Unit 1: Chemical Bonding

1. Which of the following pairs of atoms would be capable of forming an ionic bond? For those that would, use electron dot
diagrams and the octet rule to show how they would form a bond. For those that could not form an ionic bond, explain
why.

a) bromine and potassium

• yes
• 1 electron is transferred from potassium to bromine
b) magnesium and lithium
• no
• both atoms are metals
c) calcium and sulfur
• yes
• 2 electrons are transferred form calcium to sulfur
d) phosphorous and oxygen
• no
• both atoms are non-metals

2. Which of the following pairs of atoms would be capable of forming a covalent bond? For those that would, use electron dot
diagrams and the octet rule to show how they would form a bond. For those that could not form a covalent bond, explain
why.

a) neon and sodium

• no
• neon has a full octet and sodium is a metal
b) lithium and fluorine
• no
• lithium is a metal
c) chlorine and iodine
• yes
• chlorine and iodine each share one electron to form full octets in their valence shells
d) hydrogen and oxygen
• yes
• hydrogen shares its valence electron and oxygen shares one of its two unpaired valence electrons.

3. State the octet rule.

• atoms energetically prefer to have a full valence shell (typically considered to be 8 valence electrons)

4. Describe the steps you would use to draw an electron dot diagram of nitrogen.
• Drawn element symbol (N)
• Beginning at one side, draw a single electron then circle around the symbol, drawing a single electron on each side
of the symbol until 4 electrons have been drawn.
• Add the fifth valence electron to pair with the first electron drawn.

5. Define valence electron.

• Electron in the outermost energy level

6. Use electron dot diagrams to show the formation of the following compounds:

a) potassium chloride
• one electron is transferred from potassium to chlorine and an ionic bond forms between the ions
b) magnesium fluoride
• two electrons are transferred from one magnesium atom to two fluorine atoms (one each) and two ionic
bonds form between the ions
c) aluminium oxide
• six electrons are transferred from two aluminum atoms (three from each atom) to three oxygen atoms (two
to each atom) to form ionic bonds
 d) barium oxide
• two electrons are transferred from barium to oxygen, forming an ionic bond
e) potassium sulfide
• one electron is transferred from each of two potassium atoms (two electrons total) to one sulfur atom,
forming two ionic bonds

7. Draw Lewis structures for each of the following molecules:

a) NH3(g)
b) CF4(g)
c) H2S(g)
d) CH4(g)
e) AsH3(g)
f) ClNO(g)
g) CS2(l)
h) C2H2(g)
i) C2H4(g)
j) HOCl(g)
k) BrO−(aq)
l) NO+(aq)
m) ClO3−(aq)
n) SO32−(aq)

8. Dichlorofluoroethane, CH3CFCl2(g), has been proposed as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The presence of
the hydrogen atoms in CH3CFCl2(g) markedly reduces the ozone-depleting ability of the compound. Draw a Lewis
structure for this molecule.

9. Draw structural formulas for each of the following compounds: [omit lone pairs from diagrams below]

a) NH3(g)
b) AsH3(g)
c) ClNO(g)
d) HOCl(g)
e) CH4(g)
f) H2S(g)
g) C2H4(g)
h) C2H2(g)
i) CF4(g)
j) H2O2(l)

Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules

1. For each of the following pairs of atoms, predict whether a bond between them will be non-polar covalent, slightly polar
covalent, polar covalent, or mostly ionic: For each polar bond indicate the locations of the partial positive and partial
negative charges.

a) carbon and fluorine

• polar covalent [partial negative on fluorine]
b) silicon and hydrogen
• slightly polar covalent [partial negative on hydrogen]
c) oxygen and nitrogen
• slightly polar covalent [partial negative on oxygen]
 d) sodium and fluorine
• ionic
e) chlorine and chlorine
• non-polar covalent
f) iron and oxygen
• ionic
g) copper and oxygen
• ionic
h) manganese and oxygen
• ionic

2. Arrange the bonds in sets (a) and (b) below in order of increasing polarity:

a) hydrogen bonded to chlorine, oxygen bonded to nitrogen, carbon bonded to sulfur, sodium bonded to chlorine
• C-S ΔEN = 0; O-N ΔEN = 0.4; H-Cl ΔEN = 1.0; Na-Cl ΔEN = 2.3
b) carbon bonded to chlorine, magnesium bonded to chlorine, phosphorous bonded to oxygen, nitrogen bonded to
nitrogen
• N-N ΔEN = 0; C-Cl ΔEN = 0.6; P-O ΔEN = 1.2; Mg-Cl ΔEN = 1.9

3. Define electronegativity.
• the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a molecule/bond

4. Explain how an electrostatic attractive force can be responsible for both ionic and covalent bonds.
An electrostatic attractive force is responsible for ionic bonds by attracting oppositely charged ions (cations and
anions) formed through electron transfer. In covalent bonds, this force arises from the attraction between the
positively charged nuclei and shared electron pairs. Despite different electron arrangements, both bond types rely on
the fundamental electrostatic attraction to hold atoms together.

5. Describe the trend in electronegativities within one period on the periodic table as the atomic number increases.
Within one period on the periodic table, as the atomic number increases, electronegativity generally increases due to
the greater nuclear charge attracting electrons more strongly in the same valence shell.

6. As you scan down one group on the periodic table, what is the trend in the electronegativities of the elements?
As you scan down one group on the periodic table, electronegativity generally decreases because the increased
distance between the nucleus and valence electrons reduces the nuclear attraction.

