Bahr Dar University - Institute of Technology (BDUiT)

Department of Civil Engineering May 2014

1 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II
Chapter 4.
Subgrade
Soils

Instructor: Daniel Legesse(BSc-CE, MSc, PPHE)

E [email protected]
T +251 930033322,0911427149
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 Investigation of subgrade soils:

 Foundation material for all pavements as undisturbed in situ subgrade
material or transported and reworked embankment material.
 Construction material for pavement structures either in its natural form
(sand and gravel) or in a processed form as stabilized layer
 The results of soil investigation provide pertinent information for a
decision on one or more of the following :
 Decision on the need for subgrade or embankment foundation
treatment;
 Investigation of slope stability in cuts and embankments;
 Location and design of ditches and culverts;
 Selection and design of the roadway pavement;
 Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction
materials; and
 Design of foundations for bridges and other structures.
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 Investigation of subgrade soils (Cont’d):

 Before planning for field investigation, preliminary
information regarding soil condition can often be
obtained from the following sources:
 Geological and agricultural soil maps
 Aerial photographs
 Satellite images
 Area reconnaissance
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 Investigation of subgrade soils(Cont’d):

 Field investigations and sample collection for laboratory
tests are commonly carried out by:
 Test pits or trenches
 Hand augers
 Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs
 Geophysical methods (seismic or electrical)
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 Investigation of subgrade soils: Depth of Investigations

 It is always required to plan and conduct soil surveys in a manner
that examines subgrade materials according to their suitability in
load bearing layers within the zone of the design depth
 The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road
level to the depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no
longer has an effect on the pavement’s performance in relation to
traffic loading.
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 Investigation of subgrade soils: Depth of Investigations

According to the Tanzanian Road Design Manual (1999)

Design depth (m)
Road type General requirements Heavy traffic roads
(> 0.2 × 106 standard axles
Paved trunk roads 0.8 1.2
Other roads 0.6 1.0
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 Frequency of subgrade soil investigation:

 For highway pavements, testing sites are placed at 100 m to
5 km (generally 300 m) along the centerline and additional
boreholes 30 m away from the centerline both in its left as
well as right side.
 Minimum testing frequency (ERA SI MANUAL 2002);


Road type Indicator tests Strength tests

Paved trunk roads Min 4 per km Min 2 per km
Other paved roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per km
Gravel roads Min 2per km Min 1 per 2 km
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 Essential tests to evaluate subgrade soils:

 Particle Size Distribution Test
 Moisture Content

 Atterberg Limits

 Moisture-Density relationship (Compaction)

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

 Resilient Modulus Test

 Soil classification
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Compaction
 increases soil’s density
 improves its strength,
 lowers its permeability, and
 reduces future settlement
 The dry density that can be obtained by compaction varies with

 the moisture content,

 type of soil being compacted, and
 the compaction effort.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

Effect of moisture content:
γ wet
γd =
1+ w

γd at 100% saturation
γ wGs
γd =
1 + wG s
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

Effect of type of soil:

a – Gravel-sand mixture
b – Well graded sand
c – Uniform sand
d – Mixed soil
e – Heavy clay
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

Effect of compaction effort:

Standard AASHTO:
compacted with 25 blows of a 2.5 kg
(5.5 1b) hammer falling 30 cm (12 in)
in three layers

Modified AASHTO:
4.5 kg (10 lb) hammer falling 45 cm
(18 in) on each of five layers in the
same size mold
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Laboratory compaction test.
 The soil sample is first air dried and sieved usually
through the 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve, mixed thoroughly
with water and then compacted in layers.
 The mass of the compacted sample is measured, and a
sample of it is taken to dry for the purpose of
determining water content.
 More water is then added to the soil, and it is
compacted again. This procedure is repeated until the
density fails
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Laboratory compaction test, Cont’d
 In the standard compaction test,
 The soil is compacted in three layers in a 10 cm (4 in)
diameter mold having a volume of 943.9 cm3 (1/30 ft3).
 Each layer is compacted with 25 blows of a 2.5 kg (5.5
1b) hammer falling 30 cm (12 in).
 If coarser grains are to be included in the test, a larger
mould of15 cm (6 in) in diameter with a volume of 2124
cm3 (0.075 ft3) is used. With these coarse materials, the
number of blows per layer is increased to 56 (from 25) to
maintain the same compactive effort.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Laboratory compaction test, Cont’d
 Inthe modified Procter or heavy compaction test, the
compactive effort is provided by a 4.5 kg (10 lb) hammer
falling 45 cm (18 in) on each of five layers in the same
mould.
 The maximum dry density obtained in the modified test is
higher than that obtained in the standard test, and occurs
at lower optimum moisture content.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Field density test.
 The construction requirements for roads are usually
specified as a percentage of the maximum dry density found
in a laboratory compaction test for each soil type
encountered on the project.
 For example, a project specification might require that the
soil be compacted to 95% of the maximum dry density
found by the standard compaction test.
 Field density tests are made using either destructive or
nondestructive methods.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Field density test, cont’d
 In destructive methods,
 the simplest is the core-cutter method: used only on
cohesive soils free from coarse-grained material --- to
remove an undisturbed sample on which dry density
and moisture content determinations can be made.
 The other commonly used methods are: a balloon
filled with a liquid and a sand-cone apparatus.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Soil Compaction

