Experiment No: 1

Name of the Experiment : I-V Characteristics of diode.

Objective :
Study the I-V characteristic of diode.

Theory :
A diode is a bi-polar device that behaves as the short circuit when it is in forward bias and as an open
circuit when it is in reverse bias condition.

Figure 1.1 : Schematic Diagram of Diode. Figure 1.2 : P - N Junction Diode .

There are two types of biasing condition for a diode :

1. When the diode is connected across a voltage source with positive polarity of source connected
to p side of diode and negative polarity to n side, then the diode is in forward bias condition.

2. When the diode is connected across a voltage source with positive polarity of source connected
to n side of diode and negative polarity to p side, then the diode is in reverse bias condition.

Figure 1.3 : Forward Bias connection. Figure 1.4 : Reverse Bias connection.

If the input voltage is varied and the current through the diode corresponds to each voltage are taken
then the plot of diode current (Id) vs diode voltage (VD) will be follows :

2
 Figure 1.5 : I - V Characteristics of Diode.

At the reverse bias condition the amount of current flows through the diode is very small (at
microampere range). But if the voltage continuously increases in reverse direction, at a certain value the
diode will break down and huge amount of current will flow in reverse direction. This is called
breakdown of diode. In laboratory the breakdown will not tested because it will damages the diode
permanently.

From the characteristics curve it can be seen that, a particular forward bias voltage (VT) is required to
reach the region of upward swing. This voltage, VT is called the cut-in voltage or threshold voltage of
diode. For Si diode the typical value of threshold voltage is 0.7 volt and for Ge diode is 0.3 volt.

Equipments And Components :

Serial no. Component Details Specification Quantity
1. p-n junction diode 1N4007 1 piece
2. Resistor 1KΩ 1 piece
3. DC power supply 1 unit
4. Signal generator 1 unit
5. Trainer Board 1 unit
6. Oscilloscope 1 unit
7. Digital Multimeter 1 unit
8. Chords and wire as required

3
Experimental Setup :

+ VR - + Ch -

1K

-
Ch
VAC 10 Vp-p 1K
Vd
Vdc 100 Hz

+
Figure 1.6 : Circuit Diagram for Obtaining Diode Figure 1.7 : Circuit Diagram for Obtaining
Diode Forward Characteristics. Characteristics From Oscilloscope.

Procedure :
1. Measure the resistance accurately using multimeter.
2. Construct the circuit as shown in figure - 1.6.
3. Vary input voltage Vdc. Measure Vdc, Vd, VR for the given values of Vd and record data on data
table. Obtain maximum value of Vd without increasing Vdc beyond 25 volt.
4. Calculate the values of Id using the formula, Id = VR / R.
5. Construct the circuit as shown in figure - 1.7.
6. Ste the oscilloscope in X-Y mode. Identify zero record on oscilloscope display. Make proper
connection and observe the output.
7. Repeat the step 5 and 6 by increasing the input supply frequency 5 KHz.

Data Table :

Vdc (volt) Vd (volt) VR (volt) Id = VR / R (mA)

4
Report :
1. Draw the I - V characteristics curve of diode from the reading obtain in this experiment.
2. Calculate static resistance for Id = 5 mA and Id = 10 mA.
3. Determine the Q- point for the circuit in figure - 6, when Vdc = 8 volt.

5
Experiment No: 02

Name of the Experiment: Diode rectifier circuits.

Objective:
Study of different diode rectifier circuits.

Theory:
A rectifier converts an AC signal into a DC signal. From the characteristic curve of a diode we observe
that if allows the current to flow when it is in the forward bias only. In the reverse bias it remains open.
So, when an alternating voltage (signal) is applied across a diode it allows only the half cycle (positive
half cycle depending on the orientation of diode in the circuit) during its forward bias condition, other
half cycle will be clipped off. In the output the load will get DC signal.

Diode rectifier can be categorized in two major types. They are -

1. Half-wave rectifier.
2. Full-wave rectifier.

Half - Wave Rectifier: Half-wave rectifier can be built by using a single diode. The circuit diagram and
the wave shapes of the input and output voltage of half wave rectifier are shown bellow (figure 2.1) -
D

+
Vs RL VO
-

Figure 2.1: Half Wave Rectifier.