7. What is the relationship between the size of an atom and the electronegativity of the element?
The size of an atom is inversely related to its electronegativity; as atomic size increases, electronegativity decreases
because the nucleus' ability to attract bonding electrons weakens with increasing distance from the nucleus.

8. Given the following information, identify element X.

• XF4, where X is in Period 2

o X is carbon
• CaX where X is in Period 2
o X is oxygen
• XH2O, where X is in Period 2, and the molecule contains two single bonds and one double bond
o X is carbon
• XH3, where X is in Period 2 and the molecule contains only single bonds
o X is nitrogen
• X2H2, where X is in Period 2, and the molecule contains one triple bond and two single bonds
o X is carbon
9. Name two characteristics of ions that help determine the way they will pack together in crystals.

Two characteristics of ions that determine their packing in crystals are ionic size and ionic charge. These factors influence
the lattice structure, maximizing electrostatic attraction and minimizing repulsion for stable crystal formation.

10. Give one reason why different combinations of ions pack together with quite different types of symmetry.

Different combinations of ions pack with various symmetries due to differences in ionic radii and charges, which dictate
how ions can optimally arrange to minimize repulsion and maximize attraction within the crystal lattice.

VSEPR and the Structures of Molecular Compounds

1. For each of the following molecules, use VSEPR theory to predict molecular shape. Draw a three-dimensional diagram for
each of the molecules and determine whether the molecule is polar or non-polar:

a) CH3F(g)
• tetrahedral; polar
b) AsI3(s)
• trigonal pyramidal; polar
c) CH2O(l)
• trigonal planar; polar
d) H2O2(l)
• bent & polar
e) AsCl3(l)
• trigonal pyramidal; polar
f) CH3CN(g)
• tetrahedral around one carbon & linear around the other; polar
g) Cl2O(g)
• bent; polar
h) SiCl4(g)
• tetrahedral; non-polar
i) CH3COOH(l)
• tetrahedral around one carbon, trigonal planar around the other, and bent around oxygen; polar
j) N2H4(g)
• trigonal pyramidal around each nitrogen; polar
k) SiH3Cl(g)
• tetrahedral; polar
l) H2S(g)
• bent; polar
m) COS(g)
• linear; polar
n) PICl2(g)
• trigonal pyramidal; polar

2. Freon-12, CCl2F2(g), was used as a coolant in refrigerators until it was suspected to be a cause of ozone depletion.
Determine the molecular shape of CCl2F2 and discuss whether the molecule is polar or non-polar.
• tetrahedral & polar, with partial negative on fluorines

3. Which is more polar, NF3(g) or NCl3(l)? Justify your answer.

• NF3 is more polar because the difference in electronegativity between N and F is 1.0 whereas between N and I is 0.3.
Intermolecular Forces
1. Explain the difference between intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces.
Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule (e.g., covalent bonds). Intermolecular
forces are the forces between molecules (e.g., hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces).

2. How are hydrogen bonds similar to and distinct from other types of dipole-dipole interactions?
Hydrogen bonds are a type of dipole-dipole interaction where a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom
(N, O, F) interacts with another electronegative atom. They are stronger and more specific than typical dipole-dipole
interactions.

3. Why do London (dispersion) forces have such a significant effect on the structures of many substances?
London (dispersion) forces, though weak individually, significantly affect structures due to their universality and
cumulative strength in large molecules or nonpolar substances, stabilizing structures and influencing melting and boiling
points.

4. What is a dipole? Explain how polar molecules interact.

A dipole is a molecule with a separation of electric charge due to differences in electronegativity between atoms. Polar
molecules interact through dipole-dipole forces, where the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of
another, creating relatively strong intermolecular attractions.

5. What characteristics of molecules are necessary for hydrogen bonds to form between them?
Hydrogen bonds form between molecules when hydrogen is covalently bonded to highly electronegative atoms like
nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. These bonds require a significant difference in electronegativity between hydrogen and the
bonded atom for strong dipole-dipole interactions to occur.

6. Water molecules in the liquid state can have more hydrogen bonds than they have in the solid state. Water molecules are
further apart in the solid state than they are in the liquid state. These two statements appear to contradict the concept that
molecules are more tightly held together in the solid state than in the liquid state. Explain how and why the statements
can be correct and not contradict the concepts about solids and liquids.
In the solid state, water molecules form a crystalline structure with fixed positions, leading to fewer but stable hydrogen
bonds. In the liquid state, molecules are less ordered, allowing for more dynamic hydrogen bonding interactions despite
being closer together on average due to less rigid structure.

7. How can a temporary dipole induce a dipole in another molecule?

A temporary dipole in one molecule can induce a dipole in another molecule by momentarily shifting electron density,
creating an instantaneous dipole. This induces opposite charges in nearby molecules, resulting in a temporary dipole-
dipole interaction (London dispersion force).

8. Describe the two factors that affect the formation and strength of London (dispersion) forces.
The strength of London (dispersion) forces depends on the size of the molecule (larger molecules have stronger
dispersion forces) and the polarizability of its electrons (more easily distorted electrons lead to stronger dispersion
forces).

9. Why do intermolecular interactions have such a significant influence on the structure of matter?
Intermolecular interactions determine properties like melting points, boiling points, and phase transitions by influencing
how molecules pack together and interact. They are crucial in shaping the physical properties and behaviors of matter in
different states.

