Lecture 5: Tension, Compression and Shear

Introduction to Engineering Design 1A (IINEEA1)

Mr. R.T. TEBETA
Contents

• Part 2 - Chapter 1: Tension, Compression and Shear

• Equilibrium Equations
• Applied Forces
• Reactive Forces and Support Conditions
• Normal stress and strain
• Mechanical properties of materials
• Linear elasticity, Hooke’s law, and Poissons' ratio
• Shear stress and strain
• Factors of Safety
• Next Week
Introduction
• Mechanics of materials:- It is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behaviour of
solid bodies subjected to various types of loading.
• The solid bodies considered in this e-book include bars with axial loads, shafts in torsion,
beams in bending, and columns in compression.
• The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to determine the stresses, strains, and
displacements in structures and their components due to the loads acting on them.
• Thus, the mechanical behaviour of these structures is essential for the safe design of all types
of structures, e.g airplanes, buildings, bridges, machines, motors, ships etc.
• Statics and dynamics are also essential, but these deal primarily with the forces and motions
associated with particles and rigid bodies.
• For most problems of the external and internal forces acting on a stable deformable body,
- (i) the loads acting on the body; along with its support conditions are first determined.

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Introduction
- (ii) determine reaction forces at supports and internal forces in its members or elements
using the basic laws of static equilibrium (provided that it is statically determinate).
- (iii) A well-constructed free-body diagram is required for the entire body.

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Equilibrium Equations
• The resultant force R and resultant moment M of all forces and moments acting on either a
rigid or deformable body in equilibrium are both zero.
• The sum of the moments may be taken about any arbitrary point.

𝑅 = ෍𝐹 = 0 …………………… 1

𝑀 = ෍𝑀 = ෍ 𝑟 × 𝐹 =0 …………………… 2

• The equilibrium equations can be written in scalar form using a rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system as:

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 0

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Equilibrium Equations
Note: If the number of unknown forces is equal to the number of independent equilibrium
equations, the above equations are sufficient to solve for all unknown reaction or internal forces
in the body. However, the problem is referred to as statically determinate. (provided that the
body is stable)

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Applied Forces
• The external loads applied to the body or structure as shown in Fig. 1.1 may be either
concentrated or distributed forces or moments.

Fig 1.1: Plane frame structure

• Force “FB” is a point or concentrated load and it is assumed to act at point B on the body.
• Moment “MA” is a concentrated moment or couple acting at point A.

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Applied Forces
• Distributed forces may act alone or normal to a member and may have constant intensity,
such as line load q1 normal to member BC.
• Or line load q2 acting in the y direction on inclined member DF.
• Both q1 and q2 have units of force intensity (lb/ft or N/m).
• Free-Body Diagrams:
• A free-body diagram (FBD) is an essential part of a static analysis of a
• rigid or deformable body.
• Note that all forces acting on the body, or component part of the body (including the applied
forces and moments, reaction forces and any connection forces between individual
components) must be displayed on the FBD if a correct equilibrium solution is to be
determined.

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Applied Forces
• For example, an overall FBD of the plane frame in Fig. 1-1 is shown below.

• All the applied and reaction

forces are shown on the FBD
and statically equivalent concentrated
loads are displayed for all distributed
loads.

• Statically equivalent forces Fq0, Fq1, and Fq2, each acting at the center of gravity of the
corresponding distributed loading, are used in the equilibrium equation solution to represent
distributed loads q0, q1, and q2, respectively.

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*Picture Sourced from Prescribed eBook
Reactive Forces and Support Conditions
Some of the most commonly used supports are illustrated as follows:

(1) Roller support— horizontal, vertical, or inclined

(2) Pin support

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Reactive Forces and Support Conditions
Some of the most commonly used supports are illustrated as follows:

(3) Sliding support (5) Elastic of spring support

(4) Clamped or fixed support

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Example 1
The plane truss shown in Fig. 1-2 is pin supported at A and has a roller support
at B. Joint loads 2P and P are applied at joint C. Find support reactions at joints A and B, then
solve for forces in members AB, AC and BC. Use numerical properties given below.

