Concepts of stress and strain

6.1 Using mechanics of materials principles (i.e., equations of mechanical equilibrium applied to a free-
body diagram), derive Equations 6.4a and 6.4b.

Stress–strain behaviour

6.3 A specimen of aluminium having a rectangular cross section 10 mm ´ 12.7 mm (0.4 in. ´ 0.5 in.) is
pulled in tension with 35,500 N (8000 lbf) force, producing only elastic deformation. Calculate the resulting
strain.

6.5 A steel bar 100 mm (4.0 in.) long and having a square cross section 20 mm (0.8 in.) on an edge is pulled
in tension with a load of 89,000 N (20,000 lbf), and experiences an elongation of 0.10 mm (4.0 ´ 10-3 in.).
Assuming that the deformation is entirely elastic, calculate the elastic modulus of the steel.

6.7 For a bronze alloy, the stress at which plastic deformation begins is 275 MPa (40,000 psi), and the
modulus of elasticity is 115 GPa (16.7 ´ 106 psi).
(a) What is the maximum load that may be applied to a specimen with a cross-sectional area of 325 mm2
(0.5 in.2) without plastic deformation?
(b) If the original specimen length is 115 mm (4.5 in.), what is the maximum length to which it may be
stretched without causing plastic deformation?

An additional question:

Two rod samples (sample A and sample B) are deformed elastically under the same tensile force. The
cross-sectional diameter and length of the two samples as well as the elastic elongation and tensile stress of
sample A are listed in the table below:

Cross-sectional diameter Sample length Elastic elongation Strain Tensile stress

Sample A 10 mm 100 mm 0.1 mm ? 200 MPa
Sample B 5 mm 50 mm ? ? ?
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

If the two samples are made from the same material and the elastic elongation of sample A is 0.1 mm,
(i) what is the elongation of sample B?
(ii) calculate the engineering strain values of the two samples.
(iii) what is the value of the tensile stress applied to sample B?

© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2021

6.13 A cylindrical specimen of aluminium having a diameter of 19 mm and length of 200 mm is
deformed elastically in tension with a force of 48,800 N. The Young’s modulus of Al is 69 GPa.
Poisson’s ratio is 0.33. Determine the following:
(a) The amount by which this specimen will elongate in the direction of the applied stress.
(b) The change in diameter of the specimen. Will the diameter increase or decrease?

6.15 A cylindrical specimen of some alloy 8 mm in diameter is stressed elastically in tension. A

force of 15,700 N produces a reduction in specimen diameter of 5 ´ 10-3 mm. Compute Poisson's
ratio for this material if its modulus of elasticity is 140 GPa.

6.19 A cylindrical metal specimen 12.7 mm in diameter and 250 mm long is to be subjected to a
tensile stress of 28 MPa; at this stress level, the resulting deformation will be totally elastic.
(a) If the elongation must be less than 0.080 mm, which of the metals in Table 6.1 are suitable
candidates? Why?
(b) If, in addition, the maximum permissible diameter decrease is 1.2 ´ 10-3 mm when the tensile
stress of 28 MPa is applied, which of the metals that satisfy the criterion in part (a) are suitable
candidates? Why?

6.21 A cylindrical rod 100 mm long and having a diameter of 10.0 mm is to be deformed using a
tensile load of 27,500 N. It must not experience either plastic deformation or a diameter reduction
of more than 7.5 ´ 10-3 mm. Of the materials listed as follows, which are possible candidates?
Justify your choice(s).
 Modulus of
Elasticity Yield Strength Poisson’s
Material (GPa) (MPa) Ratio
Aluminium alloy 70 200 0.33
Brass alloy 101 300 0.34
Steel alloy 207 400 0.30
Titanium alloy 107 650 0.34

6.27 A cylindrical specimen of aluminium having a diameter of 0.505 in. (12.8 mm) and a gauge
length of 2.000 in. (50.800 mm) is pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics shown
in the following table to complete parts (a) through (f).

