidelberg - 1983

(3) Decker, K.-H. "Maschinenelemente"

Carl Hanser Verlag - Miinchen - 1982

"Metal Fatigue" by LA. POpe & Ph.D., D.Se - Wh. Sch. I Mech.

E. Chapmann & Hall Ltd., 37 Essex street, London WC2

(5) "La fatigue des mdtaux" by R. Cazaud. Ingdnieur Cnam- Doctor of the University of Paris - Lecturer at
the Higher Institute for Mechanical Engineering MateriaIs- Consulting engineer
Dunod - ~2 rue Bonaparte - Paris

"Fatigue of metals and structures" by H.J. C-rover, s.a. Gordon, RL Jackson

Thames & Hudson, London

-oOo-
© FEM Section I~ 5-1

The Design rules developed p~u~icularly in chapters B and 4 of this s~dard allow a mobile continuous bulk
handling machine to be designed and dimensioned correctly, thereby ensuring the ~.afety of the mgdhine itself
against the various causes of failure (breaking of major parts, loss of stability, ere).

In addition to these aspects, careful consideration should be given to the safetyof persons who will have to work
on the machine for its driving, operation-and maintenance. This is covered by a number of ¯prOvisions which,
while theyoften do not affect the strength of the machine, are nevertheless indispensable for safe operation of that
machine.

For the health and safety requirements for mobile continuous bulk handling equipment, in Europet one shall refer
to the following Directives Of the Council of the European Communities : .... " : ~
- Machinery directive No. 891392/EEC of 14th June 1989 ; modified on 20th June 1991 (91/368/EEC), modified
on 14th June 1993 (93/44/EEC) and on 22rid June 1993 (93/68/EEC).
- Low voltage directive No. 73/23/EEC of 19tl!February 1973 modified on 22nd July (93/68/EEC).
- Electromagnetic compatibility directive No~ 89/336/EEC of tl~ 3rd May 1989 modified on 28th April. 199:2
(92/31/13EC) and on 22nd July 1993 (93168/EEC). . -. ¯ ; ¯ .- . ¯ ... .... : ~ : . ’
’, - ’ :’. ¯ : ’.’ : .’ : ":: : .... " ’:’:" , i. ’ .... :’ ’ " " "’ "’
For particular applications 0necan.refer to : : " " ~ ..... ¯ .
-Equipment. and Protective systemsintended for used in potentillay exp’losive atmosphere directive
No. 94191/EEC of the 23rd March 1994.
- Single pressure vessel directive No. 87/404/EEC of 25th ~rune 1987 modified on 17th September 1990
(90/488/EEC) an~ on22nd..Iuly t993 (93/68/EEC). ’ . .. .......... .

On the basis of the MaeNnery Directive, the TeChnical Committee 148 of CEN "Continuous handling
equipment and systems ~ safety" has prepared a number of standards applicable to families of produ~ts involved in
continuous handling, These standards are the following : .

prEN 620 (WG 1) Continuous handling equipment and systems

Safety requirements for fixed belt conveyors for bulk materials

prEN 619 (WG 2) Continuous handling equipment and systems

Safety requirements for equipment for mechanical handling of unit loads

prEN 618 (WG 3) Continuous handling equipment and systems

Safety requirements for equipment for mechanical handling of bulk materials except fixed
belt conveyors

prEN 617 (WG 4) Continuous handling equipment and systems

Safety requirements for equipment for the storage of bulk materials in silos, bunkers, bins
and hoppers

prEN 741 (WG 5) Continuous handling equipment and systems

Safety requirements for systems and their components for pneumatic handling of buIk
materials

In Europe, it is therefore desirable for the design of a mobile continuous bulk handling machine to refer to the
standard prEN 618 (WG 3 - mobile mechanical bulk handling machines).
 5-2 © FI~M Section II

In the most common case, when the machine includes one or more belt conveyors, there is need to refer also to
the standard prEN 620 (WG 1 - equipment for mechanical handling of both unit loads and bulk materials).

