PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

MODULE 01: COULOMB’S LAW

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 01
OUTLINE:
▪ Types of charges ▪ Conductors and Insulators
▪ Origin of charges ▪ Induced charges.
▪ Excess charge ▪ Charging of an object
▪ Coulomb’s law ▪ Superposition of forces
▪ Charge is quantized ▪ Charge is conserved

BACKGROUND
➢ In this course we will learn about electromagnetism.
➢ We are surrounded by devices that depend on the physics of electromagnetism.
➢ Electromagnetism is the root of computers, television, radio, telecommunications, household,
lighting etc.
➢ Electromagnetism is the combination of electric and magnetic phenomena.

NATURE OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

In the ancient time, Greece discovered that if you rub certain objects like amber with cat’s far; it starts
to attract other lighter objects like feathers.
- Charges created by rubbing glass rod with a silk cloth and the charges created by rubbing
the plastic rod with fur have different characteristics.

o Rub the glass rod with a silk cloth.

o Hang the charged glass rod from the thread to make it electrically isolate from its surroundings (so
that the surroundings cannot neutralize the rod).
o Now, if the second glass rod is rubbed with the silk cloth, and bring it near the first glass rod, the
two rods repel each other.

o When we rub the plastic rod with fur and bring it near the hanging glass rod (rubbed with the silk
cloth), the rods attracted each other.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

o In the first demonstration, the force on the hanging rod was repulsive, and in the second,
attractive.
o Around 18th century people actually realized that this force between object is due to electric
charge.
o Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the fundamental particles that make up objects such as
the rods, silk, and fur.
o There are two types of charges: positive charge and negative charge (Named by the American
scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin).

NOW WE KNOW:
Glass rod rubbed with the silk cloth:
o A small amount of negative charge moves from the glass rod to the silk.
o Leaving the rod with a small amount of excess positive charge.
o When the silk is rubbed over the rod to increase the number of contact points and thus the amount
of transferred charge.

Plastic rod rubbed with the fur:

▪ When the plastic rod is rubbed with fur, the rod gains excess negative charge from the fur.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

CONTACT ELECTRIFICATION
Contact electrification describes a phenomenon whereby surfaces become electrically charged when
two or more objects come within close proximity of one another.

NOTE:
▪ Occurs due to friction.
▪ Higher surface area, higher will be the contact electrification.
▪ Nowadays, this principle is used to develop triboelectric energy harvester.

Triboelectric table
- The provides the list of materials along
with their charge affinity.

- From this table we can predict which

materials will become positively charge
and which materials will be negatively
charge, when they will come into contact.

ELECTRON AFFINITY: When an atom gains electron an energy change occurs. This energy
change is known as electron affinity.
- It is defined as the energy change that occurs when an atom gains an electron, releasing
energy in the process. Since electron is negatively charged. When atom gain an electron,
it become negative ion.
𝐸𝐸𝐴 = −∆𝐸
𝐸𝐸𝐴 is electron affinity and ∆𝐸 is the change in energy.

ORIGIN OF CHARGES
The modern picture of atom consists of nucleus surrounded by electrode in a cloud around it.
▪ Atoms consist of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
▪ The protons and neutrons are packed tightly together
in a central nucleus.
▪ Proton and neutron have approximately similar mass.
▪ Mass of electron is 1830 time lighter than the mass of
proton.
▪ Electrons are negatively charged.
▪ Charge of the protons is positively charges.
▪ Neutrons are electrically neutral.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

Unit of charge: In SI system, unit of charge is coulomb (𝐶).

𝑞
We know current, 𝐼 =
𝑡
Therefore, 1 𝐶 = (1 𝐴)(1 𝑠) = 1 𝐴. 𝑠 (Ampere-second)

Mass [kg] Charge [C]

Electron 9.109 × 10−31 −1.602 × 10−19
Proton 1.673 × 10−27 +1.602 × 10−19
Neutron 1.675 × 10−27 0

EXCESS CHARGE
Generally, an electrically neutral atom contains equal numbers of electrons and protons. Distinguish
between being electrically neutral, negatively charged, and positively charged and identify excess
charge.

Neutral Atom Positively charged Atom Negatively charged Atom

▪ Normally all objects are approximately neutral.

However, object can gain negative charge
become negatively charged, or object lose
negative charge and become positively charged.

▪ Either way, the extra charge is said to be an

excess charge.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

We can classify materials generally according to the ability of charge to move through them.

CONDUCTORS: Conductor are materials having loosely bound electrons. They can move around and
carry the current. These free mobile electrons are known as the conduction electrons. For examples,
include metals (such as copper (Cu)).
When atoms of a conductor like copper come together to form the solid, some of their
outermost (and so most loosely held) electrons become free to wander about within the solid, leaving
behind positively charged atoms (positive ions).

