CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

TO MAPPING AND NAVIGATION

Jan Czar J. Nocete, Rcrim

Manual mapping and navigation represent the foundation
of human exploration and geographical understanding.
Long before the advent of digital tools like GPS and
satellite-based systems, humans relied on traditional
methods to chart unknown territories and navigate their
surroundings.
 These skills have played a crucial role throughout history,
enabling early explorers to traverse vast oceans, chart
uncharted lands, and connect distant civilizations. Despite the
prevalence of modern technology, manual mapping and
navigation remain vital in certain contexts, such as survival
situations, areas with limited technological access, and
understanding the principles behind modern systems. By
mastering these skills, individuals not only gain a deeper
appreciation for the Earth's geography but also develop critical
problem-solving abilities, spatial awareness, and a connection to
humanity's enduring spirit of exploration.
Map - graphic representation, drawn to scale and usually on
a flat surface.
“Show many things at once”
 The word "map" comes from the medieval
Latin: Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant
'napkin' or 'cloth' and mundi 'of the world'.
Thus, "map" became a shortened term
referring to a flat representation of Earth's
surface.
 MAP MAKING INVOLVES THREE STAGES:
1. Collection, Organization and Manipulation of data.
2. Design and preparation of maps.
3. Map Reproduction.
 1. COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION AND
MANIPULATION OF DATA
• Data collection from existing maps, aerial photographs or digital
imagery, documents e.g. legal descriptions of property boundaries,
historical documents, etc., field work or questionnaire surveys.
• Data organized to understand the phenomena being represented.
• Data manipulation refers to the process of transforming, organizing,
and modifying spatial data to make it suitable for analysis,
visualization, and presentation on a map. This ensures the map
effectively communicates the intended information.
 2. DESIGN AND PREPARATION OF MAPS
• The choices depend upon purpose of the map, the intended
audience and the cartographer’s understanding of the phenomena
being represented. Before creating a map, it is essential to define:
Purpose: What information does the map convey? Ex. Population
density, land use, climate patterns.
Audience: Who will use the map? Ex. Researchers, policymakers,
general public.
 2. DESIGN AND PREPARATION OF MAPS
Symbology and Color Selection
• Use contrasting colors to differentiate map features.
• Symbol hierarchy: Important features should be more prominent.
• Use appropriate typography. Ex. Bold for cities, italics for water
bodies.
 2. DESIGN AND PREPARATION OF MAPS
Finalization and Output: Map Review and Quality Control
Accuracy Check: Verify coordinates, distances, and attributes.
Legibility Test: Ensure all labels and symbols are clear and
readable.
Consistency: Maintain uniform styles across multiple maps.
 3. MAP REPRODUCTION.

Map reproduction refers to the process of duplicating and distributing

maps in various formats for different uses. It involves selecting the
appropriate reproduction technique based on the intended audience,
scale, and medium.
Manual mapping is the art and science of creating
maps by hand, incorporating skills such as precise
measurement, observation, and artistic representation
of landscapes.
Navigation is the practice of planning and directing
movement from one location to another, using tools like
compasses, sextants, and natural landmarks.
COMPASS - the tool used to determine direction by
aligning with earth’s magnetic field.
SEXTANT - the tool used to measure the angle
between celestial objects for navigation.
 NATURAL LANDMARKS - an object or feature of a
landscape or town that is easily seen and recognized
from a distance, especially one that enables
someone to establish their location.
 Cartography is the art, science, and technology of
making maps. It involves designing, creating, and
interpreting maps to represent geographic areas,
features, and phenomena. Cartographers combine
spatial data, geographic knowledge, and visual design
principles to create maps that communicate specific
information effectively.
• Cartography is the art, science and technology of map
making.
• Maps are used as research tools and as sources of
information.
• Maps have existed since the time of Egyptian,
Mesopotamian and Chinese civilizations, with the latter
maps dating back to 6000 years.
• The role of the cartographer is to understand the subject
matter of maps and also how the map will likely used.
The word cartography originates from the French word cartographie,
which itself is derived from two roots:
1.Carte (French for "map" or "chart"): This comes from the Latin word
charta, meaning "paper" or "a sheet of writing material," which
originally stems from the Greek word χάρτης (chartēs), meaning
"papyrus" or "sheet of paper."
2.Graphie (French for "writing" or "representation"): This comes from
the Greek word γραφή (graphē), meaning "writing" or "drawing,"
derived from γράφειν (graphein), which means "to write" or "to draw."
• Put together, cartographie literally means "map writing" or "map
drawing." The term entered the English language in the mid-19th
century and has been used to describe the practice and study of
map-making ever since.
SOME KEY ASPECTS OF CARTOGRAPHY
INCLUDE:
1. Data Collection: Gathering geographic data from sources such
as satellite imagery, surveys, GPS, and geographic information
systems (GIS).