It should.be noted that the European type C* safety standards mentioned above include numerous references to
more general type A, B1, B2 standards* and it may be necessary for a particular type of handling equipment to
produce a collection of the parts of standards which are appropriate to it.

* Safety standards are classified as follows :

Type A Standards (basic safety standards) giving basic concepts; principles for design, and general in the
same or a similar manner for all machinery..

Type B standards (group safety standards) dealing with one safety aspect or one type of safety related device in
the same or a similar manner for a range of machinery.. ....
type B1 standards on particular safety aspects (e.g, safety distances, surface temperature, noise)
type B2 standards on safety related devices (e.g. two-hand controls, interlo’eking .devices, .pressure sensitive
d~vlces, guards).

Type C standards (machine safety standards) giving detailed safety .requirements for a particular type of
machinery or group of machlnes defined in the scope of the standard.

(extract from the standard EN 292,1 "Safety of machinery -.Basic concepts, ,eneral principles for design)

,-00o-
 © FEM Section II

CHAPTER 6

TESTS AND TOLERANCES

CONTENTS

.Clause

TESTS 6-1 6-3

General 6-1.1 6-3

Typical acceptance tests 6-1.2 6-3

Definitions 6-1.3 6-4

Categories of tests 6-1,4 6-5

No load functional testing 6-1.4.t 6-6
Testing under nominal load 6-1.4.2 6-6
Overload testing 6-1.4.3 6-7

List of typical cheeks and tests 6-1.5 6-7

TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES AND TRACKS 6-2 6-8

General 6-8
Measuring procedure 6-8
Manufacturing tolerahces for travelling devices 6-2.2 6-9
Distance from centerline to centerline (machine span) 6-2.2.1 6-9
Sag of gantry 6-2.2.2 6-9
Inclination of the wheels 6-2,2.3 6-9
Trolley rail Centre distance 6-2,2.4 6-10
LeveI of rails for trolley 6-2.2.5 6-10
Height tolerance on four points 6-2.2.6 6-11
Rail on girder web 6-2.2.7 6-11
Trolley rails straightness 6-2,2.8 6-12
Angular alignment of wheels 6-2.2.9 6-12
Level of wtxeel axles 6-2.2.10 6-13
Transverse alignment of wheels 6-2.2.11 6-13
Horizontal guide rollers 6-2.2,12 6-14
Wheel diameter 6-2.2.13 6-14

Tolerances for tracks on rigid suport 6-2.3 6-15"

Allowable deviation before re-arrangement 6-2.3.1 6-15
Track gauge tolerances 6-2.3.2 6-15
Sag of rails 6-2.3.3 6-15
Overall rail tolerances. 6-2.3,4 6-I5
Rail level tolerances 6-2.3.5 6-16
Lateral rail tolerances 6-2,3.6 6-17

Tolerances for tracks on ballast 6-2.4 6-18

Allowable deviation before re-arrangement 6-2.4.1 6-18
Track gauge tolerances 6-2.4.2 6-18
Sag of rails 6-2.4.3 6-18
Overall rail tolerances 6-2.4.4 6-18
Rail level tolerances 6-2.4.5 6-19
Lateral rail tolerances 6-2.4,6 6-19
Depth of ballast 6-2.4,7 6-I9
.../
© FEM Section II 6-3

6-1 TESTS

6-1.1 GENERAL

The variety of mechanical handling equipment available and the diversity of i.ts application precludes the
specification of any singte, universal acceptance test.

For this reason, it is essential, from the earliest pre~teader enquiries if possible, that the end user, his
engineer and the manufacturer/supplier of the equipment are all anticipating the same outcome,

Consequently, before a contract is awarded, the end user of the exluipment should define and agree with the
supplier, the criteria that have to be met before the equipment can be handed over.

The specification for these acceptance tests should be as straightforward and as simple as possible, often
involving a "representative" test cycle to verify the performance Of a single item of equipment in isolation
from the rest of the plant.

The conditions for these acceptance tests should also be defined, for example, the following data should be
specified :

Weather conditions (wind, temperature; Snow;..), ..... . ..