10. Explain the relationship between the strength of intermolecular forces and the physical state of a substance.
The strength of intermolecular forces directly correlates with the physical state of a substance: stronger forces lead to
higher melting and boiling points, resulting in solid or liquid states, while weaker forces favor gases at room temperature.

11. What determines the state of a pure substance at room temperature?

The state of a pure substance at room temperature is primarily determined by the strength of intermolecular forces:
strong forces lead to solids or liquids, while weaker forces result in gases.
12. The following compounds are all solids at room temperature. Describe the nature of the attractive forces that are broken
when the following compounds are melted:

a) sodium chloride, NaCl(s)

• Ionic bonds between Na+ and Cl- ions are broken when melted, overcoming the strong electrostatic
attractions.
b) paraffin wax, C20H42(s)
• Intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) between hydrocarbon chains are disrupted when melted,
allowing molecules to move past each other.
c) silver, Ag(s)
• Metallic bonds between delocalized electrons and positively charged metal ions are weakened when
melted, allowing ions to move freely.
d) Graphite
• London dispersion forces between layers of carbon atoms are overcome when melted, allowing layers to
slide over each other.

13. Chloroform, CHCl3(l), has the same shape as methane, CH4(g). The boiling point of methane is −182 °C, and the boiling
point of chloroform is 61 °C. Explain this difference.
Chloroform has higher boiling point due to stronger intermolecular forces (dipole-dipole interactions and van der Waals
forces) compared to methane, which only has weak van der Waals forces.

14. Describe the relationship between the strength of the attractive forces between the particles and compound’s melting and
boiling points.
The stronger the attractive forces between particles (such as ionic, covalent, or intermolecular forces), the higher the
melting and boiling points of the compound, due to the increased energy required to overcome these forces and change
the substance's phase.

15. Which of the following is not a physical property?

a) melting point
b) malleability
c) electronegativity
d) boiling point
e) electrical conductivity

16. List three properties of ionic and molecular compounds that differ. Explain how they differ.
• Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic compounds have higher melting and boiling points due to strong
electrostatic attractions between ions, while molecular compounds typically have lower melting and boiling
points due to weaker intermolecular forces.
• Conductivity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted due to free-moving ions,
whereas molecular compounds generally do not conduct electricity in any state because they lack free ions or
delocalized electrons.
• Solubility: Ionic compounds tend to be soluble in polar solvents due to their ability to dissociate into ions,
whereas molecular compounds vary in solubility depending on their polarity and interactions with the solvent
molecules.

17. A solid substance is found to be soluble in water and has a melting point of 140 °C. To classify this solid as ionic, covalent,
metallic, or network, what additional test(s) should be carried out?
To classify the solid, perform conductivity tests in aqueous solution. Ionic solids will conduct electricity due to dissociation
into ions. Covalent, metallic, or network solids typically do not conduct electricity in aqueous solution and may require
additional tests for differentiation.

18. Ionic compounds are extremely hard. They hold their shape extremely well. Explain these properties. Give two reasons
why it is not practical to make tools out of ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds are hard due to strong electrostatic attractions between ions, which require significant energy to break.
However, they are brittle and prone to shattering under stress because ions cannot easily slide past each other.
Additionally, they dissolve in water, limiting their durability in practical tool applications.
19. A chemist analyzes a white, solid compound and finds that it does not dissolve in water. When the compound is melted, it
does not conduct electricity.

a) What would you predict about the melting point of this compound?
The melting point of this compound is expected to be relatively low because covalent molecular compounds
generally have weak intermolecular forces between molecules.

b) Are the atoms that make up this compound joined by covalent or ionic bonds?
The atoms that make up this compound are joined by covalent bonds, as indicated by its molecular nature and the
inability to conduct electricity in molten form, which excludes the presence of ionic bonds.

20. Imagine that you have been given a solid piece of graphite. You test the electrical conductivity of the sample in one
orientation and find that it does conduct a current. When you test it in a direction that is perpendicular to the first, the
conductivity is much lower. Provide a possible explanation for these observations.
Graphite conducts electricity along its layers due to delocalized electrons in double bonds that can move freely within the
plane of the layers. Conductivity perpendicular to the layers is lower because electrons cannot easily move between layers
due to weaker interactions (van der Waals forces) between them.

21. Predict which substances will have the higher boiling point in each of the following pairs. Explain your predictions using
bonding theories.