Load Length
N lbf mm in.
0 0 50.800 2.000
7330 1650 50.851 2.002
15,100 3,400 50.902 2.004
23,100 5,200 50.952 2.006
30,400 6,850 51.003 2.008
34,400 7,750 51.054 2.010
38,400 8,650 51.308 2.020
41,300 9,300 51.816 2.040
44,800 10,100 52.832 2.080
46,200 10,400 53.848 2.120
47,300 10,650 54.864 2.160
47,500 10,700 55.880 2.200
46,100 10,400 56.896 2.240
44,800 10,100 57.658 2.270
42,600 9,600 58.420 2.300
36,400 8,200 59.182 2.330
Fracture

(a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering strain.

(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.

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(c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
(d) Determine the tensile strength of this alloy.
(e) What is the approximate ductility, in percent elongation?
(f) Compute the modulus of resilience.

6.29 A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of 12.8 mm and gauge length of
50.80 mm is pulled in tension until fracture occurs. The diameter at the point of fracture is 6.60
mm, and the fractured gauge length is 72.14 mm. Calculate the ductility in terms of percent
reduction in area and percent elongation.

6.31 Determine the modulus of resilience for each of the following alloys:

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6.33 Show that the following equations are valid when there is no necking and no volume
change during deformation.

6.37 A cylindrical specimen of aluminium having a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gauge length
of 50.800 mm is pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics shown in the
following first table and Equations 6.15, 6.16, and 6.18 to generate a true stress–true strain
plot for aluminium before necking. After necking, measured diameters are given in the
second table for the last four data points, which should be used in true stress computations.

Load Length
N lbf mm in.
0 0 50.800 2.000
7330 1650 50.851 2.002
15,100 3,400 50.902 2.004
23,100 5,200 50.952 2.006
30,400 6,850 51.003 2.008
34,400 7,750 51.054 2.010
38,400 8,650 51.308 2.020
41,300 9,300 51.816 2.040
44,800 10,100 52.832 2.080
46,200 10,400 53.848 2.120
47,300 10,650 54.864 2.160
47,500 10,700 55.880 2.200
46,100 10,400 56.896 2.240
44,800 10,100 57.658 2.270
42,600 9,600 58.420 2.300
36,400 8,200 59.182 2.330
Fracture
 Load Length Diameter
N lbf mm in. mm in.
46,100 10,400 56.896 2.240 11.71 0.461
42,400 10,100 57.658 2.270 11.26 0.443
42,600 9,600 58.420 2.300 10.62 0.418
36,400 8,200 59.182 2.330 9.40 0.370

6.45 A cylindrical specimen of a brass alloy 7.5 mm in diameter and 90.0 mm long is pulled
in tension with a force of 6000 N; the force is subsequently released. The tensile stress–strain
behaviour for this alloy is shown below.
(a) Compute the final length of the specimen at this time.
(b) Compute the final specimen length when the load is increased to 16,500 N and then
released.

6.47 (a) A 10-mm-diameter Brinell hardness indenter produced an indentation 1.62 mm in

diameter in a steel alloy when a load of 500 kg was used. Compute the HB of this material.
(b) What will be the diameter of an indentation to yield a hardness of 450 HB when a 500 kg
load is used?
6.49 (a) What is the indentation diagonal length when a load of 0.700 kg produces a Vickers
HV of 650?
(b) Calculate the Vickers hardness when a 500-g load yields an indentation diagonal length
of 0.085 mm.

6.53 The following table gives a number of Rockwell B hardness values that were measured
on a single steel specimen. Compute average and standard-deviation hardness values.

83.3 80.7 86.4

88.3 84.7 85.2
82.8 87.8 86.9
86.2 83.5 84.4
87.2 85.5 86.3

6.54 Cite five factors that lead to scatter in measured material properties.

6.55 Taking a factor of safety to be 2, determine working stresses for an alloy that has the
stress–strain behaviours shown below.
12.39 Briefly answer the following:
(a) Why may there be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material?
(b) Why fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size?

12.43 A circular specimen of MgO is loaded using a three-point bending mode. Compute the
minimum possible radius of the specimen without fracture, given that the applied load is 425 N,
the flexural strength is 105 MPa, and the separation between load points is 50 mm.

12.45 (a) A three-point transverse bending test is conducted on a cylindrical specimen of

aluminium oxide having a reported flexural strength of 390 MPa. If the specimen radius is 2.5 mm
and the support point separation distance is 30 mm, predict whether or not you would expect the
specimen to fracture when a load of 620 N is applied. Justify your prediction.
(b) Would you be 100% certain of the prediction in part (a)? Why or why not?