Whether the tests will be carried out in the daytime or at night,
Characteristics of the materials to be handled (i.e. moisture, grain size, bulk density...),
Flow rates (mass flow; v’61Ume flow) to be achieved for the various .bulk materials, and the
corresponding duration for each flow rate,
13nvironmental conditions, in particular any restrictions affecting the movement of the tested appIianees.
Forinstance,-information should be given on the type of ship on which :a loader or unloader will
operate, the type of stockpile (cross section, length) on which a bucket-wheel reelaimer or a stacker will
operate, etc,
MethOds for measuring handled quantities, actual operating times, etc,. ’
Qualification of the operator(s),

6-1.2 TYPICAL ACCEPTANCE TESTS

Typical acceptance tests might be :

Demonstrate that a stockyard equipment is able to store or to reclaim the anticipated material quantities
in the required number of piles. "¯

This requires to agree especially on the general arratigement of the piles and the travel distances of the
mobile machines.

b) Demonstrate that the equipment can handle the working load(s) in normal operating conditions,

This requires an agreed definition of the working load(s) and how it will be measured
 6-4 © FEM Section II

It should be noted that for bulk materials which density is variable, it could be necessary to define for
exampIe one tonnage capacity and one corresponding volumetric capacity, the pefforrnanee being
considered acceptable as soon as one of these capacities (tonnage or volume) is reached.

c) Demonstrate that the equipment will improve the material blend by the required amount.
"INs requires an agreed sampling technique and method of analysis,

Demonstrate that the plant can load/unload a ship of a given size and type in the required time.

"Whole plant" tests of this nature are difficult to achieve especially where parts of the plant are
supplied by different manufacturers. The management and organisafion of the plant also has a
significant effect and this is often outside the supplier’s control,

Demonstrate that the equipment can handle a nominated surge load without excess of spillage,

’INs requires a definition of the surge load, both in magnitude and duration, also an agreement on what
is "acceptable" spillage,

Demonstrate that the system can restart under load after an emergency (non sequence) stop at a normal
working tbxoughput.

’Ibis requires an agreed definition of the corresponding working load and how it will be measured.

g) ’ Demonstrate that the continuous output from the equipment does not fluctuate by more than an agreed
tolerance.

The fluctuation tolerance should be quoted for a corresponding throughput and a method of assessment
agreed.

6-1.3 DEFINITIONS
¯ 1 Nominal or design rate: it is the throughput received or delivered by the maehlne under normal
working conditions.

.2 Peak instantaneous rate : it is the maximum practical throughput used for sizing equipment where
flow surges are expected, It is the maximum rate that the machine will moot in operation.

For reclaiming equipment tiffs is normally defined by the manufacturer. In this case, the rate depends
on the flow characteristics of the equipment and the requi~ed maximum average rate.

For equipment which receives material from other up stream plant (e.g. a stacker), the peak
instantaneous rate is normally given by the customer.
© FEM Section II 6-5

.3 Maximum average rate/ 1 hour average fate: it is the maximum operational throughput for
short-term*, uninterrupted operation (Excludes such as stockpile ends, machine re-positioning, hatch
changes on ship loaders, ete).

This rate is often used for machine acceptance tests.

* typical time scale, 1 hour, may vary slightly.

.4 Daily average rate / Shift average rate t Through-ship rate : "whole plant" rate, greatly affected by
plant management practices, availability and location of materials, up and downstream restrictions,
stockpile layout, hold size and efficiency of clean-up aids for ship unloaders, operator skills, etc.

It is sometimes required for plant acceptance tests but dlffieulties can be encountered where the supplier
does not have full control of the plant and incoming and outgoing materials. -

The relationship between 1, 2 and 3 above is largely dependent on equipment type and it’s method of
operation (especially for reclaiming equipment), characteristics of material or materials, method of storage,
weather conditions (low temperature, for instance), qualifieatlon of drivers and operators, ere, and must be
established from experience.

Note : In the ease of multi-material mdohines, it is necessary to agree on the performance (both mass and
volumetric capacities) for each material, especially excluding, if necessary, the possibility of using the
machine to handle the maximum volumetric capacity of material of the heavier bulk density.