 Field density test, cont’d
 The quick and nondestructive method of measuring the in-
situ density and moisture content of the compacted soil is
the nuclear method by which:
 the density is obtained by measuring the scatter of
gamma radiation by the soil particles which is
proportional to the bulk density of the soil.
 the moisture content is also obtained by measuring the
scatter of neutrons emitted in the soil due to the presence
of hydrogen atoms.
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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The California Bearing Ratio (CBR )

 The California Bearing Ratio of a material is the load
in Newtons, expressed as a percentage of California
Standard values (a standard crushed rock), required
to allow a circular piston of 1935mm2 to penetrate
the surface of a compacted material at a rate of
1.27 mm per minute to depths of 2.54, 5.08 and
7.62 mm. The California standard values for these
depths are 13.344, 20.016 and 25.354 kN
respectively.
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 Subgrade soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) (cont’d)

 Originally developed by the California Division of
Highways, CBR test has been modified and has been the
most common strength test conducted on soils and other
unbound road making materials.
 In this test, laboratory specimens compacted in a standard CBR
mold at the OMC are tested to give a relative strength of the
material with respect to standard crushed rock, which is
considered an excellent base coarse material.
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 Subgrade Soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

 A load is applied by cylindrical metal plunger of 49.6 mm
diameter to penetrate the specimen at a rate of 1.27mm per
minute and readings of the applied load are taken at intervals
of penetration of 0.64mm up to a total penetration of not more
than 7.62 mm.
Sample Preparation:
Use only Material passing 19mm for heavy compaction
(4.54kg), and passing 4.75mm sieve for light compaction (2.5kg
rammer)
 If material retained on 19mm sieve, discard the retained
material, and replace with equal amount of material passing
19mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve. The oversize
portion shall not be used for CBR test specimen preparation
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test (cont’d)

Sample Preparation (cont’d)
 Normally CBR specimens are prepared in three molds at
varying compaction efforts of : 10, 30 and 65blows/layer
 Each layer compacted in 5 layers
 Samples should be mixed thoroughly at moisture content close to
optimum
 Determine the dry densities for each of the 3 mold specimens

Soaking of CBR mold Specimen

 Soak the CBR mold specimen for 4 days (96hrs) before
penetration (testing)
 to simulate the effect of saturation of the pavement / subgrade
 To design for worst case scenario
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test (cont’d)

Soaking (cont’d)
 In dry areas, where saturation of subgrade is
unlikely, lower soaking period (1day) may be used
 Surcharging with min. 4.54kg annular weight required
during soaking – to simulate the overburden pressure
of the top pavement layers (subbase/base) on the
subgrade
 Measure the swelling of each mold specimens due to
soaking – take dial gauge readings during soaking and
final reading after the soaking period and compute the
CBR-swell (change in volume) as percent of the original
volume / length
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test (cont’d)

Unit Load vs Penetration
 Remove the specimen from the soaking tank, drain for
15min, mount the specimen on a CBR machine, place
annular surcharge on top of the specimen - ready for
testing
 A load is applied on the specimen by a cylindrical metal
plunger of 49.6 mm diameter and allowed to penetrate
the specimen at a constant rate of 1.27mm per minute
 Dial gauge readings of the applied load are recorded
for the corresponding penetrations at intervals of 0.64mm
(0.025in) and up to a total penetration of 7.62 mm (0.3in).
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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CBR Molding
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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 Subgrade Soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