12.D2 It is necessary to select a ceramic material to be stressed using a three-point loading scheme
(Figure 12.30). The specimen must have a circular cross section and a radius of 2.5 mm, and must
not experience fracture or a deflection of more than 6.2 ´ 10-2 mm at its centre when a load of 275
N is applied. If the distance between support points is 45 mm, which of the materials in the follow
Table are candidates? The magnitude of the centrepoint deflection may be computed using
Equation 12.11.
15.5 In Figure 15.29, the logarithm of Er(t) versus the logarithm of time is plotted for
polyisobutylene at a variety of temperatures. Make a plot of Er(10) versus temperature and then
estimate its Tg.

15.7 (a) Contrast the manner in which stress relaxation and viscoelastic creep tests are conducted.

2
16.3 A large-particle composite consisting of tungsten particles within a copper matrix is to be
prepared. If the volume fractions of tungsten and copper are 0.60 and 0.40, respectively, estimate
the upper limit for the specific stiffness of this composite given the data that follow.

Specific Gravity Modulus of Elasticity

(GPa)
Copper 8.9 110
Tungsten 19.3 407

Note that the terms “specific stiffness” and “specific gravity” in the question are not taught in
lecture and not explained in the textbook. Their definition can be found in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_modulus and https://www.britannica.com/science/specific-
gravity, respectively. Simple explanations of the two terms are provided below:
Specific stiffness = specific modulus = E/ρ, where E is the elastic modulus and ρ is the density.
Specific gravity = relative density = ratio of the density of a substance to that of water at 4 °C (1.0
kg per litre). Specific gravity of 8.9 simply means the density of 8.9 g/cm3.

16.19 For a polymer-matrix fibre-reinforced composite,

(a) List three functions of the matrix phase.
(b) Compare the desired mechanical characteristics of matrix and fibre phases.
(c) Cite two reasons why there must be a strong bond between fibre and matrix at their interface.

3
16.9 Is it possible to produce a continuous and oriented aramid fibre-epoxy matrix
composite having longitudinal and transverse moduli of elasticity of 57.1 GPa and 4.12
GPa, respectively? Why or why not? Assuming that the modulus of elasticity of the
epoxy and aramid fibres is 2.4 GPa and 131 GPa, respectively.

16.13 A continuous and aligned fibre-reinforced composite is to be produced consisting

of 30 vol% aramid fibres and 70 vol% of a polycarbonate matrix; mechanical
characteristics of these two materials are as follows:

Modulus of Elasticity Tensile Strength

[GPa] [MPa]
Aramid fibre 131 3600

Polycarbonate 2.4 65

Assume that the composite has a cross-sectional area of 320 mm2 and is subjected to a
longitudinal load of 44,500 N.
(a) Calculate the fibre–matrix load ratio.
(b) Calculate the actual loads carried by both fibre and matrix phases.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress on each of the fibre and matrix phases.
(d) What strain is experienced by the composite?

16.19 For a polymer-matrix fibre-reinforced composite,

(a) List three functions of the matrix phase.
(b) Compare the desired mechanical characteristics of matrix and fibre phases.
(c) Cite two reasons why there must be a strong bond between fibre and matrix at their
interface.

8.1 What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an internal
crack having a radius of curvature of 2.5 ´ 10-4 mm and a crack length of 2.5 ´ 10-2 mm
when a tensile stress of 170 MPa is applied?

8.3 If the specific surface energy and modulus of elasticity for soda-lime glass is 0.30
J/m2 and 69 GPa, respectively, compute the critical stress required for the propagation
of a surface crack of length 0.05 mm.
8.5 A specimen of a 4340 steel alloy having a plane strain fracture toughness of
45 MPa m is exposed to a stress of 1000 MPa. Will this specimen experience fracture if it
is known that the largest surface crack is 0.75 mm long? Why or why not? Assume that
the parameter Y has a value of 1.0.

8.7 Suppose that a wing component on an aircraft is fabricated from an aluminium

alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 40 MPa m . It has been determined
that fracture results at a stress of 365 MPa when the maximum internal crack length is
2.5 mm. For this same component and alloy, compute the stress level at which fracture
will occur for a critical internal crack length of 4.0 mm.