2. Map Design: Deciding on the layout, colors, symbols, and scale

to make maps visually appealing and easy to understand.

3. Map Projections: Transforming the Earth's 3D surface into a

2D representation. This often involves trade-offs between shape,
area, distance, and direction.
4. Types of Maps:

• Topographic Maps: Show elevation and landforms.

• Thematic Maps: Focus on specific topics, such as population
density or climate.
• Political Maps: Highlight boundaries and administrative
divisions.
• Navigational Maps: Used for transportation, such as road maps
or nautical charts.
1. Topographic Maps: Show elevation and landforms.
-often use contour lines to show elevation
2. Thematic Maps: Focus on specific topics, such as
population density or climate.
3. Political Maps: Highlight boundaries and
administrative divisions.
4. Navigational Maps: Used for transportation, such as
road maps or nautical charts.
5. Modern Tools: GIS software, remote sensing, and digital
mapping platforms (e.g., Google Maps) have revolutionized
cartography, enabling dynamic and interactive maps.
Geographical Information System - GIS stands for
geographic information systems. a GIS stores, analyzes, and
visualizes data for geographic positions on earth’s surface.

It’s a computer-based tool that examines spatial relationships,

patterns, and trends in geography.
Remote sensing – acquiring information using a sensor from
far away.

Example: camera, microphone, radar, laser, thermometer, and

barometer.
MAP ELEMENTS
typically found
on the map
LEGEND/KEY: A GUIDE ON A MAP EXPLAINING THE SYMBOLS,
COLORS, AND STYLES USED TO REPRESENT FEATURES.
SCALE: the ratio of a distance on the map to the actual distance on the ground.

GRAPHIC SCALE / SCALE BAR: a visual indicator showing the relationship

between distances on the map and the actual distances on the ground.
 EXPRESSING MAP SCALE:
• Verbal scale ex. 1cm = 30 km
• Ratio scale ex. 1:300,000
• Representative scale 1/300,000
THE DIRECTIONAL SIGN – can be a simple north arrow
or more complex, like a compass rose.
COMPASS ROSE: a symbol on a map that displays
cardinal directions (north, east, south, west) and
sometimes intermediate directions.
TITLE: the name or heading of a map indicating its
purpose or focus.
THE GRATICULE is an imaginary grid system overlaying the
earth’s surface, allowing us to measure locations accurately. it
comprises lines of latitude (parallels) and longitude
(meridians) intersecting at various points.
COORDINATES: a set of numbers or letters used to
determine a specific location, often latitude and longitude.
LATITUDE: imaginary horizontal lines that measure distances
north or south of the equator.
LONGITUDE: imaginary vertical lines that measure distances
east or west of the prime meridian.
EQUATOR: the imaginary line dividing the earth into northern
and southern hemispheres, at 0° latitude.
 The GPS was initially developed in the 1960s by the U.S.
Department of Defense for military navigation purposes. The
system was fully operational by 1995, but its use was limited to the
military and specific approved projects. It wasn't until 2000 that the
U.S. government removed restrictions on civilian use, paving the
way for the wide array of GPS applications we have today.
GPS operation is based on a simple mathematical principle called
trilateration. At its core, the system involves a network of 24
satellites orbiting the Earth and continuously transmitting signals.
These signals carry information about the satellites' location and
the precise time the signal was transmitted.

A GPS receiver (such as the one in your smartphone or car

navigation system) receives these signals and calculates how long
each one took to arrive. Since the signals travel at the speed of
light, the receiver can determine how far away each satellite is
based on the time delay between when the signal was sent and
when it was received.
CLASSIFYING MAPS
Tangible: a tangible map is a map that you can hold in your hands such
as a paper map. the nice thing about tangible maps is that they can be
easily shared between users and there is no specialized hardware or
software required to use them. additionally, tangible maps are portable,
and can be stored for long amounts of time without any need for
maintenance.
Virtual: a virtual map is any map displayed on a computing device. maps are now
found on desktop computers, tablets, laptops, phones, GPS receivers, and many
other digital devices. the great thing about virtual maps is that they are easily
updatable, can be dynamic, show animation, can link to large amounts of information
such as documents, pictures, movies, and sounds, and can be easily shared.
negative aspects of virtual maps include: they require hardware and software to view,
may require maintenance in order for the map to exist for a long time, may not be
intuitive to many users, and may require more training to develop.
Mental: A mental map is a conceptual map stored in someone's mind, representing
their understanding of space. Mental maps do not translate exactly from person-to-
person except through the conversion of the mental map to a tangible or virtual map,
or to any other communication path such as speech or writing.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GIS IN DISASTER
RESPONSE
 Manual mapping and navigation are foundational skills in disaster
response and operations, bridging the gap between technology and
practicality in high-stakes situations. this discipline focuses on
interpreting physical maps, understanding terrain, and using
traditional tools like compasses to navigate dynamic and often
hostile environments. in disaster scenarios where infrastructure and
digital systems are compromised, manual techniques provide a
reliable and adaptable alternative, ensuring that responders can
effectively assess situations, deliver aid, and coordinate rescue
efforts. by mastering these skills, emergency personnel enhance
their preparedness, resilience, and ability to operate under
challenging and unpredictable conditions.
 Disasters, both natural and man-made, pose significant challenges to
communities and emergency responders alike. while technology has
transformed disaster management with tools like gps and digital mapping, its
reliance on infrastructure and power makes it vulnerable to failure in critical
moments. manual navigation, on the other hand, remains a steadfast and
reliable approach. by understanding terrain, utilizing physical maps, and
employing traditional navigation techniques, responders can overcome the
limitations of technology and adapt to dynamic and unpredictable disaster
environments.
RELIABILITY IN THE ABSENCE OF TECHNOLOGY