Stress – Strain Curve
 Plot the applied unit load (resistance to penetration) against
the penetration (strain) on normal scale
 Correction of the stress-strain curve required if the curve starts
with a concave upward shape – for each specimen
 Obtain new corrected values by shifting the zero reading for
the strain and read corresponding unit load values at 2.54
and 5.08mm from the corrected curve
 Determine CBR values by dividing the corrected loads at 2.54
and 5.08mm with the corresponding standard load values as ;
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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 Subgrade Soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) cont’d

CBR (%) = (Corrected Unit Load / Standard Load )*100

Standard Loads,
Compaction Method KN
California applied 2.54mm 5.08mm
Standard AASHTO T99 –
standard / light 2.5kg
Load Values rammer 6.9 10.3
AASHTO T180 –
modified / heavy 4.5kg
rammer 13.24 19.96
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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Typical CBR Curves

Penetration Resistance, KN
CBR Curve for Standard
Crushed Material
for various Materials:
Correction NOT Required
1) Curve for Standard
Material

2) Curve Requiring
Correction Required for
NO Correction CBR Curve

3) Curve Requiring
Correction
0 2.5 5.1
Penetration, mm
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Illustration Molding Condition for CBR Specimen – heavy compaction

Example : Number of Blows 10blows 30blows 65blows
Weight of wet soil + mould
Determine the (gm) 10170 10222 10533
bulk densities Weight of mould (gm) 6750 6429 6395
, moisture Weight of wet soil (gm) 3420 3793 4138
content and Volume of mould (cm3) 2124 2124 2124
dry densities
Bulk density of soil (gm/cm3) 1.61 1.79 1.95
for the given
Molding Dry density of soil (gm/cm3) 1.26 1.40 1.53
Condition of Moisture Content
CBR test Weight of wet soil + container
Specimen and (gm) 225.60 232.80 206.50
Determine the Weight of dry soil + container
CBR values at (gm) 181.20 188.06 166.10
2.54 and Weight of container (gm) 20.30 24.60 18.70
5.08mm Weight of moisture (gm) 44.40 44.74 40.40
penetration Weight of dry soil (gm) 160.90 163.46 147.40
Moisture Content, % (m) 27.59 27.37 27.41
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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CBR Penetration Data - Excer. 1

Proving Ring Factor (KN/DIV) = 0.02422

10blows 30blows 65blows
Penetration Dial Dial Dial
mm Gauge Load in Corrected Gauge Load in Corrected Gauge Load in Corrected
Reading KN CBR Reading KN CBR Reading KN CBR
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.64 19 0.5 59 1.4 98 2.4
1.27 35 0.8 97 2.3 157 3.8
1.91 58 1.4 124 3 189 4.6
2.54 75 1.8 13.6 153 3.7 27.9 212 5.1 38.5
3.18 86 2.1 172 4.2 235 5.7
3.81 97 2.3 191 4.6 258 6.2
4.45 105 2.5 210 5.1 281 6.8
5.08 110 2.7 13.5 229 5.5 27.6 305 7.4 37.1
7.62 139 3.4 270 6.5 363 8.8
10.2 165 4 306 7.4 421 10.2
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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CBR PENETRATION DATA (Ans)

Proving Ring Factor (KN/DIV) = 0.02422
10blows 30blows 65blows
Penetration Dial Dial Dial
Corrected Gauge Load in Corrected Gauge Load in Corrected
mm Gauge Load in
Reading KN CBR Reading KN CBR Reading KN CBR
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.64 19 0.5 59 1.4 98 2.4
1.27 35 0.8 97 2.3 157 3.8
1.91 58 1.4 124 3 189 4.6
2.54 75 1.8 13.6 153 3.7 27.9 212 5.1 38.5
3.18 86 2.1 172 4.2 235 5.7
3.81 97 2.3 191 4.6 258 6.2
4.45 105 2.5 210 5.1 281 6.8
5.08 110 2.7 13.5 229 5.5 27.6 305 7.4 37.1
7.62 139 3.4 270 6.5 363 8.8
10.2 165 4 306 7.4 421 10.2
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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12.0
Is Correction for stress-
10.0 strain curve Required ??
8.0
Load (KN)