8.9 A large plate is fabricated from a steel alloy that has a plane strain fracture
toughness of 55 MPa m (50 ksi in.). If, during service use, the plate is exposed to a tensile
stress of 200 MPa, determine the minimum length of a surface crack that will lead to
fracture. Assume a value of 1.0 for Y.
8.13 Following is tabulated data that were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on
a ductile cast iron.

Temperature (°C) Impact Energy (J)

–25 124
–50 123
–75 115
–85 100
–100 73
–110 52
–125 26
–150 9
–175 6

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature corresponding
to the average of the maximum and minimum impact energies.
(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature at which the
impact energy is 80 J.

8.16 A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 50 MPa (7250 psi) and the
stress amplitude was 225 MPa (32,625 psi).
(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.
(b) Compute the stress ratio.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.

Example problem 8.2 from the textbook (p. 203)

A cylindrical bar of 1045 steel having the S-N behaviour shown in the Figure 8.21 below is
subjected to rotating-bending tests with reversed-stress cycles (per Figure 8.19). If the bar
diameter d0 is 15.0 mm, determine the maximum cyclic load F that maybe applied to ensure
that fatigue failure will not occur. Assume a factor of safety N of 2.0 and that the distance
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

between load-bearing points L is 60 mm. The maximum stress applied to the bar can be
𝟏𝟔𝑭𝑳
calculated using the equation 𝝈 = 𝝅𝒅𝟑𝟎
.

The solution is available in the textbook on p. 203

2
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

8.19 A cylindrical Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy bar is subjected to compression-tension stress

cycling along its axis; results of these tests are shown in Figure 8.21. If the bar diameter is
17.0 mm, calculate the maximum allowable load amplitude (in N) to ensure that fatigue
failure will not occur at 107 cycles. Assume a factor of safety of 3.5, data in Figure 8.21 were
taken for reversed axial tension-compression tests, and that S is stress amplitude.

8.21 A cylindrical rod of diameter 12.5 mm fabricated from a 70Cu-30Zn brass alloy (Figure
8.21) is subjected to a repeated tension-compression load cycling along its axis. Compute the
maximum and minimum loads that will be applied to yield a fatigue life of 1.0 × 106 cycles.
Assume that data in Figure 8.21 were taken for repeated axial tension-compression tests, that
stress plotted on the vertical axis is stress amplitude, and data were taken for a mean stress
of 30 MPa.

8.23 Suppose that the fatigue data for the brass alloy shown in the figure below were taken
from torsional tests, and that a shaft of this alloy is to be used for a coupling that is attached
to an electric motor operating at 1500 rpm. Give the maximum torsional stress amplitude
possible for each of the following lifetimes of the coupling: (a) 1 year, (b) 1 month, (c) 1 day,
and (d) 2 hours.

3
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

8.25 Suppose that the fatigue data for the cast iron shown in the figure below were taken for
bending-rotating tests, and that a rod of this alloy is to be used for an automobile axle that
rotates at an average rotational velocity of 750 revolutions per minute. Give maximum
lifetimes of continuous driving that are allowable for the following stress levels: (a) 250 MPa,
(b) 215 MPa, (c) 200 MPa, and (d) 150 MPa.

8.28 Briefly explain the difference between fatigue striations and beachmarks both in terms
of (a) size and (b) origin.

4
8.31 The following creep data were taken on an aluminium alloy at 400°C and a constant
stress of 25 MPa. Plot the data as strain versus time, then determine the steady-state or
minimum creep rate. Note: The initial and instantaneous strain is not included.

Time (min) Strain Time (min) Strain

0 0.000 16 0.135
2 0.025 18 0.153
4 0.043 20 0.172
6 0.065 22 0.193
8 0.078 24 0.218
10 0.092 26 0.255
12 0.109 28 0.307
14 0.120 30 0.368

8.32 A specimen 750 mm long of an S-590 alloy (Figure 8.33 below) is to be exposed to a
tensile stress of 80 MPa at 815°C. Determine its elongation after 5000 h. Assume that the
total of both instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 1.5 mm.
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

8.33 For a cylindrical S-590 alloy specimen originally 10 mm in diameter and 500 mm long,
what tensile load is necessary to produce a total elongation of 145 mm after 2000 h at 730°C?
Assume that the sum of instantaneous and primary creep elongations is 8.6 mm. Use Fig.
8.33 above for this question.

