1.

Open System aur Closed System

 Open System: Jo system network se connected hota hai aur communica on ke liye
ready hota hai. (Jaise internet se connected laptop ya phone)

 Closed System: Jo system network se connected nahi hota, is wajah se usse

communicate nahi kiya ja sakta. (Jaise koi offline computer)

2. Computer Network

Ek network tab banta hai jab mul ple devices (jise hosts bhi kaha jata hai) ek doosre se
connected hote hain taaki data ya media send/receive kiya ja sake.
Kuch important network devices jo network communica on ko improve karte hain:

 Router: Internet ya network signals ko devices tak pahunchane ka kaam karta hai.

 Hub: Ek central device jo mul ple computers ko ek network me jodta hai.

 Bridge: Do LANs ko jodne ka kaam karta hai.

 Wireless Router: Ye ek normal router ka wireless version hai jo Wi-Fi provide karta
hai.

 Switch: Ye hub se smart hota hai aur specific devices ko data send karta hai.

 Wireless Bridge: Do wireless networks ko connect karne ke liye use hota hai.

3. Network Topology

Ye network devices ka layout ya structure batata hai. Kuch common types:

 Star: Ek center device (jaise switch) hota hai, jo sabhi devices ko connect karta hai.

 Mesh: Har device ek doosre se connected ho hai, isse reliable aur fast network
banta hai.

 Point-to-Point: Sirf do devices direct connec on me ho hain.

 Daisy Chain: Ek linear arrangement hota hai jisme ek ke baad ek devices connected
ho hain.

 Hybrid: Mul ple topology ka combina on hota hai.

 Tree: Hierarchical structure hota hai, jisme ek root device ho hai aur usse mul ple
branches nikal hain.
1. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnec on)

 OSI ek reference model hai jo network communica on ke standards aur protocols

define karta hai.

 Ye 7 layers ka model hota hai, jisme har ek layer ka specific func on hota hai.

 Kuch common protocols jo OSI model ke layers par kaam karte hain: TCP, IP, UDP,
ARP, DHCP, FTP etc.

2. Protocol kya hota hai?

 Protocol ek set of rules ya algorithms hote hain jo network communica on ka tarika

define karte hain.

 Har OSI layer ke liye different protocols hote hain, jaise:

o TCP/IP - Data transfer ke liye

o UDP - Fast communica on ke liye

o ARP - IP se MAC address find karne ke liye

o DHCP - IP address assign karne ke liye

3. Unique Iden fiers in Network

(A) Hostname

 Har network device ka ek unique name hota hai, jise Hostname kehte hain.

 Jaise computer ka naam ya server ka naam.

(B) IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)

 IP Address ek logical address hota hai jo har device ko unique iden fy karta hai.

 IPv4: Ye 32-bit address hota hai (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

 IPv6: Ye 128-bit address hota hai aur zyada devices support karta hai.

 Command to check IP Address: ipconfig (Windows) ya ifconfig (Linux/Mac).

(C) MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

 MAC Address ek physical address hota hai jo Network Interface Card (NIC) ke sath
a ached hota hai.

 Ye manufacturing ke me pe hi set ho jata hai aur change nahi hota.

  Length: 48-bit ho hai (12-nibble ya 6-byte).

 Command to check MAC Address: ipconfig /all

4. Port Number

 Port ek logical channel hota hai jisme se data send/receive hota hai.

 Har applica on ek specific port number par chalta hai.

 Port Number ek 16-bit integer hota hai, is wajah se total 65,536 ports hote hain.

Port Categories

Port Type Range

Well-Known Ports 0 – 1023

Registered Ports 1024 – 49151

Ephemeral Ports 49152 – 65535

 Well-Known Ports: Standard services ke liye use hote hain (e.g., HTTP - 80, HTTPS -
443, FTP - 21).

 Registered Ports: Custom applica ons aur so ware ke liye.

 Ephemeral Ports: Temporary connec ons ke liye use hote hain.

1. Socket

 Socket = IP Address + Port Number

 Ek unique combina on hota hai jo network communica on mein use hota hai.