6.0

4.0 If the MMDD is

1.51g/cc, and OMC is
2.0
25.5%, what will be the
0.0 CBR values at 93%, 95%
0.00 2.54 5.08 7.62 10.16
Penetration (mm)
and 100% compaction
levels ???
Stress-Strain curve
 4. Subgrade Soils - CBR
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45
CBR %
No. of DD
40
Blows (g/cm3) 2.54 mm 5.08 mm
35
10 1.26 14 13
30

CBR (%)
30 1.40 28 28
65 1.53 39 37 25
20
15
Compaction DD CBR @
Level, % (g/cm3) 2.54 mm 10
93% 1.40 28 1.25 1.35 1.45 1.55
95% 1.43 30 Dry Density(g/cc)
100% 1.51 37 3-point CBR plot
@2.54mm penetration
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General Soil Type USC Soil Type CBR Range

GW 40 - 80
GP 30 - 60
Typical CBR GM 20 - 60
Ranges Coarse-grained GC 20 - 40
soils SW 20 - 40
SP 10 - 40
SM 10 - 40
SC 5 - 20
ML 15 or less
CL LL < 50% 15 or less
OL 5 or less
Fine-grained soils
MH 10 or less
CH LL > 50% 15 or less
OH 5 or less
 4. Subgrade Soils
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 Subgrade soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

 Design Subgrade CBR:
 The strength of subgrade soils is mainly dependent on:
 the grain size distribution,
 Compaction / density and
 moisture content.
 The CBR of the subgrade soil, therefore, should be evaluated at
the moisture content and density representative to the subgrade
condition during the service time of the pavement structure.
 4. Subgrade Soils – design CBR
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 Subgrade Soil tests: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

A road section usually consists of various types of soil
having variable strength and characteristics
 Group the road stretches in to uniform segments having
fairly similar subgrade strength and geotechnical
characteristics
 By studying geology, soil map, drainage conditions, road
geometry terrain classification, etc of the area;
 Visual identification of the subgrade soil cover
 Site and laboratory investigation – test pitting, logging and
sampling and testing to establish the soil geotechnical
parameters (Classification, Plasticity, Strength properties)
 4. Subgrade Soils – design CBR
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 Design Subgrade CBR (cont’d)

 Analyze the km-wise distribution of the CBR and plasticity
characteristics of the subgrade along the road stretch
 Finally identify the dominant subgrade types and delineate
uniform pavement / road section – more emphasis given on
laboratory soaked CBR values.
 Consider Special /local treatment for weak spots –
treat separately
 For pavement design, safe design CBR value is
commonly considered to be that value occurring
90% of the time, (i.e. the highest CBR value of the
lowest 10% bracket in the CBR frequency curve –
refer Exercise-2)
 Plot cumulative frequency percentage curve for CBR
 Subgrade Soils – design CBR
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Chainage CBR at 95%

Design Subgrade CBR Km Depth MMDD
41+000 20-100 7
41+500 20-100 6
42+000 20-100 8
42+500 20-100 7
Exercise-2 43+000 20-100 9
SEC-3 43+500 20-100 12
44+000 20-100 8
For the given 44+500 20-100 8
laboratory test 45+000 20-100 14
45+500 20-100 8
data, determine Design 46+000 20-100 17
CBR value. 46+500 20-100 9
47+000 20-100 8
47+500 20-100 8
 4. Subgrade Soils – design CBR
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Design Subgrade CBR – Exercise-2 (cont’d)

CBR Plot: Sec -III :
Soaked CBR frequency curve data km 41+000 to km47+500
Sec III : km 41+000 to km 47+500 100%

Cumm. Percentage Occurrence

90%
CBR Category Frequency Percentile 80%
6 >6 13 100% 70%
60%
7 >7 11 85%
50%
8 >8 5 38%
40%
9 >9 3 23%
30%
12 >12 2 15%
20%
14 >14 1 8%
10%
17 >17 0 0%
0%
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
7
CBR
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 Subgrade Resilient Modulus Test

 ResilientModulus Test, MR, is the elastic modulus

obtained from repetitive load test that simulates the
actual pavement loading.

 MR is defined as the ratio of the repeated deviator

stress σd to the recoverable axial strain εr.
 4. Subgrade Soils
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Stress Distribution in Pavement Layers

Beneath a Moving Wheel Load.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Resilient Modulus Test

 Most paving materials are not elastic but experience some
permanent deformation after each load application.
 However, if the load is small compared to the strength of
the material and is repeated for a large numbers of
times, the deformation under each load repetition is
nearly completely recoverable and proportional to the
load and can be considered as elastic.
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 Subgrade soil tests: Resilient Modulus Test

 At the initial stage of load applications, there is considerable
permanent deformation (Plastic strain).
 As the number of repetitions increases, the plastic strain due to
each load repetitions decreases. After 100 to 200
repetitions, the strain is practically all recoverable.