In this ease, it is obviously necessary to install efficient "throughpUtlimiting devices" either on the
machine itself (reclaiming machine) or on an other part of the plant,, upstream of the machine.

6-1.4 CATEGORIES OF TESTS

In geiaerat, acceptance tests fall into three categories :

1) Verification before starting and no 10ad functional testing,

2) Operational tests at normal working loads,

3) Overload/surge tests, only where appropriate.

 6-6 © FEM Section II

6-1.4.1 NO LOAD FUNCTIONAL TESTING

Before no load functional testing begins, it has to be verified that :

1) All relevant adjustments and settings have been correctly made.

Conveyor belts have been adequately jointed, tensioned and correctly aligned and that belt
cleaners, scrapers and guards have been properly installed.

3) All relevant limit switches, level probes and interlocks, sequencing a~d centre1 systems have
been separately verified.

4) Special attention has been paid to the verification and adjustment of force, torque, pressure
limiting devices as well as the stability of the machine in all conditions.

5) All ancillary equipment (such as cleaning devices, belt weighers, sampling equipment, metal
detectors and separators, dust extractors and vibratory feeders, normally supplied by specialist
sub-contractors) have been correctly installed and no-load commissioned.

6) Warning notices have been erected where necessary.

7) Where operational interlocks have to be bypassed for the duration of the test, all operators and
test personnel have been informed.

The no-load funetionaI test should include all modes of operation : manual and automatic operation
where appropriate and both normal and emergency stops under alI operating e0nditions.

6-1.4.2 TESTING UNDER NOMINAL LOAD

The commencement of operational tests assumes, among others :

1) The satisfactory completion of relevant no-load functional tests.

2) The availability of an agreed minimum quantity of suitable material with acceptable properties
such as moisture content, size and bulk density. The responsability for the supply of this
material and its delivery must be agreed at an early stage.

3) An adequate liaison with other affected parties and suppliers Onthe site,

4) Representative operating conditions.

5) Where ancillary equipment such m cleaning devices, belt weighers and sampling equipment are
to be used to assess the performance of the plant, these must have been separately
commissioned on
© FEM Section II 6-7

load and certified before the main tests commence,

At an early stage in the contract, the end user .and supplier of the equipment should agree an
operational test schedule, the details of what schedule should contain and in what form any test
results should be presented.

6-1.4.3 OVERLOAD TESTING

Where surge load or overload tests are required, the supplier and user must agree on method of
quantifying the transient loads involved and where some spillage or carry-over is anticipated,
determine beforehand, what wiI1 be acceptable.

6-1.5LIST OF TYPICAL CHECKS AND TESTS

Listed below are some of the items that may appear in an" operational test schedule. This is by no means
comprehensive, nor does the inclusion of an item on this list imply that this must be included. Items
should only be included where these are partieularly relevant to the equipment involved.

. Verification of safety for personnel,

Verification of working clearances on adjacent builditigs and other machines
. Drive speeds and absorbed power. ~ ¯ .. .. :

Note : Records of ambient temperatures, wind speeds, etc, during test may be required so that for instance
maximum power requirements, maximum forces, etc, can be got by back-calculation.

Dust,
¯ Noise; .¯ : ..
Stockpile capacity and size, tlve and dead storage areas,
Safety devices : force, torque, pressure limiting devices .....
Carry-over and spillage,
Level probes, limit switches, sequencing and control systems,
Operation of chutes and diverter flaps, ete, ’
Start under.nominal load,
Emergency and sequence stops,
Achievement of nominal or design rating.
 6-8 © FEM Section II

6-2 TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES AND TRACKS

6- 2.1 GENERAL

The use of these design rules pre-supposes that the tolerances specified hereafter for travelling devices
tracks shall be maintained.

These tolerances apply unless other conditions have been agreed with the user and take no account of elastic
deformation during operation.

Section 6-2.2 defines the manufacturing tolerances for travelling devices of machines,

Section 6-2.3 specifies the tolerances for tracks on rigid support,

Section 6-2.4 specifies the tolerances for tracks on ballast.

