Forces
A force in its simplest form is a push or pull.
However, a much descriptive definition is: A force is anything which can change the size, shape
or motion of a body.
Force is measured in Newtons (N) named after the scientist Isaac Newton.
Force = mass x acceleration
F= ma
Units = newtons (N) or kg x ms-2
1N = 1kg ms-2
There are many types of forces:
1) Gravitational Force – this type of force is always an ‘attractive’ force which exist
between bodies due to their masses. This force acts downward through the center of
bodies. An example of this type of force is weight. The weight of a body (on a given
planet) is the gravitational force of attraction exerted on the body.
The moon is kept in orbit around earth by gravitational force.
Weight is a force and is dependent on
a) the mass of a body
b) the gravitational field strength (g) of the planet
Earth g = 10 ms-2 (unless stated otherwise in a question)
Formula for weight (W): W = m g
2) Magnetic force – the attractive or repulsive forces that exist between bodies due to
their magnetic polarities. Exist between like and unlike magnetic poles.
3) Electrical/ electrostatic forces – the attractive or repulsive force which exist between
electrically charged bodies.
4) Nuclear forces – these forces exist between particles in the nucleus of an atom or ion. It
is extremely strong attractive forces which bind together the subatomic particles of an
atomic nuclei.
5) Elastic forces – the restoring force produced when a body is stretched or compressed.
6) Mechanical forces – the forces which exist between bodies in contact. These can be
pushes, pulls, normal reactions, friction.
Friction – frictional forces exist between two bodies that move relative to each other. Friction is
a resistive force meaning that it leads to the motion of the body being reduced (slows the body
down) and heat is produced from this interaction. For example, car tyres ‘rub’ against the road
or when a parachutist move relative to the air.
The more contact the surfaces have the greater the effect of friction. Lubricant reduces friction
as it limits contact between the two surfaces. For instance it is easier for a car to run off a wet
road than a dry one. Friction leads to wear and tear of machines.
Forces can be categorized as Contact and Non- Contact.
Contact forces are forces that act on an object by touching it at a point of contact. For example,
a bat must touch a ball to hit it and a string must be tied to an object to pull it (tension). Most
of the forces that we will examine are contact forces.
Non- contact forces are forces that act on an object without physical contact. For example,
magnetism, if you hold a magnet over a paper clip the paper clip will lean up to the magnet. A
coffee cup released from your hand is pulled to the earth by the long-range force of gravity.
Mass and Weight
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter making up the body.
The weight of a body is the force of gravity on the body.
Weight is a force and is dependent on
a) the mass of a body
b) the gravitational field strength (g) of the planet
Earth: Acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 ms-2 (unless stated otherwise in a question)
Gravitational field strength g = 10N kg-1
Both are given the symbol g and the units are equivalent.
Formula for weight (W): W = m g
Example:
If the mass of a body is 100g, calculate its weight.
W= m(kg) x g (10N kg-1)
= 100/1000 x 10 = 1N
Mass Weight
Mass is a property of matter. The mass of an Weight depends on the effect of gravity.
object is the same everywhere. Weight varies according to location.
Mass can never be zero, Weight can be zero if no gravity acts upon an
object, as in space.
Mass does not change according to location. Weight increases or decreases with higher or
lower gravity.
Mass is a scalar quantity. It has magnitude. Weight is a vector quantity. It has magnitude
and is directed toward the center of the
earth or other gravity well.
Mass may be measured using an ordinary Weight is measured using a spring balance.
balance.
Mass usually is measured in grams and Weight often is measured in newtons a unit
kilograms. of force.
Unit: Kilogram (kg) W = mg
Unit: Newton (N)
Effects of Forces
Recall: A force is anything which can change the size, shape or motion of a body.
Therefore, a force can cause a body to:
• Start or stop moving
• Change direction
• Change its speed
• Change shape or size of a body – this is known as deformation.
Balanced and unbalanced forces
When two or more forces act on a body, they can result in balanced net force or in an
unbalanced net force.
Balanced forces
When two or more forces acting on an object produces no resultant force, it is said that the
forces are balanced.