INSULATOR: Insulators are materials with tightly bound electrons inside atoms. Charge cannot move
freely through the insulator. For example, Rubber, Plastic, Glass, and Chemically pure water.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

SEMICONDUCTOR: A semiconductor is a type of material that has electrical conductivity between

that of an insulator and that of a conductor. This means that semiconductors have the ability to conduct
electricity under certain conditions but can also act as an insulator under different circumstances.
▪ Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises.
▪ E.g., Silicon, Germanium.

SUPERCONDUCTOR: Superconductors are perfect conductors, that allows charge to move without any
hindrance. Superconductive materials exhibit a set of physical properties:
▪ Electrical resistance vanishes.
▪ Magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material.
▪ A superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops
abruptly to zero.

INDUCED CHARGE
Induce charge refers to the separation of positive and negative charges of conductor due to the
presence of a nearby charge.

▪ If a negatively charged plastic rod bring close to the neutral

copper rod, the plastic rod will attract either end of an isolated
neutral copper rod.
o Negatively charged plastic rod repelled the conduction
electrons of the copper rod from the closer end.
o As a result, the conduction electrons move to the far end of
the copper rod.
o Leaving the near end positively charged.
o This positive charge of the near end of the copper rod is
attracted to the negative charge in the plastic rod.

*** Although the copper rod is still neutral, it is said to have an induced charge.

Similarly, if a positively charged glass rod is brought near one end of a neutral copper rod, induced
charge is again set up in the neutral copper rod but now the near end gains conduction electrons,
becomes negatively charged, and is attracted to the glass rod, while the far end is positively charged.

NOTE: Only conduction electrons, with their negative charges, can move; positive ions are fixed
in place. Thus, an object becomes positively charged only through the removal of negative
charges.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

GROUNDING
Grounding refers to the process of removal of a charge by producing a conductive path to the ground.
The process is also known as earthing.
– The earth both accepts and donates electrons to neutralize objects.
– Electrons move from a negatively charged objects to the ground until the object is neutral.
– Electrons move from ground to neutralize positively charged objects.
– Electric grounding is a fundamental aspect of electrical safety and system reliability.

CHARGING OF AN OBJECT
Objects can lose or gain electric charges. Charging of an object can be perform using either of the
following methods,
o Conduction
o Induction

Charging by Conduction
Charging by conduction happens when electrons move from one object
to another through direct contact (touching).

- Electrons will transfer from a negative object to a neutral object

making it negative.
- Electrons will be attracted by a positive object taking electrons
from a neutral object making it positive.

Properties of charge by conduction:

▪ Charging by friction.
▪ During conduction the same charge is created in
a neutral object.
o Negative creates negative
o Positive creates positive
▪ Objects charged by this method will repel each
other.
▪ Cause permanent charging (with electron
transfer)

Charging by Induction
Charging by induction happens when charges in an uncharged object are rearranged without direct
contact with a charged object.
- Charge can be induced in a neutral object by moving a charged object close to it.
- Induction creates a temporary and opposite charge in that other object with no contact.
- This is considered temporary because no electrons are transferred, and neutrality returns when
the close charged object is removed.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

Properties of charging by induction:

▪ No contact between objects requires
▪ Opposite charge is induced
o Positively charged object induces negative charge
o Negatively charged object induces positive charge
▪ The atoms become polarized
▪ Cause temporary charging (no electron transfer)

For example,
- Electrons of the object are pushed away from
the rod.
- Top of the object becomes positively
charged.
- Bottom of the can become negatively
charged.
- Attraction > Repulsion

Permanent charging by induction:

By combining charging method by induction and then grounding, we can permanently charge a
neutral object.

SHARING CHARGE BETWEEN CONDUCTORS

When two or more conductors come into contact or are connected by a wire, they can share charge.
The net effect is that the conductors will share the original charge.
– When conductors are connected, they will come to the same electric potential. Thus, the voltage
(potential difference) between any two points on the conductors will be zero. Charge will flow
from the conductor with higher potential to the one with lower potential until equilibrium is
reached.
– Let us consider, two objects, one is charged and other is neutral approaching each other. When
come in contact, the object one shares its charge with initially neutral object two.
– During each contact, two objects sharing charges equally. The charges on each conductor after
𝑞 +𝑞
contact will be, 𝑞𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 1 2, where, 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are initial charges of those two conductors.
2
– The total charge before and after connection remains the same.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

Example: Let us consider, a conducting sphere A is carrying charge of −6 × 10−6 C charges. The
sphere A come in contact with second conducting sphere B and then separated. Thereafter, sphere
B continues ahead and collides with another neutrally charged conducting sphere C and separated.
Solution: The conducting sphere A is carrying charge of −6 × 10−6 C charges.
- When spere A come in contact with the neutrally charged conducting sphere B, charges of
sphere A is equally shared with initially neutral sphere B. And, thus after first contact and
separation, both spheres 𝐴 and 𝐵 will have charges of −3 × 10−6 C each.
- Thereafter, charged sphere B continues ahead and collides with another neutrally charged
conducting sphere C. Therefore, after contact and separation, both spheres 𝐵 and 𝐶 will have
charges of −1.5 × 10−6 C each.
- So, the final charges remain on spheres 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, respectively, are −3 × 10−6 C,
−1.5 × 10−6 C and −1.5 × 10−6 C.