8.35 A cylindrical specimen 7.5 mm in diameter of an S-590 alloy is to be exposed to a tensile

load of 9000 N. At approximately what temperature will the steady-state creep be 10-2 h-1?
Use Fig. 8.33 above for this question.

8.37 A cylindrical component constructed from an S-590 alloy (Figure 8.32 below) has a
diameter of 12 mm. Determine the maximum load that may be applied for it to survive 500
h at 925°C.

2.5 (a) How many grams are there in one amu of a material?
(b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken in units of gram-mole. On this basis, how
many atoms are there in a pound-mole of a substance? Note that 1 lb = 453.6 g.

2
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

2.22 (a) Briefly cite the main differences between ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.

2.25 Compute the %IC （percent ionic character）of the interatomic bonds for each of the
following compounds: TiO2, ZnTe, CsCl, InSb, and MgCl2.

3
3.3 Show for the body-centred cubic crystal structure that the unit cell edge length a and the
atomic radius R are related through a =4R/ 3 .

3.7 Iron has a BCC crystal structure, an atomic radius of 0.124 nm, and an atomic weight of
55.85 g/mol. Compute its theoretical density.

3.15 The atomic weight, density, and atomic radius for two hypothetical alloys are listed in
the following table. For each determine whether its crystal structure is FCC, BCC, or simple
cubic and then justify your determination.

Alloy Atomic Weight Density Atomic Radius

(g/mol) (g/cm3) (nm)

A 77.4 8.22 0.125

B 107.6 13.42 0.133

3.17 Iodine has an orthorhombic unit cell for which the a, b, and c lattice parameters are
0.479, 0.725, and 0.978 nm, respectively.
(a) If the atomic packing factor and atomic radius are 0.547 and 0.177 nm, respectively,
determine the number of atoms in each unit cell.
(b) The atomic weight of iodine is 126.91 g/mol; compute its theoretical density.

3.25 List the point indices of the titanium, barium, and

oxygen ions for a unit cell of the perovskite crystal
structure (Figure 12.6).
3.33 Determine the indices for the directions shown in the following two cubic unit cells:
Direction A
Direction B

1 1 1
3.35 What are the direction indices for a vector that passes from point 1 0 to point 1 in
3 2 2

a tetragonal unit cell?

3.38 For tetragonal crystals, a = b ≠ c and a = b = g = 90°, cite the indices of directions that
are equivalent to each of the following directions:
(a) [001]
(b) [110]
(c) [010]

3.45 Determine the Miller indices for the planes shown in the following unit cell:

2
3.21 Iron (Fe) undergoes an allotropic transformation at 912°C: upon heating from a BCC
(the a phase) to an FCC (the g phase). Accompanying this transformation is a change in the
atomic radius of Fe—from rBCC = 0.12584 nm to rFCC = 0.12894 nm—and, in addition a
change in density (and volume). Compute the percent volume change associated with this
reaction. Does the volume increase or decrease?

3.46 Determine the Miller indices for the planes A and B shown in the following unit cell
using the linear algebra method. (note: students can always use the method taught in the
textbook. The linear algebra method, which is easier for students who know the math, is optional.)

3.55 (a) Derive linear density expressions for BCC [110] and [111] directions in terms of the
atomic radius R.
(b) Compute and compare linear density values for these same two directions for tungsten
(atomic radius = 0.137 nm).

3.57 (a) Derive planar density expressions for BCC (100) and (110) planes in terms of the
atomic radius R.
(b) Compute and compare planar density values for these same two planes for vanadium
with the atomic radius of 0.132 nm.

12.4 Demonstrate that the minimum cation-anion radius ratio for a coordination number of
8 is 0.732.

12.11 Compute the atomic packing factor for the rock salt crystal structure in which rC/rA =
0.414.
 Materials Science & Engineering ANZ 1e

12.15 Magnesium oxide has the rock salt crystal structure and a density of 3.58 g/cm3.
(a) Determine the unit cell edge length.
(b) How does this result compare with the edge length as determined from the radii in Table
12.3, assuming that the Mg2+ and O2- ions just touch each other along the edges?

