CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL

FOUNDATIONS
Elements, Atoms, and Ions…OH MY!
The Elements
 What is an element?
A substance that cannot be broken down by ordinary
chemical means.
 Matter’s building blocks!

 Roughly 118 different elements (118 unique atoms)!

 Every element made up of unique atoms.

 A Pure Substance (Remember this?!)

The Elements in Your World
 Most abundant elements on the earth:
 1. Oxygen 49.2%
 2. Silicon 25.7%
 3. Aluminum 7.50%
 4. Iron 4.71%
 5. Calcium 3.39%
 6. Sodium 2.63%
 7. Potassium 2.40%
 8. Magnesium 1.93%
 9. Hydrogen 0.87%
 10. Titanium 0.59%
 All others = 1.12%
The Elements in Your Body
 Most abundant
 1. Oxygen 65.0%
 2. Carbon 18.0%
 3. Hydrogen 10.0%
 4. Nitrogen 3.0%
 5. Calcium 1.4%
 6. Phosphorous 1.0%
 7. Magnesium 0.5%
 8. Potassium 0.34%
 9. Sulfur 0.26%
 10. Sodium 0.14%
 11. All others 0.147%
Element Nomenclature
 Every element has a name and a symbol
 Examples:
◼ Gold = Au
◼ Krypton = Kr
◼ Oxygen = O

 The symbols are derived from names in Latin,

Greek, and English
 Gold, Au, comes from the Latin “Aurum”
 Krypton, Kr, comes from the greek Kryptos, meaning
hidden
Elements you need to know
 Elements 1-20 – Memorize
 H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl,
Ar, K, Ca
 Commonly used elements – Memorize
 Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Tc, Pd, Ag, Cd, W, Os,
Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Rb, Cs, Fr, Sr, Ba, Ra, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, Po,
Br, I, At, Sn, Pb, U, Pu, Kr, Xe, Rn
 Need Help? Here’s a good way to get started:
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy0m7jnyv6U
Chemical Formulas
 Element symbols are kind of like “letters” of the alphabet
 When we put them together with other elements we form
compounds (atoms of different elements bonded together –
the “words” of chemistry)
 Consist of two components:
 Symbols – identity of elements present
 Subscripts – tell us how many atoms of each are present (no need
for a “1”)
 Chemical formulas have to tell us:
 What elements are in the compound (composition)?
 How many atoms of each are in the compound (contribution of
each)?
Chemical Formulas
 What elements are present in the following
compounds AND how many of each atom are
present?
 C6H12O6

 NaCl

 PbI2

 C17H21NO4

 C7H5N3O9
Origins of Atomic Theory
 Greeks – the word “atom” comes from the greek “a
tomos” meaning “not cutting”
 Over time, scientists began to see most matter as
either mixtures or pure substances.
 John Dalton used evidence from his research on
gases and gas properties to create the first atomic
theory.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 1. Elements are made of tiny
particles called atoms.
 2. All atoms of a given element are
identical.
 3. The atoms of a given element are
different from those of any other
element.
 4. Atoms of one element can
combine with atoms of other
elements to form compounds. A
given compound always has the
same relative numbers and types of
atoms.
 5. Atoms are indivisible in chemical
processes. Atoms are not created
nor destroyed in a chemical
reactions. Reactions simply change
the way atoms are grouped
together.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Are these all true?
 Thoughts?

 Contemporary Issues with Dalton’s Theory

 Issuesregarding his laboratory techniques*
 Evidentiary support
The Modern Atom
 Two scientists, JJ Thomson and Ernest Rutherford,
helped discover the true nature of the atom.
 Their experiments helped to understand that the
atom itself is composed of different sub-atomic
particles AND how those particles are arranged
within the atom
JJ Thomson
 Thomson used a device called a cathode ray tube
 His experiment helped identify an important
subatomic particle
 http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::100%::1
00%::/sites/dl/free/0072512644/117354/01_C
athode_Ray_Tube.swf::Cathode%20Ray%20Tube
 Concluded that if the electron was only a part of
the atom, there must be positive particles to
balance the negative charge of the electron
The Cathode Ray Tube
Conclusions from Thomson
 William Thomson (known as Lord Kelvin and not a
relation of JJ Thomson) proposed an atomic model
of the atom where the electrons floated around in a
uniform “pudding” of positive charge
 Described his model as the “Plum Pudding” model
of the atom
 Unknown as to whether this idea occurred to him
while eating
Ernest Rutherford
 Created an experiment that tested the validity of the
“Plum Pudding” Model. JJ Thomson was his mentor!
 His experiment proved that the “Plum Pudding” Model
was inaccurate.
 The only way the alpha particles would be deflected
back at the source was if they encountered a dense
center of positive charge. We call it the NUCLEUS!
 Akin to catching a cannonball with a kleenex and then
launching the cannonball back at the cannon.
 This was the birth of the modern atom.
The Modern Atom