a) NH2Cl or PH2F
• NH2Cl is likely to have a higher boiling point compared to PH2F. NH2Cl can form hydrogen bonds between
the N and H atoms, which are stronger than the dipole-dipole interactions in PH2F.
b) neon or krypton
• Krypton has stronger London dispersion forces than neon because it has more electrons and therefore
stronger London Dispersion forces.
c) SiC or AsH3
• SiC has a polar covalent whereas AsH3 has only non-polar covalent bonds; therefore, the intermolecular
forces between SiC molecules will be stronger.
d) KCl or ICl
• Stronger ionic bonds are disrupted when KCl boils whereas dipole-dipole bonds are disrupted when when
ICl boils.
e) Ne or Xe
• Xenon has stronger London dispersion forces than neon because it has more electrons and therefore
stronger London Dispersion forces.
f) KBr or ClBr
• Stronger ionic bonds are disrupted when KBr melts whereas dipole-dipole bonds are disrupted when when
ClBr melts.
g) CH3OH or C2H5NH2
• Both compounds can form hydrogen bonds, but C2H5NH2 has more sites capable of forming hydrogen
bonds (two N-H bonds) and more electrons than CH3OH, which results in stronger intermolecular forces
and a higher boiling point.
h) NH2Cl or PH2Cl
• The N-H bonds allows for hydrogen bonds between molecules of NH2Cl, which increases the boiling point.
i) CH3F or F2
• CH3F is polar so can form dipole-dipole bonds whereas F2 is non-polar and forms only London Disperion
forces.
j) NH4Cl or CH3Br
• An ionic bond is disrupted when NH4Cl boils whereas dipole-dipole forces are disrupted when CH3Br boils.
k) AlCl3 or AsCl2
• An ionic bond is disrupted when AlCl3 boils whereas dipole-dipole forces are disrupted when AsCl2 boils.
l) C2H5F or CH3Cl
• C2H5F is more polar, so has stronger IMFs.
m) C4H10 or Cl2
• C4H10 has more electrons, so stronger LDFs.
n) CH3F or CH3Br
• CH3F is more polar, so has stronger IMFs.
 o) NH3 or PH3
• NH3 can form hydrogen bonds, so has stronger IMFs.
p) C2F2 or C2HCl
• C2HCl is polar, so has stronger IMFs.
q) C5H12 or C4H9F
• C4H9F is polar, so has stronger IMFs.
r) H2O or H2S
• Water can form hydrogen bonds, so has stronger IMFs.
s) ammonia or methane
• Ammonia can form hydrogen bonds, so has stronger IMFs.
t) SO2 or SiO2
• SO2 is polar whereas SiO2 is non-polar; therefore, the IMFs are stronger between SO2 molecules
u) carbon dioxide or silicon dioxide
• SiO2 has more electrons so stronger LDFs.
v) NaCl or CO
• An ionic bond is disrupted when NaCl boils whereas dipole-dipole forces are disrupted when CO boils.

22. Explain each of the following using bonding theory:

a) Glycerol, C3H5(OH)3(l), flows much more slowly than water, H2O(l).

• Glycerol has stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding compared to water. Hydrogen bonding in glycerol
creates stronger attractions between molecules, requiring more energy to overcome, thus resulting in
slower flow.
b) CaCl2(s) has no molecules.
• Solid CaCl2 exists as an ionic lattice where calcium (Ca2+) ions are surrounded by chloride (Cl-) ions. There
are no discrete CaCl2 molecules; instead, there is a three-dimensional array of ions held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.
c) Silver can be bent to make chains.
• Silver can be bent to make chains due to the presence of metallic bonding. In metallic bonding, delocalized
electrons are free to move throughout the structure, allowing silver atoms to slide past each other without
breaking bonds, facilitating the formation of malleable chains.
d) Graphite is used as a high-temperature lubricant.
• Graphite is used as a high-temperature lubricant due to its layered structure held together by van der
Waals forces. These layers can slide over each other easily, reducing friction between surfaces. The strong
covalent bonds within each layer ensure stability at high temperatures.
e) Diamonds are not conductors of electric current.
• Diamonds are not conductors of electric current despite their strong covalent bonds because each carbon
atom in diamond forms four strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral structure, leaving no free electrons for
electrical conductivity.
f) Molten potassium chloride conducts electric current.
• Molten potassium chloride conducts electricity due to the presence of free-moving ions (K+ and Cl-) in the
molten state. When the solid lattice structure melts, the ions become mobile and can carry electric current.
g) Metals have variable melting points.
• Metals have variable melting points due to differences in metallic bonding strength, which depends on
factors such as the size and charge of metal ions and the number of delocalized electrons. These factors
influence the energy required to overcome metallic bonds and transition from solid to liquid state.
h) Diamond is the hardest known substance.
• Diamond is the hardest known substance due to its strong covalent bonds formed in a tetrahedral
structure. Each carbon atom is bonded to four others in a rigid, three-dimensional network, making
diamond exceptionally resistant to scratching and deformation.
i) A water-filled bottle breaks when placed in a freezer overnight.
• Water expands when it freezes due to the formation of a hexagonal lattice structure held together by
hydrogen bonds. This expansion exerts significant pressure on the container walls, causing it to break.
j) Graphite is used to make tennis rackets and golf clubs.
• Graphite is used to make tennis rackets and golf clubs due to its lightweight, strong, and stiff properties. Its
layered structure allows for high strength-to-weight ratio and flexibility, making it ideal for sports
equipment where strength and maneuverability are important.
23. At room temperature, carbon dioxide, CO2(g), is a gas, while silica, SiO2(s), is a hard solid. Compare the bonding in these
two compounds to account for this difference in physical states.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas due to its linear molecular structure held by strong double covalent bonds, resulting in weak
intermolecular forces. Silica (SiO2) is a hard solid with a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds, forming a rigid
structure with strong intramolecular forces.

24. Compare the bonding and molecular polarity of SeO3(s) and SeO2(s).
SeO3(s) and SeO2(s) both involve selenium (Se) bonded to oxygen (O). SeO3 is trigonal pyramidal with polar bonds, while
SeO2 is bent with polar bonds. SeO3 has a net dipole moment due to its asymmetrical shape, while SeO2 has a lesser dipole
moment due to its bent shape.