QUESTIONS 21-02: Figure shows three pairs of identical spheres that are to be touched together
and then separated. The initial charges on them are indicated. Rank the pairs according to (a) the
magnitude of the charge transferred during touching and (b) the charge left on the positively
charged sphere, greatest first.

ANSWER:
(a) From greatest to lowest electron transfer: (3) > (1) > (2)
(b) 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3 .
Solution:
(a) When two objects come together, and experience contact the charges between them must
achieve equilibrium.
𝑞1 +𝑞2
To get that we use this formula: 𝑞𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
2

And then we subtract the result from the corresponding original positive charge values.
(+6𝑒)+(−4𝑒) +2𝑒
𝑞𝐸1 = = = +1𝑒, Therefore, transferred charge = (+6𝑒) − (+1𝑒) = +5𝑒
2 2
(0)+(+2𝑒) +2𝑒
𝑞𝐸2 = = = +1𝑒, Therefore, transferred charge = (+2𝑒) − (+1𝑒) = +1𝑒
2 2
(−12𝑒)+(+14𝑒) +2𝑒
𝑞𝐸3 = = = +1𝑒, Therefore, transferred charge = (+14𝑒) − (+1𝑒) = +13𝑒
2 2

From greatest to lowest electron transfer: (3) > (1) > (2)

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

(b) Here,
𝑞1 : The positively charged sphere loses 5 electrons to the negatively charged sphere to reach
equilibrium = (+6𝑒) − (+5𝑒) = +1𝑒
𝑞2 : The positively charged sphere loses 1 electron to the negatively charged sphere to reach
equilibrium = (+2𝑒) − (+1𝑒) = +1𝑒
𝑞3 : The positively charged sphere loses 13 electrons to the negatively charged sphere to reach
equilibrium = (+14𝑒) − (+13𝑒) = +1𝑒
Therefore, 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3 .

OBSERVATION: Particles with the same sign of electrical charge repel each other, and
particles with opposite signs attract one another.

The force of attraction or repulsion can be calculated.

COULOMB’S LAW
If two charged particles are brought near each other, they each exert an electrostatic force on the
other. It states that the force between two-point charges is directly proportional to the product of their
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
- Coulomb’s law relates the force between two single charges separated by a distance.
- The direction of the force vectors depends on the signs of the charges.
- If the particles have the same sign of charge, they repel each other. Thus, the force vector on
each is directly away from the other particle.

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Mathematically, Coulomb's Law is expressed as follows, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 and F∝
r2
|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹=𝑘 =
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
In vector form, force on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1
𝑞 𝑞
⃗𝑭12 = 𝑘 1 2 𝑟̂12
2
𝑟12
1 𝑁.𝑚2
Here, 𝑘 → 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = = 8.99 × 109
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐶2
2
C
𝜀0 → Permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10−12
N. m2
𝑟̂12 → Unit vector directing from 𝑞1 to 𝑞2 .
⃗𝑭12 → Refers to the force on point charge 𝑞2 due to presence of point charge 𝑞1 .
⃗ 12 = −𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 21
As we can see there is a clean similarity with newton law of gravity.

FORCE MAGNITUDE
The magnitude of the electrostatic force in Coulomb’s law becomes
|𝑞1 |. |𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 |. |𝑞2 |
𝐹 = |𝐹 | = 𝑘 = .
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

ELECTRIC FORCE VS GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

As we can see, there is a clear similarity between newton’s law of gravity and coulomb’s law.
𝑞𝑝 = 1.607 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑀𝑝 = 1.673 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
𝑘 = 8.99 × 109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2
𝑞𝑝 𝑞𝑝 2.31 × 10−28 𝑞 𝑞
|𝐹𝑔 | = k 𝑝 2 𝑝 & |𝐹𝑔 | = 𝐺 𝑝 2 𝑝
𝑀 𝑀
|𝐹𝐸 | = 𝑘 2 = 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 𝑟2 𝐺 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 6.7 × 10−11 𝑁. 𝑚2 /kg 2
𝑚𝑝 𝑚𝑝 1.88 × 10−64
|𝐹𝑔 | = G =
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝐹𝐸
= 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟔
𝐹𝑔
Therefore, electrostatic force is ~36 times stronger than gravitational force.

SO, WHAT HOLDS OUR WORLD TOGETHER?

▪ On the nuclear scale 10−14 m (0.1 femtometer) nuclear force is very important.
▪ On atomic scale up to thousands of kilometers, it is really electric forces that is important.
▪ On much larger scale, planets and start and galaxy it is gravity that hold our world together.
▪ Planets have very small amount of charge per unit mass.