14.3 The number-average molecular weight of a polypropylene is 1,000,000 g/mol. Compute

the degree of polymerisation. The repeat unit structure of polypropylene is

14.5 The following table lists molecular weight data for a polypropylene material. Compute
the following: (a) the number-average molecular weight, (b) the weight-average molecular
weight, and (c) the degree of polymerisation.

Molecular Weight
Range (g/mol) xi wi
8,000–16,000 0.05 0.02
16,000–24,000 0.16 0.10
24,000–32,000 0.24 0.20
32,000–40,000 0.28 0.30
40,000–48,000 0.20 0.27
48,000–56,000 0.07 0.11

2
3.1FE A hypothetical metal has the BCC crystal structure, a density of 7.24 g/cm3, and an
atomic weight of 48.9 g/mol. Calculate the atomic radius of this metal.

12.2FE An AX ceramic compound has the rock salt crystal structure. If the radii of the A
and X ions are 0.137 and 0.241 nm, respectively, and the respective atomic weights are 22.7
and 91.4 g/mol, Calculate the density (in g/cm3) of this material.

14.13 Compare thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers (a) on the basis of mechanical
characteristics upon heating and (b) according to possible molecular structures.

14.24 The density of totally crystalline polypropylene at room temperature is 0.946 g/cm3.
The repeat unit for polypropylene is shown below. At room temperature, the unit cell for
this material is monoclinic with the following lattice parameters:
a = 0.666 nm α = 90°
b = 2.078 nm β = 99.62°
c = 0.650 nm γ = 90°
If the volume of a monoclinic unit cell, Vmono, is a function of these lattice parameters as
Vmono = abc sin b
determine the number of repeat units per unit cell.

14.25 The density and associated percent crystallinity for two polytetrafluoroethylene
materials are as follows:

ρ (g/cm3) crystallinity (%)

2.144 51.3
2.215 74.2

(a) Compute the densities of totally crystalline and totally amorphous

polytetrafluoroethylene.
(b) Determine the percent crystallinity of a specimen having a density of 2.26 g/cm3.
4.1 The equilibrium fraction of lattice sites that are vacant in gold at 800°C is 2.5 ´ 10-5.
Calculate the number of vacancies per metre cubed at 800°C. The atomic weight of gold is
196.97 g/mol. Assume a density of 18.45 g/cm3 for Au (at 800°C).

4.8 (a) Compute the radius r of an impurity atom

that will just fit into an FCC octahedral site
(octahedral sites in FCC are shown by “x” in the
right figure) in terms of the atomic radius R of the
host atom (without introducing lattice strains).

4.16 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that contains 98 g tin and 65 g of
lead? The atomic weight of tin and lead is 118.71 g/mol and 207.2 g/mol, respectively.

4.19 Calculate the number of atoms per cubic metre in aluminium. The density and atomic
weight of Al are 2.71 g/cm3 and 26.98 g/mol, respectively.

4.42 For each of the following stacking sequences found in FCC metals, cite the type of planar
defect that exists:
(a) . . . A B C A B C B A C B A . . .
(b) . . . A B C A B C B C A B C . . .
Now, copy the stacking sequences and indicate the position(s) of planar defect(s) with a
vertical dashed line.

2
7.1 To provide some perspective on the dimensions of atomic defects, consider a metal
specimen that has a dislocation density of 104 mm-2. Suppose that all the dislocations in 1000
mm3 (1 cm3) were somehow removed and linked end to end. How far (in miles) would this
chain extend? Now suppose that the density is increased to 1010 mm-2 by cold working. What
would be the chain length of dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material?

7.5 (a) Define a slip system.

(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? Why or why not?

7.12 Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the
slip direction are at angles of 43.1° and 47.9°, respectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical
resolved shear stress is 20.7 MPa, will an applied stress of 45 MPa cause the single crystal to
yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?

7.18 The critical resolved shear stress for iron is 27 MPa. Determine the minimum possible
yield strength for a single crystal of Fe pulled in tension.

7.20 Briefly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with
the slip process as are high-angle grain boundaries.