Under at1 circumstances, sufficient lateral play between rall and guiding de~ices must be provided to
accomodate the maximum allowable variation in machine span and track gauge.

It is then essential to ensure that tolerances for travelling devices and tolerances for track are compatible.

Where the design of a machine is such that the following tolerance categories for tracks do not obviously
apply, the supplier of the machine must clearly indicate the initiat tolerances to be followed for the tracks
and the maximum deviation allowed before resetting of tracks is required.

6-2.1.1 MEASURING PROCEDURE

The measuring procedures used must be selected to provide the required accuracy and repeatability
over the lengths involved.

When measuring tapes are used, calibrated steel tapes are recommended. The readings obtained
should be corrected for the sag in the tape as well as for the difference between the ambient and
reference temperat~.es. All related measurements should be taken with the same tape and tension
force.
6-2.2 MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES FOR TRAVELLING DEVICES

6-2.2.1 DISTANCE FROM CENTERLINE TO CENTER]LINE (MACHINE

SPAN)
The great~st divergence As of the mactfine span s from the nominal drawing dimension must not
exceed the following values :

fore < 15 m: As =+-2 mm

for s > 15 m : As = +- [ 2 + 0.15. (s-15) ]mm (max. + t5 mm)
(s is to be expressed in m)

6-2.2.2 SAG OF GANTRY

Gantrytype structures which are designed to carry a moving trolley (as tripper for instance) and am
freely supported at their ends must have no sag, under dead Ioads~ This means that the track for the
trolley, without the trolley and in an unloaded condition, must have no downward deviation from the.
horizontal.

6-2.2.3 INCLINATION OF THE WHEELS

For all machines, where the transversal axis of the top of the rail is fiat, the inclination of the wheel
axis from the horizontal, for the travelling devices in an unloaded condition, must be between
+ 0.2 % and - 0.05 % (see figure 6-2.2.3). "

Figure 6-2,2.3

,..[
 6-10 © FI~M Section II

6- 2.2.4 TROLLEY RAIL CENTER DISTANCE

The troltey rail center distance faust not differ from the nominal dimension s by more than
_.+ 3 mm (see figure 6-2.2.4).

s + 3ram !

Figure 6-2.2,4

6-2.2.5 LEVEL OF RAILS FOR TROLLEY

In a plane perpendieular to the travel direction of the trolley, the difference in height of
two opposite points of the trolley track shall not exceed 0.15 % of the trolley rail eenlm
distance s, with a maximum of 10 ram (see figure 6-2.2.5).

[ ~_ ~orizontal ~
horizontal ~]
I], + 0,15= Z S
L maxi i0 mm

Figure 6-2.2.5
© FEM Section II 6-11

6-2.2.6 HEIGHT TOLERANCE ON FOUR POINTS

Trolley rail.~ shall be laid in such a way that th~ running surface is horizontal arid that the greatest
unevenness of the bearing surface is no morB than +_ 3 mm for rail eentres up to H m and no morB
than ± 0.1% of the trolley wheel centre distance if it exceeds 3 m (see figure 6-2,2,6),

3ram for s x< 3mI

Figure 6-2.2.6

6-2.2.7, RAIL ON GIRDER WEB

The vertical axis of th~ trolley rail must not diverge from the vertical axis of the rail girder web by
more thart half the thickness of th~ failgirder web (see figur~ 6-2.2.7).

Figure 6-2.2.7
 6-12 © FEM Section II

6-2.2.8 TROLLEY RAILS STRAIGHTNESS

The axes of the trolley raiIs zaust not diverge from thdr theoretical axis by more than -+ 1.0 mm in
a rail length of 2 m (see figure 6-2.2.8). There should be no misaligaments at rail joints.