There are four fundamental forces:

STRONG FORCE: The strong force, also known as the strong nuclear force or strong interaction,
binds the nuclei of an atom by holding protons and neutrons together in their center. It acts between
subatomic particles of matter. The strong force binds quarks together in clusters to make subatomic
particles, namely, protons and neutrons. It also holds together the atomic nucleus and underlies
interactions between all particles containing quarks.
WEAK FORCE: Weak force, also known as weak nuclear force or weak interaction, is responsible
for some forms of radioactivity, governs the decay of unstable subatomic particles like mesons, and
initiates the nuclear fusion reaction that fuels the Sun. It is responsible for processes that involve
changes in the type (or flavor) of quarks, leading to particle decays and nuclear reactions.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE: The electromagnetic force is responsible for the interactions
between charged particles. The electromagnetic force is mediated by photon, a massless particle of
light, carriers the electromagnetic field and are responsible for electromagnetic radiation.
GRAVITY: Gravity, also called gravitation, is responsible for the attraction between objects or
matters with mass. It is by far the weakest known force in nature and thus plays no role in
determining the internal properties of everyday matter.
FORCE PARTICLE CARRIER RANGE RELATIVE
EXPERIENCING PARTICLE STRENGTH
Strong force Quarks & 𝑔 (𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑛) Short range 1
Gluons 10−15 𝑚
Electromagnetism Electrically 𝛾 (𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛) ∞ 10−3
charged (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦)
particles
Weak force Quarks & 𝑊 +, 𝑊 −, 𝑍0 Short range 10−16
Leptons 10−18 𝑚
Gravity All particles 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑛 ∞ 10−41
with mass (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦)

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

NOTE:
SOURCE Charge – One that has a significant amount of charge compared to its surroundings. A
charged object will act as a source charge.
POINT Charge – A source charge that is considered, for simplicity, to exist at a single point.

PERMITTIVITY CONSTANT: The permittivity of free space is a physical constant that reflects the
ability of electrical fields to pass through a classical vacuum. The constant is equal to
𝐶2
approximately, 𝜀0 = 8.854 x 10 − 12 F/m (farad per meter) = 8.85 × 10−12
𝑁.𝑚2

SUPERPOSITION OF FORCES
The electrostatic force obeys the principle of superposition.
- Let us consider, we have two charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 .
- If we add another charge 𝑞3 and then want to know the
force on charge 𝑞1 .
- Then, we have to use superposition principle.
- Net force on charge 𝑞1 is equal to the vectorial sum of the
two forces 𝐹̅21 and 𝐹̅31 .

Net force, 𝐹 = (𝐹21𝑥 + 𝐹31𝑥 ) 𝑖̇̂ + (𝐹21𝑦 + 𝐹31𝑦 ) 𝑗̇

Suppose we have n charged particles near a chosen particle called particle 1; then the net force on
particle 1 is given by the vector sum

𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 + 𝐹15 + ⋯ + 𝐹1𝑛

SHELL THEORIES
When a conductive sphere is charged, excess charges on a conducting
spherical shell spreads uniformly over the external surface.
- A uniformly charged shell attracts or repels another charged particle
that is located outside the shell, as if all the charges of the shell is
concentrated at its center.
- If a charged particle is located inside a uniformly charged shell, no
net electrostatic force is exerted on the particle from the shell.

So, there are two shell theories for the electrostatic force:
Shell Theory 1: A charged particle outside a shell with charge uniformly distributed on its surface is
attracted or repelled as if the shell’s charge were concentrated as a particle at its center. [In the first
theory, we assume that the charge on the shell is much greater than the particle’s charge. Thus, the
presence of the particle has negligible effect on the distribution of charge on the shell.]

Shell Theory 2: A charged particle inside a shell with charge uniformly distributed on its surface has
no net force acting on it due to the shell.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

Why does excess charge spread uniformly over the surface, and not uniformly throughout
the whole sphere?

ANSWER:
o If we have charge inside the sphere, then that charge has an electric field. 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸, and there
are loose electrons in that conductor, so F = 𝑚𝑎, they will accelerate. Therefore, when things
settled, the excess charges are on the surface.
o The charges repel each other as much as possible. All those charges are repelling each other
and want to get as far away from each other as possible. Even if that means crowding a bit in
the surface layer, it is still better than being closer to all the charge. Effectively the surface
charge arrangement is the lowest energy state.

CHECKPOINT: The figure shows two protons (symbol p) and one electron (symbol e) on an axis.
On the central proton, what is the direction of (a) the force due to the electron, (b) the force due to
the other proton, and (c) the net force?
e p p
ANSWER: (a) leftward; (b) leftward; (c) leftward

QUESTIONS 21-03: Figure shows four situations in which charged particles are fixed in place on
an axis. In which situations is there a point to the left of the particles where an electron will be in
equilibrium?

