Introduction to Logic Design

Chapter 1

Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

 Outline of Chapter 1
 1.1 Digital Systems
 1.2 Binary Numbers
 1.3 Number-base Conversions
 1.4 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
 1.5 Complements
 1.6 Signed Binary Numbers
 1.7 Binary Codes
 1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
 1.9 Binary Logic
 Digital Systems and Binary Numbers
 Digital age and information age
 Digital computers
◆ General purposes

◆ Many scientific, industrial and commercial applications

 Digital systems
◆ Telephone switching exchanges

◆ Digital camera

◆ Electronic calculators, PDA's

◆ Digital TV

 Discrete information-processing systems

◆ Manipulate discrete elements of information

◆ For example, {1, 2, 3, …} and {A, B, C, …}…

 Analog and Digital Signal
 Analog system
◆ The physical quantities or signals may vary continuously over a
specified range.
 Digital system
◆ The physical quantities or signals can assume only discrete
values.
◆ Greater accuracy

X(t) X(t)

t t
Analog signal Digital signal
 Binary Digital Signal
 An information variable represented by physical quantity.
 For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete values.
◆ Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values.

 Binary values are represented abstractly by:

◆ Digits 0 and 1
V(t)

◆ Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)

Logic 1
◆ Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)

◆ And words On and Off undefine

Logic 0
 Binary values are represented by t
Binary digital signal
values or ranges of values of physical quantities.
 Decimal Number System
 Base (also called radix) = 10
◆ 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }

 Digit Position 2 1 0 -1 -2

◆ Integer & fraction 5 1 2 7 4

 Digit Weight 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Position
◆ Weight = (Base)

 Magnitude
500 10 2 0.7 0.04
◆ Sum of “Digit x Weight”
d2*B2+d1*B1+d0*B0+d-1*B-1+d-2*B-2
 Formal Notation
(512.74)10
 Octal Number System
Base = 8
◆8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
64 8 1 1/8 1/64
Weights
Position 5 1 2 7 4
◆Weight = (Base) 2 1 0 -1 -2

Magnitude 2 1 0 -1
5 *8 +1 *8 +2 *8 +7 *8 +4 *8
-2

◆Sum of “Digit x Weight” =(330.9375)10

(512.74)8
Formal Notation
 Binary Number System
 Base = 2
◆2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”
 Weights 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

◆ Weight = (Base)
Position 1 0 1 0 1
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude 2 1 0 -1 -2
1 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2
◆ Sum of “Bit x Weight”

 Formal Notation =(5.25)10

(101.01)2
 Groups of bits
1011
 4 bits = Nibble
 8 bits = Byte 11000101
 Hexadecimal Number System
 Base = 16
◆ 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }

 Weights 256 16 1 1/16 1/256

Position
◆ Weight = (Base) 1 E 5 7 A
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude
◆ Sum of “Digit x Weight”

 Formal Notation
1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2
=(485.4765625)10
(1E5.7A)16
 The Power of 2
n 2n n 2n

0 20=1 8 28=256

1 21=2 9 29=512

2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kilo

3 23=8 11 211=2048

4 24=16 12 212=4096

5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

 Addition
Decimal Addition

11 Carry
55
+ 5 5
= Ten ≥ Base
110 ➔ Subtract a Base
 Binary Addition
Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
1 0 1 1 1 = 23
+
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10
 Binary Subtraction
Borrow a “Base” when needed

1 2 = (10)2
022002
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
1 0 1 1 1 = 23
−
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54
 Binary Multiplication
Bit by bit
1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Number Base Conversions
Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude
 Decimal (Integer) to Binary Conversion
 Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)
 Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13 / 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
 Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion

 Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

 Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

Example: (0.625)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8
 Binary − Octal Conversion
Octal Binary
 8 = 23
0 000
 Each group of 3 bits represents an
1 001
octal digit
2 010
Assume Zeros
Example:
3 011
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2
4 100

5 101

( 2 6 . 2 )8 6 110

7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)

 Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
Hex Binary
0 0000
 16 = 24 1 0001
 Each group of 4 bits represents a 2 0010
3 0011
hexadecimal digit 4 0100
5 0101
Assume Zeros 6 0110
Example:
7 0111
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
(1 6 . 4 )16 D 1101
E 1110
F 1111

Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)

 Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
 Convert to Binary as an intermediate step

Example:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
 1.5 Complements
 There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix complement and
diminished radix complement.
 Diminished Radix Complement - (r-1)’s Complement
◆ Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r–1)’s complement of N is
defined as:
(rn –1) – N
 Example for 6-digit decimal numbers:
◆ 9’s complement is (rn – 1)–N = (106–1)–N = 999999–N
◆ 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299
 Example for 7-digit binary numbers:
◆ 1’s complement is (rn – 1) – N = (27–1)–N = 1111111–N
◆ 1’s complement of 1011000 is 1111111–1011000 = 0100111
 Observation:
◆ Subtraction from (rn – 1) will never require a borrow
◆ Diminished radix complement can be computed digit-by-digit
◆ For binary: 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0
 Complements
 1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)
◆ All ‘0’s become ‘1’s

◆ All ‘1’s become ‘0’s

Example (10110000)2
 (01001111)2
If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

10110000
+ 01001111
11111111
 Complements

 Radix Complement

The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as

rn – N for N ≠ 0 and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r − 1) 's
complement, we note that the r's complement is obtained by adding 1
to the (r − 1) 's complement, since rn – N = [(rn − 1) – N] + 1.

 Example: Base-10

The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602

The 10's complement of 246700 is 753300

 Example: Base-2

The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100

The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001
 Complements
 2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
◆ Take 1’s complement then add 1
OR
◆ Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right

Example:
Number: 10110000 10110000
1’s Comp.: 01001111
+ 1
01010000 01010000
 Complements

 Subtraction with Complements

◆ The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N
in base r can be done as follows:
 Complements
 Example 1.5
◆ Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.

 Example 1.6
◆ Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 – 72532.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is – (10's complement of 30718) = − 69282.

 Complements

 Example 1.7
◆ Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011, perform the
subtraction (a) X – Y ; and (b) Y − X, by using 2's complement.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X = − (2's complement
of 1101111) = − 0010001.
 Complements
 Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of
the (r − 1)'s complement. Remember that the (r − 1) 's
complement is one less then the r's complement.
 Example 1.8
◆ Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X = − (1's complement
of 1101110) = − 0010001.
 1.6 Signed Binary Numbers

 To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative

values.
 It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the
leftmost position of the number since binary digits.
 The convention is to make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for
negative.
 Example:

 Table 1.3 lists all possible four-bit signed binary numbers in the
three representations.
Signed Binary Numbers
 Signed Binary Numbers
 Arithmetic addition
◆ The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules
of ordinary arithmetic. If the signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes
and give the sum the common sign. If the signs are different, we subtract the
smaller magnitude from the larger and give the difference the sign of the larger
magnitude.
◆ The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative numbers represented
in signed-2's-complement form is obtained from the addition of the two
numbers, including their sign bits.
◆ A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.
 Example:
 Signed Binary Numbers

 Arithmetic Subtraction
◆ In 2’s-complement form:
1. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit)
and add it to the minuend (including sign bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.

(  A) − ( + B ) = (  A) + ( − B )
(  A) − ( − B ) = (  A) + ( + B )
 Example:

(− 6) − (− 13) (11111010 − 11110011)

(11111010 + 00001101)
00000111 (+ 7)
 1.7 Binary Codes
 BCD Code
◆ A number with k decimal digits will
require 4k bits in BCD.
◆ Decimal 396 is represented in BCD
with 12bits as 0011 1001 0110, with
each group of 4 bits representing
one decimal digit.