The major disadvantages of half wave rectifier are -

 In this circuit the load receives approximately half of input power.
 Average DC voltage is low.
 Due to the presence of ripple output voltage is not smooth one.
Full Wave Rectifier: in the full-wave rectifier both the half cycle is present in the output. Two circuits are
used as full-wave rectifier are shown bellow -
a) Full-wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer.
b) Full-wave bridge rectifier.

6
Full-wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer: two diodes will be connected to the ends of the
transformer and the load will be between the diode and center tap. The circuit diagram and the wave
shapes are shown in bellow (figure 2.2) -
D1

12 V RL
Vs 12 V

12 V - VO +
D2

Figure 2.2: Full Wave Rectifier Using Center Tapped Transformer.

Full-wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer circuit has some advantages over full-wave rectifier.
Those are -
 Wastage of power is less.
 Average DC output increase significantly.
 Wave shape becomes smoother.

The disadvantages of full-wave rectifier using center-tapped transformer are -

 Require more space and becomes bulky because of the transformer.
 Not cost effective (for using transformer).

Full-wave bridge rectifier: a bridge rectifier overcomes all the disadvantages of described above. Here
four diodes will be connected as bridge connection. The circuit diagram and the wave shapes are shown
in bellow (figure 2.3) -
D2
1
D

RL
Vs
- VO +
4
D3

Figure 2.3: Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

This rectifier however cannot produce a smooth DC voltage. It produces some ripple in the output. This
ripple can be reducing by using filter capacitor across the load.

7
Equipments And Components:

Serial no. Component Details Specification Quantity

1. p-n junction diode 1N4007 4 piece
2. Resistor 10KΩ 1 piece
3. Capacitor 0.22µF, 10µF 1 piece each
4. Signal generator 1 unit
5. Trainer Board 1 unit
6. Oscilloscope 1 unit
7. Digital Multimeter 1 unit
8. Chords and wire as required

Experimental Setup:

+ +
D1 D3

10 KΩ
10 Vp-p 10 Vp-p
10 KΩ C VO 1 KHz C VO
1 KHz

D4 D2
- -

Figure 2.4 : Experimental Circuit 1. Figure 2.5 : Experimental Circuit 2.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit in breadboard as shown in figure 2.4 without capacitor.
2. Observe the output and input voltages in the oscilloscope and draw them.
3. Connect the 0.22µF capacitor and repeat step 2.
4. Connect the 10µF capacitor and repeat step 2. How does the output wave-shape differ from
that in step 3?
5. Vary the frequency from 10 KHz to 100 Hz. What effects do you observe when frequency is
changed?
6. Connect the circuit breadboard as shown in figure 2.5 without capacitor.
7. Observe the output and input voltages in the oscilloscope and draw them.
8. Connect the 0.22µF capacitor and repeat step 7.
9. Connect the 10µF capacitor and repeat step 7. How does the output wave-shape differ from
that in step 8?
10. Vary the frequency from 10 KHz to 100 Hz. What effects do you observe when frequency is
changed?

8
Report:
1. Write the answers that were asked during the working procedure.
2. Draw the input wave, output wave (without and with capacitor) for both the circuits.
3. What is the effect in output for changing input signal frequency for both the circuits
(without and with capacitor)?
4. What is the function of capacitor in the both circuits? Why a capacitor of higher value is
preferable?

9
Experiment No: 05

Name of the Experiment : The output characteristics of CE (common emitter) configuration of

BJT.

Objective:
Study of the output characteristics of CE (common emitter) configuration of BJT.

Theory :
Unlike the diode, which has two doped region, a transistor has three doped region. They are as follows –
a) Emitter,
b) Base and
c) Collector.

These three doped regions form two junctions: One between the emitter and base and other between
the collector and the base. Because of these it can be thought as combination of two diodes, the emitter
and the base form one diode and the collector and base form another diode. The emitter is heavily
doped. Its job is to emit or inject free majority carrier (electron for NPN and hole for PNP) into the base.
The base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes the most of the emitter-injected electron (for NPN) into
the collector. The doping level of the collector is between emitter and base. Figure 5.1 shows the biased
NPN transistor.