ANSWER: 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏
Solution: At equilibrium, 𝐹𝑞1 = 𝐹𝑞2 . The solution has to be positive because a negative sign
changes the direction of the equilibrium.

Let, 𝑟 = distance from electron to 𝑞1

𝑑 = distance between the two charges
𝑒 = charge of an electron

(Figure a)
|𝑞 ||𝑞2|
We know, |𝐹𝑞 | = 𝑘 1 2 , 𝑞𝑞 3𝑞𝑞
𝑟 𝑘 2
=𝑘
𝑒𝑞 3𝑞𝑞 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
𝐹𝑞1 = 𝑘 2 , and 𝐹𝑞2 = 𝑘 3𝑟 = (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
2
𝑟 (𝑟+𝑑)2
Since, 𝐹𝑞1 = 𝐹𝑞2 , √3𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑑
𝑞𝑞 3𝑒𝑞
so can write, 𝑘 𝑟2 = 𝑘 (𝑟+𝑑)2 𝑟(√3 − 1) = 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
Therefore, 𝑟 = 𝑟=
√3−1 (√3 − 1)
The solution for 𝑟 is positive so the electron will be at equilibrium at the left of the particles.

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PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

(Figure b)
𝑒𝑞
𝐹𝑞1 = 𝑘 2 , and 𝐹𝑞2 = 𝑘
3𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞
𝑟 (𝑟+𝑑)2 𝑘
2
=𝑘
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
Since, 𝐹𝑞1 = 𝐹𝑞2 , 3𝑟 = (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
2
𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞
so can write, 𝑘 𝑟2 = 𝑘 (𝑟+𝑑)2 √3𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑑
𝑑 𝑟(√3 − 1) = 𝑑
Therefore, 𝑟 =
√3−1
𝑑
𝑟=
(√3 − 1)
The solution for 𝑟 is positive so the electron will be at equilibrium at the left of the particles.

(Figure c)
𝐹𝑞1 = 𝑘
𝑒𝑞
, and 𝐹𝑞2 = 𝑘
3𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞
(𝑟+𝑑)2 𝑟2 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑟2 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
Since, 𝐹𝑞1 = 𝐹𝑞2 , 𝑟 = 3(𝑟 + 𝑑)2
2
𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞
so can write, 𝑘 (𝑟+𝑑)2 = 𝑘 𝑟2 𝑟 = √3𝑟 + √3𝑑
Therefore, 𝑟 =
√3𝑑 𝑟(1 − √3) = √3𝑑
(1−√3)
√3𝑑
𝑟=
(1 − √3)
The solution for 𝑟 is negative so the electron will not be at equilibrium at the left of the particles.

(Figure d)
𝐹𝑞1 = 𝑘
𝑒𝑞
and 𝐹𝑞2 = 𝑘
3𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞
(𝑟+𝑑)2 𝑟2 𝑘2
=𝑘
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2
Since, 𝐹𝑞1 = 𝐹𝑞2 , 𝑟 = 3(𝑟 + 𝑑)2
2
𝑒𝑞 3𝑒𝑞
so can write, 𝑘 (𝑟+𝑑)2 = 𝑘 𝑟2 𝑟 = √3𝑟 + √3𝑑
Therefore, 𝑟 =
√3𝑑 𝑟(1 − √3) = √3𝑑
(1−√3)
√3𝑑
𝑟=
(1 − √3)
The solution for 𝑟 is negative so the electron will not be at equilibrium at the left of the particles.

QUESTIONS 21-05: In Figure, a central particle of charge -q is

surrounded by two circular rings of charged particles. What are
the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on the
central particle due to the other particles? (Hint: Consider
symmetry.)
2𝑘𝑞2
ANSWER: Magnitude: ; Direction: Upwards
𝑟2

Solution:
All the charges are the same on opposite ends of the circle so they cancel out except for 2𝑞 charge
2𝑞𝑞 2𝑘𝑞2
located at the top of the inner circle. Therefore the 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑘 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
Also, the force would be upwards in the direction of 2𝑞.

13
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

QUESTIONS 21-10: In Figure, a central particle of charge −2𝑞

is surrounded by a square array of charged particles, separated
by either distance 𝑑 or 𝑑/2 along the perimeter of the square.
What are the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic
force on the central particle due to the other particles? (Hint:
Consideration of symmetry can greatly reduce the amount of
work required here.)
|+3𝑞||−2𝑞| 6𝑘𝑞2
ANSWER: Magnitude: 𝐹 = 𝑘 =
𝑑2 𝑑2

Direction: The electrostatic force is towards the negative 𝑥 direction (−𝑖)

PROBLEM: Calculate the net force. The key to all examples is draw the forces correctly