Numerical data: P = 160 kN, L = 3 m, θA = 60°, b = 2.2 m

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Example 1 - Solution
(1) Use the law of sines to find angles θB and θC , then find the length (c) of member AB.

(2) Draw the FBD, then use equilibrium equations in scalar form to find the support reactions.

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(3) Find member forces using the method of joints.
Draw FBDs of each joint then sum forces in x and y directions to find member
forces.

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Example 2
The simply-supported beam structure shown in Fig. 1-3 is subjected to moment MA at pin-
supported joint A, inclined load FB applied at joint B, and uniform load with intensity q1 on member
segment BC. Find support reactions at joints A and C, then solve for internal forces at the
midpoint of BC. Use properly drawn free-body diagrams in your solution.

Given numerical
data:
a = 3 m,
b = 2 m,
MA = 380 N.m,
FB = 200 N,
q1 = 160 N/m

Fig. 1-3

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Example 2 - Solution
(1) Draw the FBD of the overall beam.
The solution for reaction forces at A and C must begin with a proper drawing of
the FBD of the overall beam as shown below. The FBD shows all applied and
reactive forces.

(2) Determine statically equivalent concentrated forces. Distributed forces are

replaced by their statical equivalents (Fq1) and the components of the inclined
concentrated force at B may also be computed:

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(3) Sum the moments about A to find reaction force Cy.

This structure is statically determinate because there are three available equations from statics
(ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, and ΣM = 0) and three reaction unknowns (Ax, Ay, Cy).

(4) Sum the forces in x and y directions to find reaction forces at A.

Now that Cy is known, we can complete the equilibrium analysis to find Ax and Ay using ΣFx =
0 and ΣFy = 0. Then we can find the resultant reaction force at A using components Ax and
Ay:

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(5) Find the internal forces and moment at the midpoint of member
segment BC.

Now that reaction forces at A and C are known, we can cut a section through the beam
midway between B and C, creating left and right FBDs as shown below.
Section forces: Nc (axial) and Vc (shear) as well as section moment (Mc) are exposed and
may be computed using statics.

❖ Calculations based on left FBD:

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 ❖ Calculations based on right FBD:

The computed internal forces (N and V) and internal moment (M) are the same and
can be determined using either the left or right FBD.

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Normal Stress and Strain

• The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. These
concepts can be illustrated in their most elementary form by considering a prismatic bar
subjected to axial forces.
• A prismatic bar is a straight structural member having the same cross section throughout its
length.
• An axial force is a load directed along the axis of the member, resulting in either tension or
compression in the bar.
• Examples of prismatic member are tow bar, landing gear, bridge truss, connecting rods in
automobile engines, spokes of bicycle wheels, columns in buildings etc.

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Normal Stress and Strain

• Example of prismatic bar in tension:

(a) Free body diagram of a segment of the
bar,
(b) segment of the bar before loading,
(c) segment of the bar after loading, and
(d) normal stresses in the bar.

• The internal actions in the bar are

exposed if we make an imaginary cut
• through the bar at section [mn].
• When the bar is stretched by the forces
P, the stresses are tensile Stresses
(+); if the forces are reversed in
direction, causing the bar to be
compressed, it is compressive
stresses (-).

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Normal Stress and Strain

• Stress has units of force per unit area:

• This equation gives the intensity of uniform stress in an axially loaded,

• prismatic bar of arbitrary cross-sectional shape.

• In general, the stress ‘σ’ acting on a plane surface may be uniform

• throughout the area or may vary in intensity from one point to another.

• In as much as the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are called
normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.

• Stress has units of Newton per square meter (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa).