RC

+
RB
VCE
+ VCC
-
VBB VBE

Figure 5.1 : Biasing of an NPN transistor.

If the VBB is greater than the barrier potential, emitter electron will enter base region. The free electron
can flow either into the base or into the collector. As base lightly doped and thin, most of the free
electron will enter into the collector.
There are three different current in a transistor. They are emitter current (IE), collector current (IC) and
the base current (IB) are shows in figure 5.2.
IC

IB

IE

Figure 5.2 : Different current in transistor.

18
 IC
Here, IE = IC + IB, and the current gain β =
IB

Characteristics Curve : The characteristics of a transistor is measured by two characteristics curve. They
are as follows –
a) Input characteristics curve.
b) Output characteristics curve.

Input Characteristics Curve : Input characteristics is defined as the set of curves between input current
(IB) vs. input voltage (VBE) for the constant output voltage (VCE). It is the same curve that is found for a
forward biased diode.
Output Characteristics Curve : Output characteristics is defined by the set of curves between output
current (IC) vs. output voltage (VCE) for the constant input current (IB). The curve has the following
features –
 It has three regions namely Saturation, Active and Cutoff region.
 The rising part of the curve, where VCE is between 0 and approximately 1 volt is called
saturation region. In this region the collector diode is not reversed biased.
 When the collector diode of the transistor becomes reverse biased, the graph becomes
horizontal. In this region the collector remains almost constant. This region is known as
the active region. In applications where the transistor amplifies weak radio and TV signal,
it will always be operation in the active region.
 When the base current is zero, but there is some collector current. This region of the
transistor curve is known as the cutoff region. The small collector current is called
collector cutoff current.
 For different value of base current (IB) an individual curve can be obtained.

Figure 5.3 : (a) Input Characteristic, (b) Output Characteristic of NPN transistor.

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Equipments And Components:
Serial no. Component Details Specification Quantity

1. Transistor C828 1 piece

2. Resistor 470Ω, 2.2KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 1 piece each

4.7KΩ, 10KΩ, 470KΩ

3. POT 100KΩ 1 unit

4. Trainer Board 1 unit

5. DC Power Supply 1 unit

6. Digital Multimeter 1 unit

7. Chords and wire as required

Experimental Setup:

10 KΩ

+
R1 10 Ω VR470 470 Ω
-
+
470 KΩ
VCE 30 V
+ VRB - +
-
R 2.2 KΩ VBE

Figure 5.4: Experimental Circuit.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 5.4. Use 2.2 KΩ as R.
2. Measure VRB and calculate IS using IE = VRB / RB. (We will assume that IB to be constant for a
particular setup at input.)
3. Measure the voltages of VCE and VR470. And calculate IC using IC = VR470 / R470.

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 4. Take at least 10 reading by varying the POT.
5. Repeat step 1 to 4 with resistance R as 3.3 KΩ and 4.7 KΩ.

Table 5.1 : Data for I - V characteristics of transistor.

R IB = VRB / RB VCE VR470 IC = VR470 / R470

(KΩ) (µA) (volts) (volts) (mA)

2.2

3.3

4.7

Report:
1. Plot the graph of IC vs. VCE with necessary details. Show the different regions of operation.
2. Plot a hypothetical output characteristic using PNP transistor.
3. Find β for the three different condition.

21
Experiment No: 01

Name of the experiment: Introduction to OPAMPs.

Introduction:
The operational amplifier (abbreviated as OPAMP) is a direct-coupled high-gain amplifier to which
feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic. It has very high (ideally ∞) input
impedance, very low (ideally 0) output impedance and large bandwidth and its characteristics
do not drift with temperature. It offers all the advantages of monolithic integrated circuits: Small
size, high reliability, reduced cost, temperature tracking and low offset voltage and current. For
these reasons, it has gained wide acceptance as a versatile, predictable and economic system
building block.