(a) Figure a, shows two positively charged particles fixed in place on an x axis. The charges are
𝑞1 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶 and 𝑞2 = 3.20 × 10−19 𝐶, and the particle separation is 𝑅 = 0.0200 𝑚.
What are the magnitude and direction of the electrostatic force on particle 1 from particle 2?
(b) Figure c is identical to Fig. a except that particle-3 now lies on the x axis between particles 1
3
and particle 2. Particle 3 has charge 𝑞3 = −3.20 × 10−19 𝐶 and is at a distance 𝑅 from particle 1.
4
What is the net electrostatic force 𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on particle 1 due to particles 2 and particle 3?
(c) Figure e is identical to Fig. a except that particle 4 is now included. It has charge 𝑞4 =
3
−3.20 × 10−19 𝐶, is at a distance 𝑅 from particle 1, and lies on a line that makes an angle 𝜃 =
4
60° with the x axis. What is the net electrostatic force on particle 1 due to particles 2 and particle
4?
1
ANSWER: The electrostatic constant 𝑘 = = 8.99 × 109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2 .
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞1 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶; so |𝑞1 | = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞2 = 3.20 × 10−19 𝐶; so |𝑞2 | = 3.20 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞3 = −3.20 × 10−19 𝐶; so |𝑞3 | = 3.20 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑞4 = −3.20 × 10−19 𝐶; so |𝑞4 | = 3.20 × 10−19 𝐶

Distance between particle 1 and 2, 𝑅12 = 0.0200 𝑚

3
Distance between particle 1 and 3, 𝑅13 = 𝑅 = 0.01500 𝑚
4
3
Distance between particle 1 and 4, 𝑅14 = 𝑅 = 0.01500 𝑚
4

14
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

(a) Since, both particles are positively charged, 𝑞1 is repelled by 𝑞2 . Thus, the direction of force on
𝑞1 is away from 𝑞2 , in the negative direction of the x-axis. We know,
|𝑞1 |. |𝑞2 | 9
𝑚2 (1.60 × 10−19 𝐶). (3.20 × 10−19 𝐶)
𝐹21 = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 10 𝑁. ).
𝑟2 𝐶2 (0.0200 𝑚)2
= 1.15 × 10−24 𝑁

Thus, force has magnitude and direction (relative to +𝑥 axis) of 1.15 × 10−24 𝑁 and 180°.
We can also write in unit-vector notation as, 𝐹21 = −(1.15 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂

(b) Since, both particles are oppositely charged, 𝑞1 is attracted by 𝑞3 . Thus, the direction of force
on 𝑞1 is towards 𝑞3 , in the positive direction of the x-axis. We know,
|𝑞1 |. |𝑞3 | 9
𝑚2 (1.60 × 10−19 𝐶). (3.20 × 10−19 𝐶)
𝐹31 = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 10 𝑁. ).
𝑟2 𝐶2 (0.0150 𝑚)2
= 2.05 × 10−24 𝑁

Thus, force has magnitude and direction (relative to +𝑥 axis) of 2.05 × 10−24 𝑁 and 0°.
We can also write in unit-vector notation as, 𝐹13 = (2.05 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂

The net force, 𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on 𝑞1 , for the presence of 𝑞2 and 𝑞3 is the vector sum of 𝐹21 and 𝐹31
𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹31 = −(1.15 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (2.05 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ = (9.0 × 10−25 𝑁)𝑖̇̂

(c) Since, both particles are oppositely charged, particle 1 is attracted by particle 4. Thus, the
direction of force on 𝑞1 is towards 𝑞4 , in the positive direction of the x-axis. We know,
|𝑞1 |. |𝑞3 | 9
𝑚2 (1.60 × 10−19 𝐶). (3.20 × 10−19 𝐶)
𝐹14 = |𝐹14 | = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 10 𝑁. ).
𝑟2 𝐶2 (0.0150 𝑚)2
= 2.05 × 10−24 𝑁

Thus, force has the magnitude of 2.05 × 10−24 𝑁. Since, particle 4 lies on a line that makes an
angle 𝜃 = 60° with the x axis. We can also write in unit-vector notation as,
𝐹41 = ((2.05 × 10−24 𝑁). (cos 60°))𝑖̇̂ + ((2.05 × 10−24 𝑁). (sin 60°))𝑗̇̂
𝐹41 = (1.025 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑗̇̂

The net force, 𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 on 𝑞1 , for the presence of 𝑞2 and 𝑞4 is the vector sum of 𝐹21 and 𝐹41
𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹41 = −(1.15 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (1.025 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑗̇̂
𝐹1,𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≈ (−1.25 × 10−25 𝑁)𝑖̇̂ + (1.775 × 10−24 𝑁)𝑗̇̂

PROBLEM: Figure a shows two particles fixed in place: a particle of charge 𝑞1 = +8𝑞 at the
origin and a particle of charge 𝑞2 = −2𝑞 at 𝑥 = 𝐿. At what point (other than infinitely far away)
can a proton be placed so that it is in equilibrium (the net force on it is zero)? Is that equilibrium
stable or unstable? (That is, if the proton is displaced, do the forces drive it back to the point of
equilibrium or drive it farther away?)