25. Discuss the intermolecular and intramolecular forces in N2H4(g) and C2H4(g). Based on the bonding between molecules,
which of these two compounds would have a lower boiling point?
N2H4 (hydrazine) has primarily van der Waals intermolecular forces and covalent intramolecular bonds. C2H4 (ethylene)
has van der Waals intermolecular forces and stronger intramolecular forces due to double bonds. N2H4 would typically
have a lower boiling point due to weaker intramolecular attractions compared to C2H4.

26. The boiling points of argon gas (-186°C) and fluorine gas (-188°C) are quite similar. Explain the similarity using bonding
theory.
Argon and fluorine have similar boiling points because both are nonpolar molecules with weak van der Waals forces
between molecules. Boiling points reflect the energy needed to overcome these weak intermolecular forces, resulting in
similar temperatures for vaporization despite differences in molecular size and mass.

27. Krypton gas, Kr(g) (boiling point -152°C), hydrogen bromide, HBr(g) (boiling point -66°C), and hydrogen selenide, H2Se(g)
(boiling point -41°C), all contain the same number of electrons. Explain the differences in boiling point using bonding
theory.
The differences in boiling points arise from varying strengths of intermolecular forces: Kr(g) has only weak van der Waals
forces due to its nonpolar nature, HBr(g) exhibits dipole-dipole interactions, and H2Se(g) has stronger hydrogen bonding
due to hydrogen bonded to a highly electronegative selenium atom.
 Unit 2: Solutions
1. Are the following substances electrolytes or non-electrolytes? Write equations to illustrate your answers.

a) KCl(s) in water – electrolyte KCl(s) ➜ K+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

b) Na2S(s) in water – electrolyte Na2S(s) ➜ 2 Na+(aq) + S2–(aq)
c) AgCH3COO(s) in water – weak electrolyte AgCH3COO(s) ➜ AgCH3COO(s) [a small amount will
dissociate]
d) O2(g) in water – non-electrolyte O2(g) ➜ O2(aq)
e) C2H5OH(l) in water – non-electrolyte C2H5OH(l) ➜ C2H5OH(aq)
f) Mg(OH)2(s) in water – weak electrolyte Mg(OH)2(s) ➜ Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) [a small amount will dissociate]
g) Na2SO4(s) in water – electrolyte Na2SO4(s) ➜ 2 Na+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
h) HCl(g) in water – electrolyte HCl(g) ➜ H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

2. Explain why a reaction between silver nitrate, and sodium chromate is very slow when the reactants are in the solid state,
but almost instantaneous when they are dissolved in water.
In the solid state, silver nitrate and sodium chromate react slowly because the ions are fixed in the crystal lattice, limiting
contact between reactants. In aqueous solution, ions are free to move, allowing rapid collision and reaction between silver
ions and chromate ions, resulting in a faster reaction.

Solubility
1. The graph below shows the solubility of various substances plotted against the temperature of the solution.
a) Which substance decreases in solubility as the temperature increases?
Ce2(SO3)3
b) Which substance is least soluble at room temperature?
Either KClO3 or Ce2(SO3)3
c) Which substance is most soluble at room temperature?
NaNO3
d) The solubility of which substance is least affected by a change in temperature?
NaCl
e) At what temperature is the solubility of potassium chlorate equal to 40 g/100 mL of water?
≈85°C
f) 20 mL of a saturated solution of potassium nitrate at 50 °C is cooled to 20 °C. Approximately what mass of solid
comes out of from the solution?
≈52 g
Representing Aqueous Reactions with Net Ionic Equations
1. First balance and then write net ionic equations for the following reactions:

a) 3 Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + 2 Na3BO3(aq) ® Ba3(BO3)2(s) + 6 NaClO4(aq)

3 Ba2+(aq) + 2 BO33–(aq) ® Ba3(BO3)2(s)

b) Cr(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq) ® Cr(NO3)2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

Cr(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) ® Cr2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

c) 2 Al(s) + 3 ZnCl2(aq) ® 3 Zn(s) + 2 AlCl3(aq)

2 Al(s) + 3 Zn2+(aq) ® 3 Zn(s) + 2 Al3+(aq)

d) Br2(l) + 2 NaI(aq) ® I2(s) + 2 NaBr(aq)

Br2(l) + 2 I–(aq) ® I2(s) + 2 Br–(aq)

e) H2SO4(aq) + Sr(OH)2(aq) ® SrSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

SO42–(aq) + Sr2+(aq) ® SrSO4(s)

Qualitative Analysis
1. Identify the ion in each solution based on the evidence.

a) The solution is purple. –MnO4–

b) The solution is green. It reacts with NaCl(aq) to produce a precipitate. – Cu+
c) The solution is colourless. It gives a bright yellow colour to a flame. – Na+
d) The solution is blue. It gives a bluish-green colour to flame. – Cu2+

The Concentration of Solutions

1. Calculate the percent by mass for each of the following solutes in solution:

a) An aqueous solution with a mass of 82.0 g contains 17.0 g of sulfuric acid, H2SO4(aq).
17.0 g
× 100 = 20.7% w/w
82.0 g

b) An aqueous solution with a mass of 110.6 g contains 18.37 g of sodium chloride, NaCl(aq).
18.37 g
× 100 = 16.61% w/w
110.6 g

c) A benzene solution with a mass of 85.4 g contains 12.9 g of carbon tetrachloride, CCl4(l).
12.9 g
× 100 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟏% 𝐰/𝐰
85.4 g

2. Steel contains about 98.3% iron and about 1.7% carbon. It also contains very small amounts of other materials, such as
manganese and phosphorus. What mass of carbon, in grams, is needed to make a 5.0 kg sample of steel?
1.7 g C
× 5.0 kg = 0.085 kg = 85 g
100 g steel

3. Symptoms of mercury poisoning become apparent after a person has accumulated 20 mg of mercury in his or her body.

a) Express this concentration as parts per million for a 60 kg person.