2 m

theoretical rail axis maxi : I mm t-

Figure 6-2,2.8

6-2.2,9 ANGULAR ALIGNMENT OF WHEELS

The tangent of the angles between the axis of the wheel bores and the theorBtieal axis must not b~
greater than -+ 0.04 % ia the horizontal plane (see figt~e 6-2,2.9),

Figure 6-2.2.9
© FEM Section II 6-13

6-2.2.10 LEVEL OF WHEEL AXLES

The axle bores of wheels opposite to each other at each side of the tracks, or, if wheels are mounted
in bogies the axis of the bogie pins shall have an alignment divergence in the vertical plane, less
than 015 %, of the wheel centre distance (maximum 2 rnm - see figure 6-2,2.10),

0,15 % ofs
~maxi 2 ram horizontal
horizontai

Figure 6-2.2.10

6-2.2.11 TRANSVERSE ALIGNMENT OF WHEELS

The centre planes of wheels rolling on a common rail must not diverge by more than ~- I mm
from the theoretical rail axis (see figure 6-2.2.I 1).

Figure 6-2.2.11

For .bushed wheels, the above tolerances apply with ~he wheel in a central position between the
contact surfaces at either side of the wheel.

.,,/
 6-14 © FEM Section II.

6-2.2.12 HORIZONTAL GUIDE ROLLERS

If horizontal guide rollers are used, the centre of the distance between guide rollers at one comer
must not deviate by more than +_ 1 nun from the theoretical axis of the rail (see figure 6-2.2.12).

1 mm maxi
i mm maxi

,Theoretical rail axis

Figure 6-2.2.12

6-2.2.13 WHEEL DIAMETER

The diamet~al tolerance of driving wheels should correspond to the ISO tolerance classification hg.
If ~unner wheel speeds are synchro~ised electrically or where two wheels in a bogie are driven from
a common pinion, tighter tolerances may be required.

These tighter tolerances apply also to non driven wheels where the wheels are interchangeable,

Wheel tolerances are more critical and may have to be tighter on machines which are constantly
moving aud not operating in a "step-advance" mode.
© FEM Section II 6-15

6-2.3 TOLERANCES FOR TRACKS ON RIGID SUPPORT

6-2.3.1 ALLOWABLE DEVIATION BEFORE RE-ARRANGEMENT

The tolerances specified in this section apply to new fixed ground-bearing tracks.

Tolerances for machine mounted tracks are specified in section 6-2.2.

If, in the course of use, the admissible deviations for the new instaIlation are exceeded by 5 mm or
20 %, the track must be re-arranged.

In certain circumstances, it may be necessary to re-arrange the track before the 20 % limit is
reached, if the travelling behaviour is noticeably deteriorating.

6-2.3.2 TRACK GAUGE TOLERANCES

The greatest admissible divergence As from the nominal span is :

fore< 15m:As=+3mm

for s > 15 m : As = + [3 + 0.25. (s-15)] mm (with a maximum of+ 25 ram)

(s is expressed in metres)

If the machine is guided on one rail only, or if the machine has a pivoted, support or is of high
elasticity, the tolerance As may be increased to three times the above value but must not exceed
25 ram.

6-2.3.3 SAG OF RAILS

It is assumed that under normal working conditions, the deflection of both raiI tracks under load is
approximately equal and does not significantly effect the performance of the machine.

6-2.3.4 OVERALL RAIL TOLERANCES

Straightness
For each rail, the overall centre-line measured at the running surface, shall not deviate by more than
-+- i0 ram from the theoretical line in both the horizontal and vertical planes.

For machines guided on one tall only, the requirement for lateral Straightness of the non-guiding rail
only m~ty be lowered, in agreement with ~e manufacturer of the machine.

Rail .Joints
It is recommended that welded rail joints are used,

Misalignment at the rail joints is, therefore, not expected and need not be taken into account.

..,/
 6-I6 © FEM Soction L[

6- 2.3.5 RAIL LEVEL TOLERANCES

Relativ.e rail levels

The greatest divergence in level between the two rails, perpendicular to the t~ack axis, shall be tess
than 10ram for tracks up to 10m ¢entres, and less than 0.1% ors above with a maximum of
9.0 ram.