◆ A decimal number in BCD is the

same as its equivalent binary
number only when the number is
between 0 and 9.
◆ The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and have
no meaning in BCD.
 Binary Code

 Example:
◆ Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:

 BCD addition
 Binary Code

 Example:
◆ Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

 Decimal Arithmetic: (+375) + (-240) = +135

Hint 6: using 10’s of BCD

 Binary Codes
 Other Decimal Codes
 Binary Codes
 Gray Code
◆ The advantage is that only bit in
the code group changes in going
from one number to the next.
» Error detection.
» Representation of analog data.
» Low power design.
000 001

010 011
100 101

110 111

1-1 and onto!!

➢ A typical application of Gray Code occurs when analog data are represented by
continuous change of a shaft position.
➢ The shaft is partitioned into segments, and each segment is assigned a number.
➢ If adjacent segments are made to correspond with the Gray Code sequence,
ambiguity is eliminated when detection is sensed in the line that separates any two
segments.
 Binary Codes
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character Code
 Binary Codes
 ASCII Character Code
 ASCII Character Codes
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (Refer to
Table 1.7)
 A popular code used to represent information sent as character-based
data.
 It uses 7-bits to represent:
◆ 94 Graphic printing characters.
◆ 34 Non-printing characters.

 Some non-printing characters are used for text format (e.g. BS =

Backspace, CR = carriage return).

 Other non-printing characters are used for record marking and flow
control (e.g. STX and ETX start and end text areas).
 ASCII Properties

 ASCII has some interesting properties:

◆ Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916

◆ Upper case A-Z span 4116 to 5A16

◆ Lower case a-z span 6116 to 7A16

» Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa) occurs by

flipping bit 6.
 Binary Codes
 Error-Detecting Code
◆ To detect errors in data communication and processing,
an eighth bit is sometimes added to the ASCII character
to indicate its parity.
◆ A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to
make the total number of 1's either even or odd.
 Example:
◆ Consider the following two characters and their even
and odd parity:
 Binary Codes
 Error-Detecting Code
◆ Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra bits,
can be incorporated into binary code words to detect and correct
errors.
◆ A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit appended
onto the code word to make the number of 1’s odd or even. Parity
can detect all single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.
◆ A code word has even parity if the number of 1’s in the code
word is even.
◆ A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s in the code word
is odd.
◆ Example:

Message A: 10001001 1 (even parity)

Message B: 10001001 0 (odd parity)
 1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
 Registers
◆ A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of
storing one of the two states.
◆ A register is a group of binary cells. A register with n cells can store any
discrete quantity of information that contains n bits.

n cells 2n possible states

 A binary cell
◆ Two stable state
◆ Store one bit of information
◆ Examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
 A register
◆ A group of binary cells
◆ AX in x86 CPU
 Register Transfer
◆ A transfer of the information stored in one register to another.
◆ One of the major operations in digital system.
◆ An example in next slides.
 A Digital Computer Example

Memory

Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs: Keyboard, Outputs: CRT,

mouse, modem, LCD, modem,
Input/Output speakers
microphone
Synchronous or
Asynchronous?
Transfer of information

Figure 1.1 Transfer of information among register

 Transfer of information

 The other major component

of a digital system
◆ Circuit elements to
manipulate individual bits of
information
◆ Load-store machine
LD R1;
LD R2;
ADD R3, R2, R1;
SD R3;

Figure 1.2 Example of binary information processing

 1.9 Binary Logic
 Definition of Binary Logic
◆ Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations.
◆ The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z,
etc, with each variable having two and only two distinct possible values: 1 and
0,
◆ Three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
 Binary Logic
 Truth Tables, Boolean Expressions, and Logic Gates

AND OR NOT
x y z x y z x z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

z=x•y=xy z=x+y z = x = x’

x x x
y z y z z
 Switching Circuits

AND OR
 Binary Logic
 Logic gates
◆ Example of binary signals

3
Logic 1
2
Un-define
1
Logic 0
0

Figure 1.3 Example of binary signals

 Binary Logic
 Logic gates
◆ Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.4 Symbols for digital logic circuits

Fig. 1.5 Input-Output signals for gates

 Binary Logic
 Logic gates
◆ Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic
gates:

Fig. 1.6 Gates with multiple inputs