15
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

ANSWER: At equilibrium, 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 0
Therefore, 𝐹1 = −𝐹2
Since, 𝑞1 and 𝑞𝑃 are both positive they repel each other.
And since, 𝑞2 and 𝑞𝑃 have opposite charge they attract each other.

Figure (b): If the proton is on the x axis at any point between q1 and q2, such as 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 in Fig.
(b), then 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are in the same direction and not in opposite directions as required.

Figure (c): If the proton is at any point on the x axis to the left of 𝑞1 , such as 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆 in Fig. (c),
then and are in opposite directions. However, Equation tells us that 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 cannot have equal
magnitudes there: 𝐹1 must be greater than 𝐹2 , because 𝐹1 is produced by a closer charge (with lesser
r) of greater magnitude (8q versus 2q).

Figure (d): if the proton is at any point on the x axis to the right of 𝑞2 , such as 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑅 in Fig. (d),
then 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 are again in opposite directions. However, because now the charge of greater
magnitude (𝑞1 ) is farther away from the proton than the charge of lesser magnitude, there is a point
at which 𝐹1 is equal to 𝐹2 .

Let x be the coordinate of this point, and if 𝑞𝑝 be the charge of the proton.
If 𝑥 is the distance between proton and 𝑞1

|𝑞1 |.|𝑞𝑃 | 8𝑞𝑞𝑝

The force on the proton due to charge 𝑞1 , 𝐹1 = |𝐹1 | = 𝑘 =𝑘
𝑟2 (𝑥)2
|𝑞2 |.|𝑞𝑃 | 2𝑞𝑞𝑝
The force on the proton due to charge 𝑞2 , 𝐹2 = |𝐹2 | = 𝑘 =𝑘
𝑟2 (𝑥−𝐿)2
At equilibrium, 𝐹1 = 𝐹2
8𝑞𝑞𝑝 2𝑞𝑞𝑝 𝑥−𝐿 2 1
𝑘 = 𝑘 ⇒( ) = ⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝐿
(𝑥)2 (𝑥 − 𝐿)2 𝑥 4
The equilibrium at 𝑥 = 2𝐿 is unstable; that is,
– If the proton is displaced leftward from point 𝑅, then 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 both increase but 𝐹2 increases
more (because 𝑞2 is closer than 𝑞1 ), and a net force will drive the proton farther leftward.
– If the proton is displaced rightward, both 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 decrease but 𝐹2 decreases more, and a net
force will then drive the proton farther rightward.
– For stable equilibrium, if proton is displaced slightly, it returns to the equilibrium position.

16
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

PROBLEM 21-02: Identical isolated conducting spheres 1 and 2 have equal charges and are
separated by a distance that is large compared with their diameters (Fig. a). The electrostatic force
acting on sphere 2 due to sphere 1 is 𝐹 . Suppose now that a third identical sphere 3, having an
insulating handle and initially neutral, is touched first to sphere 1 (Fig. b), then to sphere 2 (Fig. c),
and finally removed (Fig. d). The electrostatic force that now acts on sphere 2 has magnitude 𝐹′.
What is the ratio 𝐹′/𝐹?

PROBLEM 21-03: What must be the distance between point charge 𝑞1 = 26.0 𝜇𝐶 and point
charge 𝑞2 = −47.0 𝜇𝐶 for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70 𝑁?

PROBLEM 21-06: Two equally charged particles are held 3.2 × 10−3 𝑚 apart and then released
from rest. The initial acceleration of the first particle is observed to be 7.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 and that of the
second to be 9.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 . If the mass of the first particle is 6.3 × 10−7 𝑘𝑔, what are (a) the mass of
the second particle and (b) the magnitude of the charge of each particle?

PROBLEM 21-12: Two particles are fixed on an x axis. Particle 1 of charge 40 𝜇𝐶 is located at
𝑥 = −2.0 𝑐𝑚; particle 2 of charge 𝑄 is located at 𝑥 = 3.0 𝑐𝑚. Particle 3 of charge magnitude
20 𝜇𝐶 is released from rest on the y axis at 𝑦 = 2.0 𝑐𝑚. What is the value of 𝑄 if the initial
acceleration of particle 3 is in the positive direction of (a) the x axis and (b) the y axis?

CHARGE IS QUANTIZED
In the old time, electric charge was thought to be a continuous fluid. However, now we know that
they are not continuous.
Charge is quantized, refers that electric charge exists in discrete, indivisible units rather than in a
continuous range. Therefore, the electric charge can only have discrete values.
Q = ne

- The fundamental unit of electric charge is the charge of an elementary charge particle electron
(denoted by 𝑒).
- In the International System of Units (SI), the elementary charge is approximately equal to
1.602 × 10−19 𝐶.
- Any positive or negative charge q that can be detected can be written as, Q = ne, where e refers
to the elementary charge (e = 1.6 × 10−19 C) and n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ….
- For example, it is possible, to find a particle that has no charge at all or a charge of +10e or −6e,
but not a particle with a charge of 3.57e.