7.21 Explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals.

7.24 The lower yield point for an iron that has an average grain diameter of 5 ´ 10-2 mm is
135 MPa. At a grain diameter of 8 ´ 10-3 mm, the yield point increases to 260 MPa. At what
grain diameter will the lower yield point be 205 MPa?

1
7.27 (a) Show, for a tensile test, that

⎛ ε ⎞
%CW = ⎜ × 100
⎝ ε + 1 ⎟⎠

if there is no change in specimen volume during the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 = Adld).
(b) For a metal bar that experiences 13% uniform tensile elongation, compute the percent
cold work of the metal bar.

7.32 Experimentally, it has been observed for single crystals of a number of metals that the
critical resolved shear stress τcrss is a function of the dislocation density ρD as

τ crss = τ 0 + A ρ D

where τ0 and A are constants. For copper, the critical resolved shear stress is 2.10 MPa at a
dislocation density of 105 mm-2. If it is known that the value of A for copper is 6.35 ´ 10-3
MPa-mm, compute the tcrss at a dislocation density of 107 mm-2.

2
7.33 Briefly cite the differences between recovery and recrystallisation processes.

7.36 (a) What is the driving force for recrystallisation?

(b) What is the driving force for grain growth?

7.D4 It is necessary to select a metal alloy for an application that requires a yield strength of
at least 345 MPa while maintaining a minimum ductility (%EL) of 20%. If the metal may be
cold worked, decide which of the following are candidates: copper, brass, and a 1040 steel.
Why? Use Figure 7.19 below for the question.
7.D7 A cylindrical 1040 steel rod having a minimum tensile strength of 865 MPa, a ductility
of at least 10%EL, and a final diameter of 6.0 mm is desired. Some 7.94 mm diameter 1040
steel stock, which has been cold worked 20% is available. Describe the procedure you would
follow to obtain this material. Assume that 1040 steel experiences cracking at 40%CW. Use
Figure 7.19 for the question.

17.2 (a) Write the possible oxidation and reduction half-reactions that occur when
magnesium is immersed in each of the following solutions: (i) HCl, (ii) an HCl solution
containing dissolved oxygen, (iii) an HCl solution containing dissolved oxygen and, in
addition, Fe2+ ions.
(b) In which of these solutions would you expect the magnesium to oxidise most rapidly?
Why?

17.8 For the following pairs of alloys that are coupled in seawater, predict the possibility of
corrosion; if corrosion is probable, note which metal/alloy will corrode. Use Table 17.2.
(a) Aluminium and magnesium
(b) Zinc and a low-carbon steel
(c) Inconel 600 and nickel 200
(d) Titanium and 304 stainless steel
(e) Cast iron and 316 stainless steel

2
17.9 (a) From the galvanic series (Table 17.2), cite three metals or alloys that may be used to
galvanically protect 304 stainless steel in the active state.
(b) Galvanic corrosion is prevented by making an electrical contact between the two metals
in the couple and a third metal that is anodic to the other two. Using the galvanic series, name
one metal that could be used to protect a copper alloy–aluminium alloy galvanic couple.

17.21 Why does chromium in stainless steels make them more corrosion resistant in many
environments than plain carbon steels?

17.26 (a) What are inhibitors?

(b) What possible mechanisms account for their effectiveness?

17.27 Briefly describe the two techniques that are used for galvanic protection.

17.3FE Which of the following describes crevice corrosion?

(A) Corrosion that occurs preferentially along grain boundaries
(B) Corrosion that results from the combined action of an applied tensile stress and a
corrosive environment
(C) Localised corrosion that may be initiated at a surface defect
(D) Corrosion that is produced by a difference in concentration of ions or dissolved gases in
the electrolyte

17.4FE Polymer deterioration by swelling may be reduced by which of the following?

(A) Increasing degree of crosslinking, increasing molecular weight, and increasing degree of
crystallinity
(B) Decreasing degree of crosslinking, decreasing molecular weight, and decreasing degree
of crystallinity
(C) Increasing degree of crosslinking, increasing molecular weight, and decreasing degree of
crystallinity
(D) Decreasing degree of crosslinking, increasing molecular weight, and increasing degree of
crystallinity