 Command: netstat -a (Ye saare ac ve sockets dikhata hai).

2. Other Related Concepts

(A) DNS Server (Domain Name System)

 URL ko IP Address me convert karta hai (e.g., www.google.com → 142.250.183.206).

 Isse humein har website ka IP yaad rakhne ki zaroorat nahi ho .

 Command: nslookup (Kisi bhi domain ka IP address dikhata hai).

(B) ARP (Address Resolu on Protocol)

 IP Address ko MAC Address me convert karta hai.

 Data Link Layer pe kaam karta hai.

 Example: Agar ek device ko data bhejna hai, to ARP uska MAC address find karega.

(C) RARP (Reverse ARP)

 MAC Address ko IP Address me convert karta hai.

 Obsolete ho gaya hai kyunki ab DHCP use hota hai (Dynamic Host Configura on
Protocol).

3. Goals of Networks

 Network ek system hai jo mul ple devices ko jodne ke liye use hota hai.

 Data sharing aur communica on ke liye helpful hota hai.

 Media: Copper wire, op cal fiber, microwave, satellite etc. use kiya ja sakta hai.

4. Networking Elements

Ek computer network me ye important elements hote hain:

1. Kam se kam 2 computers hone chahiye.

2. Transmission medium (Wired ya Wireless).

 3. Protocols (Communica on rules jaise TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).

4. Network so ware (Jaise Windows Server, Linux Networking).

5. Network Criteria

Ek achi network performance ke liye ye zaroori hote hain:

(A) Performance

 Transit Time → Data ek device se doosri tak pahunchne ka me.

 Response Time → Inquiry aur reply ke beech ka me gap.

Ye performance factors pe depend karta hai.

1. Performance Factors

A network ki performance depend kar hai in cheezon par:

 Users kitne hain (Jitne zyada users honge, utna load padega).

 Transmission medium (Wired ya Wireless).

 Network ki capability (Kitna data handle kar sakta hai).

 So ware efficiency (Network so ware kitna op mized hai).

2. Reliability (Bharosemandi)

Agar ek network reliable hai, toh:

 Failures kam hote hain.

 Failure ke baad jaldi recover karta hai.

 Disasters me bhi stable rehta hai.

3. Security (Suraksha)

 Data ko unauthorized access se protect karta hai.

 Hacking, data the , aur cyber-a acks ko prevent karta hai.

4. Goals of Computer Networks

(A) Resource Sharing

 Ek network mul ple devices ko share karne ki facility deta hai.

 Example: Office workers ek hi printer, fax, ya scanner use kar sakte hain.

(B) High Reliability

 Agar ek computer fail ho jaye, toh baaki machines data ko access kar sak hain.

 Backup copies ka use hota hai, taaki data loss na ho.

(C) Inter-Process Communica on

 Do alag-alag loca ons ke users network ke through communicate kar sakte hain.

 Example: Company employees jo alag offices me hain, ek interac ve session me

baat kar sakte hain.
(D) Flexible Access

 Koi bhi file kisi bhi computer se access ki ja sak hai.

 Example: Ek project ek PC pe start karo aur doosre PC pe con nue karo.

5. Other Goals

 Distributed processing (Load mul ple devices me divide hota hai).

 Centralized management (Ek system se pura network control ho sakta hai).

 Compa bility (Different hardware aur so ware ek sath kaam kar sake).

 Scalability (Future me expansion easy ho).

 Remote Access (Kahin se bhi network join kar sake).

 Cost-saving (Ek hi resource mul ple users use karein).

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Sabse chhota network hota hai jo ek hi person ke aaspaas hota hai.

 Example: Ek ghar ya chho office me phone, laptop, printer, aur Wi-Fi router ka
network.

 Single device ya ek chho organiza on ise manage kar hai.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

 Ek chho area me computers aur devices ko connect karta hai (e.g., office, school,
ya ek chho company).

 Short-distance data sharing ke liye best hai.

 Routers ka use karke ise WAN (Wide Area Network) se bhi connect kiya ja sakta hai.