17
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

QUESTIONS: Suppose two objects come in contact. Object A has a charge of −5𝑒. Object B
has a charge of +𝑒. When objects at touched, what will be the final charge afterward?

ANSWER: When objects at touched, charges flow between them. After contact, both objects will
have a charge of −2e. So, the net electric charge is always conserved.

PROBLEM: The nucleus in an iron atom has a radius of about 4.0 × 10−15 𝑚 and contains 26
protons.
(a) What is the magnitude of the repulsive electrostatic force between two of the protons that
are separated by 4.0 × 10−15 𝑚?
(b) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between those same two protons?
ANSWER: Charge of proton is 𝑞𝑃 = +𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Distance between two protons, 𝑟 = 4.0 × 10−15 𝑚
Mass of proton, 𝑚𝑃 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
Gravitational constant, 𝐺 = 6.7 × 10 − 11 Nm2 /C 2
2
|𝑞𝑃 |.|𝑞𝑃 | 𝑚2 (1.6×10−19 𝐶)
(a) 𝐹𝐸 = |𝐹𝐸 | = 𝑘 = (8.99 × 109 𝑁. 2 ) (4.0×10−15 = 14.4 𝑁
𝑟2 𝐶 𝑚)2
2
|𝑚𝑃 |.|𝑚𝑃 | Nm2 (1.67×10−27 𝑘𝑔)
(b) 𝐹𝑔 = |𝐹𝑔 | = 𝐺 = (6.7 × 10−11 ) (4.0×10−15 2 = 1.2 × 10−35 𝑁
𝑟2 C2 𝑚)

PROBLEM 21-24: Two tiny, spherical water drops, with identical charges of −1.00 × 10−16 𝐶,
have a center-to-center separation of 1.00 𝑐𝑚. (a) What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force
acting between them? (b) How many excess electrons are on each drop, giving it its charge
imbalance?

PROBLEM 21-25: How many electrons would have to be removed from a coin to leave it with a
charge of +1.0 × 10−7 𝐶?

PROBLEM 21-26: What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force between a singly charged
sodium ion (𝑁𝑎+ , of charge +𝑒) and an adjacent singly charged chlorine ion (𝐶𝑙− , of charge −𝑒)
in a salt crystal if their separation is 2.82 × 10−10 𝑚?

PROBLEM 21-27: The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two identical ions that are
separated by a distance of 5.0 × 10−10 𝑚 is 3.7 × 10−9 𝑁. (a) What is the charge of each ion? (b)
How many electrons are “missing” from each ion (thus giving the ion its charge imbalance)?

18
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

CHARGE IS CONSERVED
▪ Observation: When we rub a glass rod with silk, a positive charge appears on the rod.
▪ Measurement shows that a negative charge of equal magnitude appears on the silk.
▪ This suggests that rubbing does not create charge but only transfers it from one body to another.
And thus upsets the electrical neutrality of each body during the process.
▪ This is the hypothesis of conservation of charge.
Charge conservation: In physics, charge conservation is the principle that the total electric charge
in an isolated system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge
and the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved.

∑𝑞 = 0

➢ Charging of the object: no charges are created or destroyed.

➢ The numbers of electrons and protons stay the same.
➢ Electrons simply move from one atom to another.
Important examples of the conservation of charge occur in the radioactive decay of nuclei, in which
a nucleus transforms into a different type of nucleus.
o The stability of the nucleus of an atom depends on its size and its proton-neutron ratio.
o This instability sometimes results in a radioactive process known as β-decay.
o A neutron can turn into a proton, but in the process an electron (known as beta particle) is
ejected at high speed from the nucleus to conserve charge.
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 = 𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝑒 − + 𝜈̅
𝑁 = 𝑝 + 𝑒 − + 𝜐−

o On the other hand, a proton can turn into a neutron. In this case the beta particle is an positron
(an antielectron: same mass as an electron but a positive charge) to make up for the loss of
positive charge of the proton.
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 = 𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝑒+ + 𝜈
𝑃 = 𝑛 + 𝑒+ + 𝜐

In either case, charge, momentum, and energy are conserved.

19
PHY-108 Module 01: Coulomb’s Law

PROBLEM 21-36: Electrons and positrons are produced by the nuclear transformations of protons
and neutrons known as beta decay. (a) If a proton transforms into a neutron, is an electron or a
positron produced? (b) If a neutron transforms into a proton, is an electron or a positron produced?

PROBLEM 21-37: Identify 𝑋 in the following nuclear reactions: (a) 1𝐻 + 9𝐵𝑒 → 𝑋 + 𝑛; (b)
12
𝐶 + 1𝐻 → 𝑋; (c) 15𝑁 + 1𝐻 → 4𝐻𝑒 + 𝑋. [Molar mass of 9𝐵 = 9 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙, 12𝐶 = 12 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
and 13𝑁 = 13 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙]

20