Disasters disrupt infrastructure: Power grids, communication networks, and satellite signals are
often damaged, making digital navigation tools (GPS, mobile apps) useless.

Reliance on traditional methods: Events like Hurricane Katrina and the Haiti earthquake
demonstrated the necessity of traditional navigation (maps, compasses) when technology fails.

Dependence of digital tools: GPS and other electronic devices rely on functioning networks and
power, making them unreliable in disaster scenarios.

Importance of manual navigation skills: Responders need to be proficient in using maps,

compasses, and understanding terrain to navigate effectively without technology. This becomes
crucial for disaster response.
ADAPTABILITY TO DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENTS

Changing landscapes: Disasters alter the environment rapidly (floods, earthquakes, wildfires),
making pre-disaster maps and routes potentially obsolete.

Real-time adaptation: Manual navigation allows responders to interpret updated maps, analyze
terrain, and create alternate routes on the spot. This is crucial for navigating hazards like flooded
roads or fire-ravaged areas.

Examples of adaptation: Responders might use topographic maps to find high ground during
floods or identify natural barriers for safe evacuation routes during wildfires.

Importance for response: This adaptability is essential for efficient resource delivery and safe
personnel navigation during rescue operations. Timely aid depends on it.
DEVELOPING SPATIAL AWARENESS

Enhanced spatial understanding: Manual navigation promotes a strong grasp of how locations
relate to each other and the characteristics of the land.

Terrain visualization: Skilled navigators can mentally picture the landscape, enabling them to
make sound judgments based on the terrain's actual features.

Importance in high-stress situations: This intuitive understanding becomes critical when quick
decisions are needed under pressure, a common aspect of disaster response. It allows for
reliance on learned intuition.
RESILIENCE IN RESOURCE-LIMITED SETTINGS

Accessibility in remote areas: Where technology may be absent or unreliable, manual navigation
offers a consistent and available solution.

Resource independence: It doesn't rely on infrastructure (power, networks, satellites), making it

suitable for under-resourced regions.

Universal applicability: Manual navigation skills can be used anywhere, ensuring effective
disaster response even in the most challenging settings.
A VITAL BACKUP SYSTEM

Technology is fallible: Digital tools can fail due to software issues, battery problems, or
unexpected outages.

Manual skills ensure continuity: Having responders trained in traditional navigation provides a
reliable alternative when technology breaks down.

Safeguard against breakdowns: This backup capability prevents disruptions to disaster response
operations and ensures they can continue even if technology fails.

Essentially, manual navigation acts as a safety net, guaranteeing that responders can still navigate
effectively even if their digital tools become unusable.
ENHANCING COLLABORATION WITH LOCAL COMMUNITIES

Bridging the digital divide: Local communities often lack access to or familiarity with digital
tools. Manual navigation provides a common, accessible method for collaboration.

Leveraging local knowledge: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami example highlights how combining
manual navigation with local expertise (e.g., fishermen's knowledge of coastal areas) improves
response efforts.

Facilitating communication: Manual navigation acts as a shared language, enabling responders

and locals to communicate effectively and make joint decisions.

Building trust and success: This collaborative approach fosters trust and improves the overall
effectiveness of disaster response by incorporating valuable local insights.
COST-EFFECTIVENESS AND ACCESSIBILITY

Cost-effectiveness: Maps, compasses, and other manual tools are significantly cheaper than
digital systems (GPS devices, software subscriptions).

Low maintenance: Manual tools require minimal upkeep compared to the hardware, software,
and maintenance needs of digital navigation.

Accessibility and distribution: The low cost makes manual tools easy to acquire and distribute
widely, which is especially important for large response teams or underfunded efforts.

Efficient resource allocation: Investing in manual navigation allows limited budgets to be used
more effectively while still ensuring operational readiness.