3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

 LAN jaisa hi hota hai, but yeh Wi-Fi ka use karta hai instead of physical cables.

 Example: College, coffee shop, ya airport ka free Wi-Fi.

 Wireless technology use karta hai, isliye zyada flexible hota hai.

4. Campus Area Network (CAN)

 LAN se bada hota hai, but Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) se chhota hota hai.

 Mostly universi es, schools, ya small businesses me dekha jata hai.

 Mul ple buildings ko connect karta hai, jisse log resources share kar sakein.

5. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Ek pura town ya city ka network hota hai, jo LAN aur WAN ka combina on hota hai.

 Example: City-wide broadband network ya ek large business organiza on ka

network.

 Local council ya badi company ise manage kar hai.

6. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Distant loca ons ke computers aur devices ko connect karta hai.

 Example: Internet itself ek WAN hai jo pure world ke computers ko connect karta
hai.

 Mul ple organiza ons ya government ise maintain kar hai.

7. Storage-Area Network (SAN)

 High-speed network jo sirf storage devices ko connect karta hai.

 LAN ya WAN ka use nahi karta, balki dedicated storage network hota hai.

 Example: Data centers ya large businesses jo massive data storage manage kar
hain.

8. System-Area Network (SAN)

 High-speed connec on provide karta hai sirf servers ke beech.

 Mostly cluster compu ng aur processor-to-processor applica ons me use hota hai.

 Ek SAN me connected computers ek single system jaise behave karte hain.

9. Passive Op cal Local Area Network (POLAN)

 Tradi onal LAN ka advanced version hai, jo op cal fiber ka use karta hai.

 PoE (Power over Ethernet) aur structured cabling ke saath compa ble hota hai.

 Signal ko split karne ke liye op cal spli ers ka use hota hai (be er speed &
efficiency).

10. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

 Ek business ka private network hota hai jo uske mul ple offices ko securely connect
karta hai.

 Example: Ek MNC jo apne India, US, aur UK offices ke beech secure communica on
establish kar hai.

 Security aur data sharing ke liye best op on hota hai.

11. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

 Internet par ek private network create karta hai.

 Users securely data bhej aur receive kar sakte hain jaise wo private network se
connected ho.

 Mostly remote work ya secure browsing ke liye use hota hai.

Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways, Brouters)

1. Repeater

 Physical layer par operate karta hai.

 Weak signal ko regenerate karta hai taaki signal corrupt na ho.

 Signal ko amplify nahi karta, sirf original strength par copy karta hai.

2. Hub

 Ek mul port repeater hai jo mul ple computers ko connect karta hai.

 Data filtering nahi karta, har packet ko sabhi devices tak bhejta hai.

 Inefficient hota hai kyunki collision domain ek hi ho hai.

Types of Hub:

1. Ac ve Hub – Power supply ho hai, signal ko boost aur relay karta hai.

2. Passive Hub – Signal sirf forward karta hai, boost nahi karta.

3. Intelligent Hub – Ac ve hub jaisa hota hai but remote management aur traffic
monitoring features bhi ho hain.

3. Bridge

 Data link layer par operate karta hai.

 Doh LANs ko connect karta hai aur MAC addresses ke basis par filtering karta hai.

 Sirf ek input aur ek output port hota hai.

Types of Bridges:

1. Transparent Bridge

 Sta ons ko pata nahi chalta ki bridge exist karta hai.

 Network reconfigura on ki zaroorat nahi pad agar bridge add ya remove hota hai.

 Bridge forwarding aur bridge learning processes use karta hai.

2. Source Rou ng Bridge

 Rou ng opera on source sta on kar hai, jo frame ke andar route define kar hai.

 Ek special discovery frame bhejkar host possible paths explore karta hai.

4. Switch

 Ek mul port bridge hai jo buffer aur intelligent design use karta hai.

 Collision domain ko divide karta hai, lekin broadcast domain same rehta hai.

 Error checking aur selec ve forwarding karta hai, jisse sirf valid data packets aage
jaate hain.