Important Info The Early “Modern” Atom

 The nucleus – consists

of protons (+) and
neutrons.
 Rutherford’s model
was incomplete –
electrons moving about
the nucleus…but how?
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

Protons Neutrons

 The key to an atom’s  A Neutron walks into a

identity (#’s of protons
NEVER change. If they do, bar…
you’ve changed the atom!  Has NO CHARGE
 Contributor to mass of the  Contributes (with the
atom
 Contain 3 quarks (2 “Up”
proton) to mass of the
and 1 “Down” atom
 Up = +2/3 charge, down  Contains 3 quarks (1
= -1/3 charge “Up” and 2 “Down”)
The Electron
 Moves about the nucleus…FAST! How fast?!
 Has a negative charge (-1)
 DOES NOT significantly contribute to the mass of an
atom (1800-2000 electrons = mass of 1 proton or
neutron)
 Small volume
 Number of electrons in an atom can change (lost or
gained) – this creates IONS!
The Modern Atom

The Nucleus Some Perspective

 The ratio of the size of the
nucleus to the whole atom is
roughly 1:100,000
 The reason only a few particles
deflected back at the source in
the gold foil experiment is
because only very few actually
hit a nucleus
 A small marble has a diameter
of 1.3 cm. If the nucleus was the
size of the marble, the atom
would be 130,000 cm or 1,300
m OR .807 MILES in diamter!!!
Isotopes
 Atoms with the same number of protons that have
different masses.
 Why?
 They have different numbers of neutrons.
 On the periodic table you’ll notice that there are
two numbers in each element’s block – one relates
to numbers of protons and the other to the average
mass (since atoms can have multiple isotopes we
take the weighted average (just like your grade))
Isotope Notation
 Dissecting Isotope
Symbols:
X = Atomic Symbol
 A = MASS NUMBER –
number of protons
AND neutrons (WHY?)
 Z = ATOMIC NUMBER
– the number of
protons in an atom
Isotope Notation
 What element are we
studying?
 Carbon!
 How many protons does
carbon have?
 6
 What else do we know
about this isotope of
Carbon?
 (no charge, so 6 electrons)
 How many neutrons?
Standard Notation for Isotopes
 For the carbon isotope on the preceding page, we
write the standard notation by writing out the name
of the element
 Then add a dash (-)
 Then write the MASS NUMBER
 What do you get?
 Carbon-14
 Why do we not write the atomic number?
Isotope Notation Hints and Tips
 A – The Mass Number should ALWAYS be a whole
number (on the periodic table will it appear as a
decimal because it is a weighted average of EVERY
naturally occurring isotope of that element – but you
can’t have a fraction of a proton or neutron in the
nucleus).
 Z – The Atomic Number should ALWAYS be a whole
number (you can’t have a fraction of a proton).
 Atoms can be charged – X+Z or X-Z. That means the
number of electrons will be different than the protons.
The Periodic Table (PT)
What can it tell us
 Individual Blocks
 60 = Atomic Number
 Nd = symbol