An OPAMP may be used to perform many mathematical operations. Some of these basic applications
are studied in this experiment

Inverting adder adds up the signals at its inverting input terminal and produces the inverse of this
summation at the output, provided, the value of the feedback resistance and the resistance in series
with the input signals are chosen correctly.

Voltage follower produces almost the same output as is applied to its input. The input resistance of a
voltage follower circuit is very high (several mega ohms). Therefore, it draws negligible current from a
signal source. Thus it works as a voltage buffer that provides a means of isolating an input signal from a
load.

An important feature that must be taken into account while designing circuits with OPAMPs is Slew rate.
It is the time rate of change of the closed loop amplifier output voltage under large signal conditions. It
tells how fast the output voltage of an OPAMP changes and limits the output frequency fmax for distorted
output. The relation between fmax and slew rate is expressed as
𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
fmax=
2𝜋×V 0

where, V0 is the maximum distorted output voltage in volts, fmax is the maximum operable frequency in
Hz and the slew rate is in volts per microsecond.

2
Equipments:
Serial no. Component Details Specification Quantity
1. OPAMP 741 1 piece
2. Resistor 2.2 MΩ,100KΩ, 1 piece, 1piece,
10kΩ 4 pieces
3. Oscilloscope 1 unit
4. AC signal generator 1 unit
5. DC Power Supply 3 units
6. Digital Multimeter 1 unit
7. Trainer Board 1 unit

Circuit Diagram:

Rf=10k
+15V +15V
R3=10k 7 7
2 2

R2=10k 741 Vout 741

6
6
Vout
3
4
E3 E2 E1 R =10k 3
4
1
-15V E1
-15V
2V 2V 2V

Fig 1.1 Fig 1.2

+15V Rf=100k
+15V
7 +15V
2
7
7 2
741 Vout 2
6
741 Vout
3
4 R1=10k 741 Vout 6
6
3
R -15V 3
4 4

-15V Ei -15V
AC

Fig 1.3 Fig 1.4 Fig 1.5

3
Procedure:
a) Study of inverting adder:

1) Connect the circuit of figure 1.1 and obtain values of V0 for

 E1=E2=E3=2V

 E1=3V, E2=-3V, E3=0V

 E1=5V, E2=-0V, E3=2V

2) Put R1=10K, R2=20K, R3=50K, Rf=100K and repeat step 1.

b) Study of the voltage follower:

1) Connect the circuit of figure 1.2 and measure V0 for E1=4V and -4V.

2) To measure the input resistance of a voltage follower, change Ei to 5V rms at 100 Hz

(sine wave) and connect R= 2.2MΩ in series with the source as shown in figure 1.3.

c) Measuring frequency response of small signal amplifier:

1) Connect the circuit of figure 1.4.

2) Adjust the input voltage E2 to some convenient value, say 100mV (p-p)

3) Adjust the frequency to obtain undistorted maximum output. Measure the midband output
voltage and calculate the voltage gain.

4) Keeping Ei constant, reduce the frequency until the output drops to 0.707 of its midband
value and read the lower cut-off frequency, fL. Next increase the frequency until the output
again drops to 0.707 of its midband value and read upper cut-off frequency fH.

5) Now connect E1 to non-inverting terminal of figure 1.4 and following the above procedure to
find fL and fH at this condition.

d) Slew Rate:

1) Connect the circuit of figure 1.5 and apply 10V (p-p) sinusoidal input Ei and increase the
frequency until the output voltage, V0 is distorted. Take readings for fmax and V0.

2) Do the same with 1V (p-p) sinusoidal input.

4
Reports:
1) For inverting adder, do the experimental results support theory?
2) Calculate input resistance of voltage follower.
3) Calculate bandwidth for both cases in the experiment of frequency response measurement. Use
Bandwidth B, fH, fL.
4) For OPAMP 741, slew rate is 0.5v/μS. Calculate maximum frequency for undistorted output
with inputs 10V (p-p) and 1V (p-p). Compare them with the experimental results.

References:

1) Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits –Coughlin and Driscoll

2) Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory-Robert Boylestead

3) Integrated Electronics-Millman and Halkias