 Zyada ports hone ke bawajood traffic kam hota hai, efficiency bad hai.

5. Router

 Switch ki tarah hota hai, but data packets ko IP address ke basis par route karta hai.

 Network Layer device hota hai.

 LANs aur WANs ko connect karta hai aur dynamic rou ng table maintain karta hai.

 Broadcast domains ko divide karta hai taaki network conges on na ho.

6. Gateway

 Do alag networking models wale networks ko connect karta hai.

 Messenger agent ki tarah kaam karta hai, jo data ko interpret karke dusre system
tak bhejta hai.

 Protocol converters bhi kahte hain, aur kisi bhi network layer par kaam kar sakta
hai.
7. Brouter (Bridging Router)

 Bridge aur router dono ki features combine karta hai.

 Data link layer ya network layer par kaam kar sakta hai.

 Router ki tarah packets ko route karta hai aur bridge ki tarah local traffic ko filter
karta hai.

8. NIC (Network Interface Card)

 Computer ko network se connect karne ke liye ek adapter hota hai.

 LAN establish karne ke liye computer mein install kiya jata hai.

 Har NIC card ka ek unique ID hota hai jo chip par likha hota hai.

 Physical aur data link layer dono par kaam karta hai.

Types of Network Topology

1. Mesh Topology

 Har device ek dusre se directly connected ho hai.

 Dedicated channels (links) ka use hota hai.

 Protocols: AHCP (Ad Hoc Configura on Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host

Configura on Protocol).

Ports & Links Calcula on:

 Agar N devices ho aur har device dusri sabhi se connected ho:

o Required ports per device = N - 1

o Total required ports = N × (N - 1)

 o Total dedicated links = N × (N - 1) / 2

Example (5 devices ke liye)

 Ports per device = 4

 Total links = 5 × 4 / 2 = 10

Advantages of Mesh Topology

✔ Robust hai, ek link fail hone par bhi network kaam karta hai.
✔ Fault detec on easy ho hai, kyunki dedicated channels use hote hain.
✔ Security aur privacy be er ho hai, kyunki har device direct connect ho hai.

Disadvantages:
Setup aur configura on difficult hota hai.
Cables kaafi lag hain, isliye cost zyada ho hai.
Maintenance bhi costly hota hai.

2. Star Topology

Isme saari devices ek central hub se connected ho hain.

Hub ek main node hota hai, jo baaki nodes ko connect karta hai.
Hub passive (simple) ya ac ve (intelligent with repeaters) ho sakta hai.

Protocols Used:

 CD (Collision Detec on)

 CSMA (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access)

🖥 Example:
4 systems ek HUB se connected hain (Figure 2).

Star Topology

✔ Easy setup, kyunki sirf ek hub se sab devices connect ho hain.

✔ Har device ko sirf ek port chahiye hub se connect hone ke liye.
✔ Ek link fail hone se sirf wahi device affect ho hai, baaki network safe rehta hai.
✔ Fault detec on aur isola on easy ho hai.

Problems with Star Topology:

Agar hub fail ho gaya, toh pura network down ho jayega.
Installa on aur maintenance cost high ho hai.
Network ki performance sirf hub ke upar depend kar hai.

Bus Topology

✔ Saari devices ek hi main cable (backbone) se connected ho hain.

✔ Sirf ek backbone cable aur N drop lines ki zaroorat ho hai.
✔ Cost effec ve hai, chho networks ke liye useful ho hai.

Problems with Bus Topology:

Agar main cable fail ho gayi, toh pura network crash ho jayega.
Network traffic zyada hone se data collisions badh ja hain.
Security weak ho hai, kyunki data ek hi cable se pass hota hai.