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Example 4

A force of 20 kN is acting on a circular rod with diameter 10 mm. Calculate the stress developed
in the rod.
Solution:
Force F = 20 kN
Diameter d = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Area = πd2/4, A = 0.00007855 m2
Stress, σ = F/A
σ = 20 x 103/0.00007855
σ = 254,614,895 N/m2 or 254,6 MPa

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Normal Strain

• The straight bar will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when in tension
and shorter when in compression.
• Elongation “δ” of the bar is the cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the
material throughout the volume of the bar.
• Strain is given by the equation:

• If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain, representing an elongation or
stretching of the material.
• If the bar is in compression, the strain is a compressive strain and the bar shortens.
• The strain “ε” is called a normal strain because it is associated with normal stresses.
• It is a dimensionless quantity, and has no units

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Example 5

A thin strip of rubber has an un-stretched length of 375 mm. If it is stretched around a pipe
having an outer diameter of 125 mm, determine the average normal strain in the strip.

Solution:

L0 = 375 mm
L = π(125 mm)

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Mechanical Properties of Materials

• The mechanical behavior of a material is required for the design of machines and structures
as well as for their proper functionality.
• Most materials-testing laboratories are equipped with machines capable of loading specimens
in a variety of ways, including both static and dynamic loading in tension and compression.
• A typical example is a tensile-testing machine setup shown below.

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Mechanical Properties of Materials
• The ends of the specimen are enlarged where they fit in the grips so that failure will not occur
near the grips themselves.

• A failure at the ends would not produce the desired information about the material, because
the stress distribution near the grips is not uniform.

• The device at the left, which is attached by two arms to the specimen, is an extensometer
that measures the elongation during loading.

• The dimensions of the test specimens and the methods of applying loads must be
standardized i.e following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard.

• The ASTM standard tension specimen has a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gauge length of 50.8
mm between the gage marks, which are the points where the extensometer arms are attached
to the specimen

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

• Test results generally depend upon the dimensions of the specimen being tested.

• When the initial area of the specimen is used in the calculation, the stress is called the
nominal stress (other names are conventional stress and engineering stress).

• A more exact value of the axial stress, called the true stress, can be calculated by using the
actual area of the bar at the cross section where failure occurs.

• Also if the initial gage length is used in the calculation (for instance, 50 mm), then the nominal
strain is obtained. Since the distance between the gage marks increases as the tensile load is
applied, we can calculate the true strain (or natural strain) at any value of the load by using
the actual distance between the gage marks.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams
Necking of a mild-steel bar in
tension

• The stress-strain diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means
that the relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional.
• Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists.
• The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

• Where there is no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is
known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The material
becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it deforms without an increase in the applied
load.
• After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins
to strain harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline
structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation.
• The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is
called the ultimate stress.
• Fracture at point E in the necking region.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams

• When a material does not have an obvious yield point and yet undergoes large strains after
the proportional limit is exceeded, an arbitrary yield stress may be determined by the offset
method. The intersection defines the yield stress.

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Stress-Strain Diagrams
• The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation and by the
reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.
• The percent elongation is defined as

• The percent reduction in area measures the amount of necking that occurs and is defined
as

• The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond the strain at the
elastic limit is known as plasticity.
• When large deformations occur in a ductile material loaded into the plastic region, the
material is said to undergo plastic flow.
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Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio

• When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.

• The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression is
expressed by the equation
• σ - axial stress,
• ε - axial strain, and
• E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of
elasticity for the material.

• The above equation is also known as Hooke’s Law

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Poisson’s Ratio

When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction
• The lateral strain ε‫ י‬at any point in
a bar is proportional to the axial
strain ε at that same point if the
material is linearly elastic.

• The ratio of these strains is a

property of the material known as
Poisson’s ratio.