NOTE:
• Mr is a measure of
stiffness
• CBR is a measure of
strength (load at failure}

Correlations:
Mr = 1491 (CBR)0.684
 4. Subgrade Soils
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Correlation Chart for CBR VS Mr

50000
Subgrade Resilent Modulus, Mr

45000 y = 1941.x0.684
40000 R² = 1
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Subgrade CBR

Source : http://apps.acpa.org/apps/mrsg.aspx
 4. Subgrade Soils -
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 Soil Classifications
 Soils are variable engineering materials !!
 As a means of obtaining general behavior, soils are
systematically categorized on the basis of some common
characteristics obtained from visual description, during soil
boring, and laboratory tests.
 The most commonly used classification systems for highway
purposes are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Classification System and
the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).
 These classification systems only help engineers to predict how
the soil will behave if used as a subgrade or subbase
material, however, the information obtained should not be
regarded as a substitute for the detailed investigation of the soil
properties.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 Soils are categorized into seven groups, A-1 through
A-7, with several subgroups
 Soil Classification is based on its particle size
distribution, and plasticity characteristics such as Liquid
Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI )
 Soils are evaluated within each group by using an
empirical formula to determine the group index (GI) of
the soils.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 4. Subgrade Soils
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

GI = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15)(PI - 10)

where, GI = group index
F = % of soil particles passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve
LL = liquid limit expressed in whole number, and
PI = plasticity index expressed in whole number.

 The GI is determined to the nearest whole number.

 A value of zero should be recorded when a negative value is
obtained for the GI.
 Also, in determining the GI for A-2-6 and A-2-7
subgroups, the LL part is not used, that is, only the second
term of the equation is used.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 Classifying soils under the AASHTO system is finding the
correct group for the particle size distribution and Atterberg
limits of the soil from the classification table.
 The group is then designated using the GI value.

 Granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3.

 A-1 soils consist of well-graded granular materials,

 A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts and clays, and
 A-3 soils are clean but poorly graded sands.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 Fine soils fall into classes A-4 to A-7.
 A-4 soils cover non-plastic or moderately plastic soils,
 A-5 contains similar material to Group A-4 but high LL.
 A-6 soils are typical plastic clays exhibiting high volume
change between wet and dry states.
 Group A-7 covers plastic clays, having high values of LL and
PI and show high volume change.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 In general, according to the AASHTO system of
classification, the suitability of a soil deposit for use in highway
construction can be summarized as follows:
 Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 can
be used satisfactorily as good subgrade or subbase material
if properly drained.
 In addition, such soils must be properly compacted and
covered with an adequate thickness of pavement for the
surface load to be carried.
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 Soil Classifications: AASHTO Classification System

 Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-
5, and A-7-6 will require a layer of subbase material if used as
subgrade.
 If these are to be used as embankment materials, special
attention must be given to the design of the embankment.
 Generally, as the GI of a soil increases its value as subgrade
material decreases.
 For example, a soil with a GI of 0 (an indication of a good
subgrade material) will be better as a subgrade material
than one with GI of 20 (an indication of a poor subgrade
material).
Example
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Originally developed by Casagrande during World War II for
use in airfield construction, USCS has been modified several
times to obtain the current version.
 The fundamental premise used in the USCS system is that, the
engineering properties of any coarse-grained soil depend on
particle size distribution, whereas those for a fine-grained soil
depend on its plasticity.
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 The system classifies coarse-grained soils on the basis of grain
size characteristics and fine-grained soils according to plasticity
characteristics.
 In this system of classification, material that is retained in the 75
mm (3 in.) sieve is recorded, but only that which passes the sieve is
used for the classification of the sample.
 Soils are designated by letter symbols with each letter having a
particular meaning.
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Coarse-grained soils:

 Soils with more than 50 percent particles retained on

No. 200 sieve.
 The coarse-grained soils are subdivided into:
 Gravels (G)  soils having more than 50 percent of
their particles larger than 4.75 mm (i.e., retained on
No. 4 sieve), and
 Sands (S)  those with more than 50 percent of their
particles smaller than 4.75 mm (i.e., passed through No.
4 sieve).
 4. Subgrade Soils
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 4. Subgrade Soils
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Coarse-grained soils, Cont’d :
 A gravel or sandy soil is described as well graded or poorly
graded, depending on the values of two shape parameters known as
coefficient of uniformity, Cu, and coefficient of curvature, Cc given as:

2 D60 = grain diameter at 60% passing

D60 ( D30 ) D30 = grain diameter at 30% passing
Cu = Cc =
D10 D10 × D60 D10 = grain diameter at 10% passing

 Accordingly, gravels are described as well graded if Cu is above

4, and Cc is between 1 and 3.
 Sands are also described as well graded if Cu is above 6, and Cc
is between 1 and 3.
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Coarse-grained soils, Cont’d :

 Moreover, coarse-grained soils with more than 12 percent fines

(i.e., passes No. 200 sieve) are classified as silty (M) or clayey
(C) depending on their LL plots.
 Those soils with plots below the “A” line or with a PI < 4 are
silty gravel (GM) or silty sand (SM)
 Those with plots above the "A” line with a PI greater than 7 are
classified as clayey gravels (GC) or clayey sands (SC).

See Lecture Handout !!

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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Fine-grained soils:
 Soils with less than 50 percent particles retained on the No. 200
sieve.
 Thefine-grained soils are subdivided into clays (C) or silt (M)
based on a plasticity chart plotted PI versus LL of the soil.
 Soilsthat fall below the “A” line are silty soils, whereas those
with plots above the "A” line are clayey soils.
 Organic clays are an exception to this general rule since they
plot below the "A" line.
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 Soil Classifications: Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

 Fine-grained soils, Cont’d:
 The organic, silty, and clayey soils are further divided into
two groups, one having a relatively low LL (L) and the other
having a relatively high LL (H).
 The dividing line between high LL soils and low LL soils is
arbitrarily set at 50 percent.
 Fine-grained soils are, thus, further classified as either silt with
low plasticity (ML), silt with high plasticity (MH), clays with
high plasticity (CH), clays with low plasticity (CL), or organic
with high plasticity (OH).
 USCS: Coarse Grained Soils
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 USCS: Fine Grained Soils
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 4. Subgrade Soils – Problematic Soils
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 Problem Soils – for road

 Expansive soils
 Erodible soils
 Soils on Marshy / swampy areas
 Expansive Soils
 Commonly known as black cotton soils
 Characterized by high plasticity – LL above 55 and PI
above 32 and high shrinkage limit (SL) above
 High percent of CBR Swell – generally above 3%
 Very low strength when saturated, CBR below 3 but
very high strength when dry
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 Problem Soils (cont’d)

 Identifiedby their Swell potential
Low expansive potential
Intermediate expansive potential
High expansive potential
 The swell potential is manifested on site by wide and deep
cracking of the subgrade – visually identifiable. Main cause
is volume changes due to moisture fluctuation in the
subgrade
 Considered Very poor foundation material
 It causes heaving, wide cracks, and excessive deformations
to the road pavement when exposed to moisture fluctuation
 4. Subgrade Soils – Problematic Soils
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 Problem Soils (cont’d)

 Recommended Treatment
Avoid or minimize exposure of subgrade /
embankment to moisture fluctuation by
various methods
 by means of blanketing the embankment
layer-with good gravel layer of about 30cm
 Use Replacement method - the most common
and fairly economical and reliable method –
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 Problem Soils (cont’d)

 Mostly occurs in flat plains – alluvial deposits- so Raising the
road level / using embankment material/ by at least
1.5meter is recommended to separate the pavement layers
from the zone of high moisture fluctuation
 Replace the top 600mm layer of the expansive clay soil if
high embankment construction is not possible,
 Provide French drain to lower the high water table and cut
off such as plastic sheets vertically to intercept horizontal
movement of water not to enter into embankment
 Provide berms at foot of embankments –to separate the
embankment from the flood plain - and construct the side
ditches away from road embankments, at least 3m away
from toe of embankment
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 In swampy / marshy grounds, natural soil cover is

commonly characterized by highly expansive and
compressible clay

 use dump rock fill or granular material as

pioneer layer in marshy / swampy areas to
subdue the swelling effect of the expansive soil
and also to provide a working platform for
compaction of first layers of embankments
 4. Subgrade Soils – Problematic Soils
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Questions?