Height tolerance on 4 points

The rails shall be laid in such a way that the.greatest unevenness is the bearing surface is not more
than __. 0.1% of the dlstanee between wheel or bogie eentres.

+- 0. I % distance between wheel or bogie centres

.../
© FEM Section II 6-17

Local rail curvature (vertical)

The vertical curvature in the longitudinal axis shalI not exceed ___ 2 mm in any 2 m length taken at
random.

. Rail inclination
The longitudinal inclination of the rail roiling surface m~t r~ot deviate from the theoretical value by
more than 0.3 %,

6-2.3.6 LATERAL RAIL TOLERANCES

Local ~ail curvature (lat.e.ra~.)

The lateral curvature shall not exceed ± 2 ram in any 2 m length taken at random,

rnax..~ .2 mm _
I’

random sampling

The lateral inclination of the rail rolling surface must not deviate from the theoretical value by more
than 0,6 %,
 © FEM Section II

6,2.4 TOLERANCES FOR TRACKS ON BALLAST

6-2.4.1 ALLOWABLE DEVIATION BEFORE RE-ARRAGEMENT

The tolerances specified in this section apply to new fixed ground-bearing tracks.

The maximum allowable deviation, before the rails must be reset, is shown in brackets.

In certain circumstances, it may be necessary to re-arrange the track before the quoted limit is
reached, if the travelling behaviour is noticeably deteriorating.

6-2.4.2 TRACK GAUGE TOLERANCES

The greatest admissible divergence As from the nominal span is + 10 mm (with a maximum of
+ 40 mm before re-alignment).
If the machine is guided on one rail only, or if the machine has a pivoted support or is of high
elasticity, the initial tolerance may be increased from the above value with the agreement of the
machine manufacturer.

6-2.4.3 SAG OF RAILS

It is assumed that under normal Working Conditions, the deflection of both rail tracks under load is
approximately equal and does not significantly effect the performance of the machine,

6-2.4.4 OVERALL RAIL TOLERANCES

Straightne.s.s.
For each rail, the overall centre-line, measured at the running surface, shall not deviate by more than
+- 6 mm from the theoretical line in both the horizontal and vertical planes, when measured over
any 30 m length (with a maximum of +_ 12 mm before re-alignment).

For machines guided on one rall only, the requirement for lateral straightness of the non-guiding rail
only may be lowered, in agreement with the manufacturer of the machine.

Rail joints
It is recommended that welded rail joints are used.
Misalignment at the rail joints is, therefore, not expected and need not be taken into account.
© FEM Section 6-19

6-2.4.5 RAIL LEVEL TOLERANCES

ReIative rail Ievels

The greatest divergence in level between the two rails, perpendicular to the track axis, shall be less
than 0.1% of the theoretical track contres (with a maximum of 0.3 % before re-alignment).

Height toleranc,.e on 4 points

The rails shall be laid in such a way that the greatest unevenness in the beating surface is no more
than + 0,1% wheel or bogie centres (with a maximum of 0.3 % before re-alignmen0 [see scheme
in 6-2.3.5].

Local rail curvature (verde,d)

The vertical curvature in the longitudinal axis shalI not exceed _+ 6 mm in any 30 m length taken
at random (with a maximum of + 12 mm before re-alignmen0.

Rail ,inclination
The average longitudinal inclination of the rail rolling surfaces must not deviate from the theoretical
value by more than _+ 0.1% of wheel or bogie eentres (with a maximum of 4- 0.3 % before re.
alignment).

6-2.4.6 LATERAL RAIL TOLERANCES

Local rail curvature (later*d)

The lateral curvature in the longitudinal axis shall not exceed + 6 mm in any 30 m length taken at
random (with a maximum of_.+ 12 mm before re-alignment),

Rail inclination
It is assumed that the track is mounted on resilient pads and that lateral deviation in the level of the
.rail rolling surface will correct itself under load.

6-2.4.7 DEPTH OF BALLAST

The allowable deviation on the depth of ballast material under the rail sleeper shall be + 150 mm
or - 100 ram.
There must be a 300 mm minimum depth of ballast under the sleepers.