• Stationary objects remain stationary
Figure 1 Book on a table
Figure 1 shows the forcing acting on a book placed on a table. W is the weight of the book and
N is the force acting on the book due to the table. In this case W=N (equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction) and the resultant force is zero, therefore the book remains stationary.
The book remains stationary as the surface of the table exerts an equal and opposite upward
force on the book. This upward force is a contact force and is only present when the book is in
contact with the table.
• Moving objects continue to move at the same speed (constant velocity)
Figure 2 Car moving at constant velocity
Figure 2 shows a car moving at constant velocity. F represents the forward force provided by
the road on the front driving wheels. Fr is the air resistance acting on the car and f is the
frictional force. If F= Fr + f, then the resultant force is zero and the car moves at constant
velocity (No acceleration).
Unbalanced forces
Unbalanced forces can cause a change in the shape or size of an object and a change in the
motion of the object.
From above, if there is no resultant force acting on an object, then the object will remain
stationary or move at constant velocity. However, if there is a resultant force the object will
experience changes.
Figure 1 the trolley will accelerate if T>f
Figure 1 shows a trolley being pulled by a string with tension T. The frictional force f acts on the
wheels. The trolley is observed to accelerate if the tension (forward force) is > frictional force.
Figure 2 the car will accelerate if F > Fr + f
Figure 2 shows an accelerating car. This can happen only if the forward force F on the driving
wheels is larger than the combined resistive forces of air resistance Fr and friction.
Deformation
Deformation refers to the change in size or shape of an object.
When a force is applied on some objects, the objects become deformed but they regain their
original shapes as soon as the force is removed. Those objects are said to be elastic eg, rubber
bands, springs, balls and balloons.
Objects that are permanently deformed as said to be plastic.
Hooke’s Law
As indicated before, unbalanced force has the ability to deform an object. This concept is
investigated through Hooke’s Law with respect to the deformation of spring systems.
In general, if a tensile (i.e., stretching force) is applied to a spring system it may produce an
extension, which is an increase in length.
To understand the relationship between force and extension Hooke’s Law is used.
Hooke’s law states that once the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded then the applied
force (F) is directly proportional to the extension (x or e)
In mathematical form: F ∝ e or F∝x
F = ke or F = kx
k- is a constant of proportionality and is known as the spring constant.
The spring constant measures the stiffness of the material i.e. the force per unit extension. The
higher the “k” value a greater force is required to cause a fixed extension. The lower the “k”
value less force is required.
F = ke
k = F/e
e= F/k
Example: A mass of 100g is attached to a spring and it extends from 10cm to 12cm. What is the
force applied and hence determine the spring constant (force per unit extension)?
Remember: The weight of a body is the force of gravity on the body.
If the mass is 100g, its weight:
W= m(kg) x g (10N kg-1)
= 100/1000 x 10 = 1N
Extension (e)= 12cm -10cm= 2cm = 0.02m (100cm = 1m, therefore 2/100 = 0.02m)
Using Hooke’s Law: F = ke
1N = k x 0.02
k 1/0.02 = 50 N/m
Question 1
A mass of 500g is applied to 20cm upstretched spring of spring constant 10N/m. What is the
extension and the length of the spring?
Limit of proportionality
Spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of a spring up to its limit of proportionality or
elastic limit.
The limit of proportionality refers to the point beyond which Hooke's law is no longer true
when stretching a material.
The elastic limit of a material is the furthest point it can be stretched or deformed while being
able to return to its previous shape. Once a material has gone past its elastic limit, its
deformation is said to be inelastic.
When an elastic object is stretched beyond its limit of proportionality, the object does not
return to its original length when the force is removed. In this instance, the relationship
between force and extension changes from being linear, or directly proportional, to being non-
linear.
Graphically, Hooke’s law is represented below:
Hooke’s law is only obeyed for the straight-line section of the graph. In this region the elastic
deformation occurs whereby if an object is deformed it regains its original shape and size.
Straight line eq’n: y = mx + c
F= k x
m = spring constant
After the elastic limit Hooke’s law is no longer obeyed and the object is permanently deformed.