20 mg
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝐩𝐩𝐦
60 kg
 b) Express this concentration as parts per billion for the same person.
1000 ppb
0.33 ppm × = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝐩𝐩𝐛
1 ppm

c) Express this amount as a percent by mass for the same person.

0.020 g
× 100 = 𝟑. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎!𝟓 % 𝐰/𝐰
60 000 g

4. Calculate the molar concentration of the following solutions:

a) 0.50 mol of NaCl(s) dissolved in 0.30 L of solution

0.50 mol
= 𝟏. 𝟕 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
0.30 L

b) 0.289 mol of iron(III) chloride, FeCl3(s), dissolved in 120 mL of solution

0.289 mol
= 𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
0.120 L

5. Calculate the molar concentration of the following solutions:

a) 4.63 g of sucrose, C12H22O11(s), dissolved in 16.8 mL of solution

mol 1
4.63 g × × = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
342.34 g 0.0168 L

b) 1.2 g of sodium nitrate, NaNO3(s), dissolved in 80 mL of solution

mol 1
1.2 g × × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
85.00 g 0.0800 L

6. Calculate the molar concentration of sodium ions if 2.7 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(s), is dissolved in 175 mL of water.
mol Na# CO$ 2 mol Na% 1
2.7 g Na# CO$ × × × = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
105.99 g Na# CO$ 1 mol Na# CO$ 0.175 L

7. What is the molar concentration of calcium ions if 1.3 × 10–4 g of calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2(s), is dissolved to make
3.95 L of solution?
mol Ca$ (PO& )# 3 mol Ca#% 1
1.3 × 10!& g Ca$ (PO& )# × × × = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎!𝟕 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
310.18 g Ca$ (PO& )# 1 mol Ca$ (PO& )# 3.95 L

8. Determine the molar concentration of the cation (positive ion) if 0.000 453 g of strontium nitrate is dissolved to make 1 L
of solution.
mol Sr(NO$ )# 1 mol Sr #% 1
0.000 453 g Sr(NO$ )# × × × = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎!𝟔 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋
211.64 g Sr(NO$ )# 1 mol Sr(NO$ )# 1L

9. Calculate the mass of solute in the following solutions:

a) 125 mL of 0.200 mol/L NaCl(aq)

0.200 mol 58.44 g
× 0.125 L × = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝐠
L mol

b) 1.35 L of 1.25 mol/L NH4NO3(aq)

1.25 mol 80.06 g
× 1.35 L × = 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝐠
L mol
10. What mass of solute could be obtained by evaporation from these solutions?

a) 0.38 L of 4.25 × 10–3 mol/L ammonium carbonate

4.25 × 10!$ mol 96.11 g
× 0.38 L × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝐠
L mol

b) 2.0 L of 1.25 mol/L magnesium hydroxide

1.25 mol 58.33 g
× 2.0 L × = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐠
L mol

11. What volume of solution could be prepared from the following masses?

a) 0.398 mol/L solution beginning with 10.0 g of potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7(s)

mol L
10.0 g × × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝐋
294.20 g 0.398 mol

b) 4.25 mmol/L solution beginning with 4.5 g of sucrose, C12H22O11(s)

mol L
4.5 g × × = 𝟑. 𝟏 𝐋
342.34 g 4.25 × 10!$ mol

12. Intravenous solutions are commonly 0.28 mol/L glucose. What volume of a standard intravenous solution, measured in
litres, could be made from 2.5 kg of glucose, C6H12O6(s)?
mol L
2.5 × 10$ g × × = 𝟓𝟎 𝐋
180.18 g 0.28 mol

Preparing and Diluting Solutions

1. Suppose that you are given a 1.25 mol/L standard aqueous solution of sodium chloride, NaCl(aq). What volume of
standard solution must you use to prepare the following solutions?

a) 50 mL of 1.00 mol/L NaCl(aq)

C# V# (1.00 mol⁄L)(50 mL)
V* = = = 𝟒𝟎 𝐦𝐋
C* (1.25 mol⁄L)

b) 200 mL of 0.800 mol/L NaCl(aq)

C# V# (0.800 mol⁄L)(200 mL)
V* = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝐦𝐋
C* (1.25 mol⁄L)

2. What concentration of solution is obtained by diluting 50.0 mL of 0.720 mol/L aqueous sodium nitrate, NaNO3(aq), to each
of the following volumes?

a) 120 mL
C* V* (0.720 mol⁄L)(50.0 mL)
C# = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥⁄𝐋
V# (120 mL)

b) 400 mL
C* V* (0.720 mol⁄L)(50.0 mL)
C# = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥⁄𝐋
V# (400 mL)

c) 5.00 L
C* V* (0.720 mol⁄L)(50.0 mL)
C# = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥⁄𝐋
V# (5000 mL)
 Unit 3: Acids and Bases
1. Name the following acids using classical and IUPAC systems:
a) HF(aq) – hydrofluoric acid
b) HNO2(aq) – nitrous acid
c) HSCN(aq) – thiocyanic acid
d) H2SO4(aq) – sulfuric acid
e) H2CO3(aq) – carbonic acid
f) H2SO5(aq) – persulfuric acid