 144.24 = WEIGHTED
AVERAGE atomic mass
(just like your grades)
– comes from the
percentage abundance
of each isotope and
the mass of each
The Periodic Table (Bigger Picture)
 Periods – horizontal rows of the table. Note that
they are not all the same!
 Groups/Families – vertical columns of the table.
These elements often share similar chemical
properties (what does that mean?) – Typically
Numbered
 “Main Group” Elements are those in the first 2 and
the last 6 groups (8 main groups)
 Some groups/families/regions on the periodic table
have special names. Let’s take a look.
The Alkali Metals
 Where are they on the
periodic table?
 Group 1
 Where is hydrogen (why
was it left off?)
 Properties:
 Very reactive to water
 Never found in nature as
pure elements
 Form BASIC solutions when
metals placed in water
 http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=m55kgyApYrY
Alkaline Earth Metals
 Where are they on the
periodic table?
 Group 2
 Reactive with water,
but not nearly to the
extent of alkali metals.
 Also create basic
solutions when
introduced to water
Halogens
 Where are they on the
periodic table?
 Group 7
 Reactive Non-Metals
 Very reactive,
particularly with alkali
and alkaline earth
metals!
 Rarely found in nature
Noble Gases
 Where are they on the
periodic table?
 Group 8
 Are they metals or
non-metals?
 Any insight into
arrangement of the
periodic table?
 Non-reactive!
 Which one is missing?
Transition Metals
 Metals of variable
properties
 Most groups/families
do exhibit SOME
similar properties
 Ex: The “Noble” Metals
 Cu, Ag, Au
Inner Transition Metals
 Are located in a
separate block on the
periodic table
 Include Lanthanides and
Actinides
 The second row contains
the trans-Uranium
elements – all of which
are non-naturally
occurring elements
Properties of Metals vs. Non-Metals
 Metals  Non-metals
 Lustrous (shiny)  Variable Properties
 Malleable (can be  Variable Phases (s,l,g)
hammered and  Brittle – they shatter
shaped) when manipulated
 Ductile (stretched into  Insulators (do not
wires) conduct a charge)
 Conductive (will move  Form anions (more
charge) later!)
 Forms cations (more on
that later)
Metalloids
 Contain properties of
both metals and non-
metals.
 Some are more metallic,
and others are more like
the non-metals
 Staircase separates
metals from non-metals
– hence why the
metalloids are adjacent
to it!
Elements in the World
 How do we find elements in our world?
 In mixtures like soils and ores
 Bonded to each other in various compounds

 In pure/uncombined form (single atoms) like Gold or

Silver OR diatomic molecules
 Pure elements:
 Some exist as diatomic molecules (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2,
Br2, I2) – The Magnificent 7 – check out your periodic
table!
Elements in the World
 A novel property of some elements is that they can
exist in several different forms at once.
 They are still made up of the same substance, but
they have drastically different physical and
chemical properties.
 These are called allotropes.
Carbon
Graphite – 2-D sheets of Carbon Diamond – 3-D network of carbon
layers atoms bonded together
Carbon Continued

Graphite Diamond
What’s this?!
Ions
 Unlike protons, the number of electrons in an
element can change.
 When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become
ions.
 Ions are charged particles (positive or negative).
Cations
 Ions with a positive charge
 How do they form (what CHANGES)?
 Cations form when a neutral substance LOSES electrons
(think of electrons as negative emotions…losing those
makes you feel positive).
 As a result protons (+) outnumber electrons (-) so the
atom has a net positive charge
 What elements form cations?
 Metals
 Where are they on the periodic table?
Anions
 Ions with a negative charge
 How do they form?
 Anions form when a neutral atom gains one or more
electrons
 As a result, there are more electrons (-) than protons
(+), so the atom has a net negative charge
 What elements form anions?
 Non-metals,but NOT the noble gases
 Where are they on the periodic table?
Ions continued
 If metals form cations and non-metals form anions,
what kinds of ions do metalloids form?
 Answer: BOTH. It depends on the substance. Some can
form both kinds of ions. Some metalloids, due to their
properties, may exclusively form either cations or
anions
Charges of Simple Ions
 A little review and some memorization:
 Alkali Metals – Group 1 → +1
 Alkaline Earth Metals – Group 2 → +2

 Al, Ga, In – Group 3 METALS → +3

 Nitrogen Family – Group 5 (N,P,As) → -3

 Oxygen Family – Group 6 – -2

 Halogens – Group 7 – -1

 Noble Gases – Group 8 – 0

Ionic Compounds
 When cations and anions interact, their opposite
charges cause an attraction. This causes the ions to stick
together and form a compound.
 The purpose of the reaction is to make the charge
difference add up to zero. Cations and anions will stick
in the simplest ratio of cation(s) to anion(s) so that the
net charge adds up to zero.
 We can use their respective charges to determine the
formula that should result when they react
 Find the lowest number of each ion necessary to get all
positive and negative charges to add up to zero. Think LCM.
Ionic Compounds (“Cross” Multiplying)

 React Magnesium’s ion with Bromine’s ion

Mg+2 Br-1

 Mg1Br2

 MgBr2

 What would Na and S be?

 Ca and O?
 Be and N?