🖥 Example: Figure 3 mein Bus Topology dikhayi gayi hai, jisme Nodes ek Backbone
Cable se connected hain via drop lines.
 Ring Topology

✔ Saari devices ek ring form me connected ho hain, jisme har device sirf apne do
neighbors se connected ho hai.
✔ Agar network me bohot zyada nodes hain, toh data ek node se dusri tak jane ke liye
mul ple nodes cross karega.
✔ Repeaters ka use hota hai taaki data loss na ho aur signal weak na pade.
✔ Transmission usually unidirec onal ho hai, par Dual Ring Topology use karke
bidirec onal bhi ki ja sak hai.
✔ Ring Topology me Token Ring Protocol ka use hota hai, jisme data sirf tab transmit
hota hai jab ek sta on token hold karta hai.

⚙ Ring Topology Me Kaise Kaam Hota Hai?

1⃣ Monitor Sta on – Ek sta on ko monitor banaya jata hai jo opera ons handle karta hai.
2⃣ Token System – Data bhejne ke liye sta on ko token hold karna padta hai. Jab tak
token nahi milega, transmission nahi ho sak .
3⃣ Token Circula on – Jab koi sta on data nahi bhej raha hota, tab token network me
circulate hota rehta hai.
4⃣ Token Release Types:

 Early Token Release – Jaise hi data transmit hota hai, token release ho jata hai.
 Delay Token Release – Token tabhi release hota hai jab receiver se
acknowledgment mil jata hai.

Example: Figure 4 dikhata hai ki 4 sta ons ek ring topology me connected hain.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Ring Topology

✔ Pros:
Collision nahi ho – Ek me pe sirf ek sta on data bhej sakta hai, is wajah se
collision chances minimum hote hain.
Sas aur scalable – Setup aur expansion easy hota hai, zyada cost nahi lag .

Cons:
⚠ Troubleshoo ng mushkil ho hai – Agar koi ek sta on ya link fail ho jaye toh pura
network affect ho sakta hai.
⚠ Intermediate sta on remove/add karna risky hai – Ek bhi node remove ho jaye toh
pura topology disturb ho sakta hai.
⚠ Security issues – Data ek hi path follow karta hai, agar koi a acker isme interfere kare
toh security risk badh jata hai.

Tree Topology (Hierarchical Network Structure)

✔ Ye ek Star Topology ka advanced version hai jisme hierarchical data flow hota hai.
✔ Protocols jaise ki DHCP aur SAC use hote hain for automa c configura on.

Structure & Working:

 Central hub se secondary hubs connected hote hain.

 Data flow top-to-bo om ya bo om-to-top hota hai (Central hub → Secondary hubs
→ Devices & vice versa).

 Mul -point connec on hota hai, lekin agar backbone fail ho jaye toh pura network
crash ho sakta hai.

Figure 5 Explained:

Central hub → Secondary hubs → Devices (System 1 to 8)

Backbone failure = Pure network ka crash hona
Repeater use hota hai taaki signals weak na ho aur long-distance communica on
possible ho

Centralized Topology (Star Topology-like)

✔ Advantages:
Mul ple devices ek central hub se connect ho sakte hain, jisse signal ka travel
distance kam ho jata hai.
Network isolate karna easy hota hai aur alag-alag computers ke liye priority set ki ja
sak hai.

Problems:
⚠ Central hub fail ho jaye toh pura system down ho jata hai.
⚠ Cabling cost zyada ho hai because har device ko directly hub se connect karna padta
hai.

Hybrid Topology – Combina on of Mul ple Topologies

✔ Defini on:
Hybrid topology ek mixture hota hai different topologies ka (Ring, Star, Bus, etc.).
✔ Flexibility ho hai, kyunki nodes kisi bhi structure me arrange kiye ja sakte hain.
✔ Har topology apna specific protocol use kar hai, jo pehle discuss kiya gaya hai.
 Figure 6 Explana on:

 HUB ke through System 1, 2, 3, 4 connected hain → Star topology

 Ek ring structure bhi dikh raha hai → Ring topology

 Droplines aur terminators repeater ke saath connected hain → Bus topology

elements

Hybrid topology ka main advantage ye hai ki ye different use-cases ke according

op mize kiya ja sakta hai.
Lekin iski cost aur complexity zyada ho hai kyunki mul ple topologies combine
ho hain.