2. Provide formulas for the following acids:

a) hydroiodic acid – HI(aq)
b) aqueous hydrogen permanganate – HMnO4(aq)
c) aqueous hydrogen bromide – HBr(aq)
d) hypocarbonous acid – HCO(aq)
e) dichromic acid – H2Cr2O7(aq)
f) aqueous hydrogen nitrate – HNO3(aq)

The pH Scale: Measuring by Powers of Ten

1. [H3O +(aq)] in a cola drink is about 5.0 × 10−3 mol/L. Calculate the approximate pH of the drink. Is the drink acidic or basic?
pH = –log(5.0 × 10-3 mol/L) = 2.30 acidic

2. A glass of orange juice has [H3O+(aq)] of 2.9 × 10–4 mol/L. Calculate the pH of the drink. Is the drink acidic or basic?
pH = –log(2.9 × 10-4 mol/L) = 3.54 acidic

3. [H3O+(aq)] of a solution of sodium hydroxide is 6.59 × 10–10 mol/L. Calculate the pH of the solution.
pH = –log(6.59 × 10-10 mol/L) = 9.181 basic

4. The concentration of a dilute solution of nitric acid, HNO3(aq), is 6.30 × 10–3 mol/L. Calculate the pH of the solution.
pH = –log(6.30 × 10-3 mol/L) = 2.20 acidic

Calculating pOH
1. [NaOH (aq)] in a dilute solution is 3.47 × 10–3 mol/L. Calculate the pOH of the solution.
[OH–] = [NaOH]

pOH = –log(3.47 × 10-3 mol/L) = 2.46

2. [OH–(aq)] of a solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq), is 9.6 × 10–11 mol/L. Calculate the pOH of the solution.
[HCl] = [H+]

pH = –log(9.6 × 10-11 mol/L) = 10.02

pOH = 14.00 – 10.02 = 3.98

[OH–] = 10–3.98 = 1.0 × 10-4 mol/L

Calculating [H3O+(aq)] and [OH–(aq)] from pH and pOH

1. Calculate the concentration of hydronium ion or hydroxide ion. Is the solution acidic or basic?

a) [H3O+(aq)] if pH = 3.9 – acidic

[H3O+] = 10–3.9 = 1.3 × 10-4 mol/L

b) [H3O+(aq)] if pOH = 5.22 – basic

pH = 14.00 – 5.22 = 8.78
[H3O+] = 10-8.78 = 1.7 × 10-9 mol/L

c) [OH–(aq)] if pOH = 5.422 – basic

[OH–] = 10-5.422 = 3.784 × 10-6 mol/L

d) [OH–(aq)] if pH = 2.65 – acidic

pOH = 14.00 – 2.65 = 11.35
[OH–] = 10-11.35 = 4.5 × 10-12 mol/L

2. The lowest recorded pH of rain falling in Fort McMurray, Alberta was measured at 4.80. Calculate [H3O+(aq)].
[H3O+] = 10–4.80 = 1.5 × 10-5 mol/L

3. The pOH of spaghetti sauce is 9.79. Determine [H3O+(aq)].

pH = 14.00 – 9.79 = 4.21

[H3O+] = 10–4.21 = 6.2 × 10-5 mol/L

4. Which of the solutions in each pair has a higher pH? Explain why.

a) 0.10 mol/L solution of a weak acid; 0.010 mol/L solution of the same acid.
The acids will ionize to approximately the same extent, so the lower the concentration of the acid, the higher the pH.

b) 0.10 mol/L solution of an acid; 0.10 mol/L solution of a base

Bases have a pH above 7, so a solution of base will have a higher pH than a solution of acid with the same
concentration.

c) a solution with a pOH of 7.0; a solution with a pOH of 8.0

pH = 14 – pOH; therefore, the lower the pOH, the higher the pH.

d) 0.10 mol/L solution of a strong acid; 0.10 mol/L solution of a weak acid
Strong acids ionize 100% whereas weak acids ionize less than 50%; therefore, the concentration of H3O+ will be
higher in a solution of strong acid and the pH will be lower.

e) 0.10 mol/L solution of a strong base; 0.10 mol/L solution of a weak base
Strong bases react 100% with water to produce OH– ; therefore, the concentration of OH– will be higher in a solution
of strong base and the pH will be higher.

f) 0.10 mol/L solution of H2SO4(aq); 0.10 mol/L solution of HSO4– (aq)

H2SO4 is a strong acid whereas HSO4– is a weak acid; the strong acid will ionize 100% in water, meaning the
concentration of H3O+ will be higher and the pH will be lower.
 Unit 4: Gases
1. Using the macroscopic properties of gases that are listed above, identify which macroscopic property explains the
following real-life situations.

a) A full propane tank can provide enough fuel for an entire season of barbecues.
Gases are compressible – inside the propane tank, a high volume of gas is compressed. When the valve is opened,
the pressure drops and the gas expands. Therefore, the small tank holds a large quantity of propane.

b) The label on a can of hairspray contains the warning, “caution may explode when heated.”
The pressure of a gas on its container walls increases with temperatures. As the container is heated, the gas
molecules begin to move faster. Since the container is rigid, the gas can’t expand so instead exerts more pressure
on the walls of the container. If the pressure increases enough, the walls cannot support the pressure and the
container will explode.

c) A carbon monoxide leak in the basement spreads quickly throughout the house.
Gases fill the volume of their container, with the container in this case being the house.

d) Forced air heating is often a better choice for home heating than hot water.
Gases fill the volume of their container and move faster with higher temperatures. The warm air can be a higher
temperature at the source and will spread more quickly through a room / house than air heated by water in a
pipe.

e) A bicycle tire develops a small hole and very rapidly becomes flat. Use one of the characteristics of gases to
explain why the tire deflates so quickly.
Gases are continually moving and colliding with the walls of their containers. When there is a hole in the wall,
when a gas molecule impacts that area, the gas escapes. This continues to happen, reducing the amount of gas in
the tire and making it flat.