• This dimensionless ratio, usually

denoted by ν (nu), can be
expressed by the equation:

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Example 6

The figure shown below is a steel rod of length 300 mm and diameter 20 mm. If an axial force of
25 kN is applied, calculate:
(i) The internal loading,
(ii) Normal stress,
(iii) Strain,
(iv) Change in diameter.
Take E to be 200 GPa and v = 0.3

25 kN 25 kN

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Example 6 -Solution

(i) The internal loading N:

σ 𝑭 = 𝟎 : N = +25 kN
(ii) Normal stress:
N = 25 kN, A= 𝝅d2/4 = 𝝅 (0.02)2/4 = 0.0003142 m2
𝑵 𝟐𝟓 (𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
𝝈= = = 𝟕𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟒𝟕𝟏, 𝟓𝟓 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟓𝟖 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑨 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟐
(ii) Normal strain:
𝝈
Ɛ = = 3.98 x 10−4 mm/mm
𝑬
(iv) Change in diameter ∆d:
Ɛlat
ν= - Ɛlat =−νƐlong =−0.3 (3.98 x 10−4 )= −1.2x10−4 mm/mm
Ɛlong
∆d
Ɛlat , therefore, ∆d =(−1.2x10−4) (0.02) = −0.00239m = 2.39 mm
d
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Shear Stress and Strain

• Shear stress: It acts tangential to the surface of the material.

• A good illustration is the action of shear stresses of the connection as shown below. It consists
of a flat bar A, a clevis C, and a bolt B that passes through holes in the bar and clevis.

• Under the action of the tensile loads P, the bar and clevis will press against the bolt in
bearing, and contact stresses called the bearing stresses will be developed.
• The bar and clevis tend to shear the bolt, that is, cut through it, and this tendency is resisted
by shear stresses in the bolt.

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Shear Stress and Strain
• The average shear stress on the cross section of a bolt is obtained by dividing the total shear
force V by the area A of the cross section on which it acts, as follows:

• To obtain a more complete picture of the action of shear stresses, let us consider a small
element of material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped as shown below; having sides
of lengths a, b, and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

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Shear strain

• Shear stresses acting on an element of material are accompanied by shear strains.

• The original element, which is a rectangular parallelepiped, is deformed into an oblique
parallelepiped, and the front and rear faces become rhomboids.
• The angle “ ” is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is
called the shear strain.
• It is usually measured in degrees or radians.
• Hooke’s law in shear:

• where G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).
• The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation:
• E, G, and ν are not independent elastic properties of the material.

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Example 7

A punch for making holes in steel plates is shown in Fig. 1-4a. Assume that a punch having
diameter d 20 mm is used to punch a hole in an 8 mm plate, as shown in the cross-sectional
view (Fig. 1-4b). If a force P 110 kN is required to create the hole, what is the average shear
stress in the plate and the average compressive stress in the punch?

Fig. 1-4

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Example 7 - Solution

The average shear stress in the plate is obtained by dividing the force P by the shear area of the
plate. The shear area As is equal to the circumference of the hole times the thickness of the
plate, or

in which d is the diameter of the punch and t is the thickness of the plate. Therefore, the
average shear stress in the plate is:

The average compressive stress in the punch is:

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Factors of Safety

• If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure is capable of supporting must be
greater than the loads it will be subjected to when in service.
• In other word, the actual strength of a structure must exceed the required strength. The
ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the factor of safety n:

• Note that the factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 if failure is to be avoided.
• Depending upon the circumstances, factors of safety from slightly above 1.0 to as much as
10 are used.

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Allowable Stresses
• Yielding begins when the yield stress is reached at any point within the structure. Therefore, by applying
a factor of safety with respect to the yield stress (or yield strength), we obtain an allowable stress (or
working stress) that must not be exceeded anywhere in the structure.

• Thus,

or, for tension and shear, respectively,

in which σY and τY are the yield stresses and n1 and n2 are the
corresponding factors of safety.

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Example 8

In a building design where the typical factor of safety with respect to yielding in tension is 1.67. If
the mild steel used has a yield stress of 250 MPa, calculate the allowable stress.
Solution:

250
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1.67

Allowable stress = 149.7 ≈ 150 MPa

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