2. How does an elastic collision differ from an inelastic collision? To picture an inelastic collision, imagine throwing a ball of
putty against a wall.
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved. In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved as some is lost
as heat.

3. Why is it important that the molecules of an ideal gas have only elastic collisions?
Collisions with the walls of the container do not cause the temperature of the gas to increase due to loss of kinetic energy
to thermal energy.

4. Under what conditions might real gases not behave like ideal gases?
High pressure and low temperature.

Gases and Pressure

1. Explain why the density of the atmosphere decreases as the altitude increases.
The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude because there is less mass of air above, leading to lower pressure.
At higher altitudes, fewer gas molecules are present per unit volume due to reduced gravitational compression, resulting
in lower density.

2. How does a barometer determine atmospheric pressure?

A barometer measures atmospheric pressure by balancing the weight of a column of mercury (or other liquid) in a sealed
tube against the atmospheric pressure pushing down on a reservoir of mercury. The height of the mercury column
indicates the pressure exerted by the atmosphere.

3. Explain how you would convert pressure given in units of mmHg to units of kPa.
760 mmHg is equivalent to 101.325 kPa.

4. How is standard atmospheric pressure defined?

Standard atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a column of mercury exactly 760 mm in height at sea
level and at a temperature of 0°C (273.15 K). This corresponds to a pressure of 101.325 kPa or 1 atmosphere (atm).
Boyle’s Law

1. A sample of gas in a flexible container has a volume of 6.9 L after its pressure has been increased from 1.0 atm to 3.5 atm.
What was the initial volume of the gas?
P# V# (3.5 atm)(6.9 L)
V* = = = 𝟐𝟒 𝐋
P* (1.0 atm)

2. A flexible container holding 3.50 L of hydrogen gas at standard atmospheric pressure has to be compressed into a volume
of 1.75 L. If there is no change in temperature, what pressure is required?
P* V* (1 atm)(3.50 L)
P# = = = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐚𝐭𝐦
V# (1.75 L)

3. A sample of neon gas at room temperature is collected in a 2.50 L balloon at standard atmospheric pressure. The balloon is
then submerged into a tub of water, also at room temperature, so that the external pressure is increased to 112.5 kPa.
What will be the final volume of the balloon?
P1 V1 (101.325 kPa)(2.50 L)
V2 = = = 2.25 L
P2 (112.5 kPa)

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Boyle’s Law

1. Raja embeds the end of a 20 mL plastic syringe into a rubber stopper when the plunger is at the 10 mL line. Raja finds that
he has to exert considerable force to push the plunger to the 5 mL line, but he can move the plunger easily to the 15 mL
line. Using kinetic molecular theory, explain Raja’s findings.
Raja finds it harder to compress the gas (moving the plunger to smaller volumes) due to increased pressure from gas
molecules being forced into a smaller space. Expanding the gas (moving to larger volumes) reduces pressure, making it
easier to move the plunger.

Charles’s Law
1. A 75 mL balloon immersed in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C is lifted out and left in a room at 22.3 °C. What is the final volume
of the balloon?
V* T# (75 mL)(295.45 K)
V# = = = 𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝐦𝐋
T* (77.15 K)

2. A child’s balloon is filled to a volume of 3.0 L with room temperature air (22 °C). The balloon will burst if it reaches a
volume of 3.5 L. The child takes the balloon with her in the car when she goes shopping with her mother on a hot day.
They leave the balloon in the closed car while they are shopping. The temperature of the air in the car reached a
temperature of 38 °C. Did the balloon burst? Support your answer with calculations.
V* T# (3.0 L)(311.15 K)
V# = = = 𝟑. 𝟐 𝐋
T* (295.15 K)

The balloon’s final volume is less than its maximum volume, so it will not burst.

3. A sealed syringe contains 37.0 mL of trapped air. The temperature of the air in the syringe is the same as room
temperature or 295 K. The Sun shines on the syringe causing the temperature of the air inside to increase. If the volume
increases to 38.6 mL, what is the new temperature of the air in the syringe?
T* V# (295 K)(38.6 mL)
T# = = = 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝐊
V* (37.0 mL)

4. Explain the difference between an inverse proportion and a direct proportion. Use the volume versus pressure and
volume versus temperature relationships as examples.
In an inverse proportion, one variable increases while the other decreases at a constant ratio (e.g., volume vs. pressure in a
gas at constant temperature). In a direct proportion, both variables change in the same direction at a constant ratio (e.g.,
volume vs. temperature in a gas at constant pressure).
Kinetic Molecular Theory and Charles’s Law
1. Your friend’s little brother is showing you his helium balloon when he looses control of the string. The balloon floats over
the barbecue, where some food is cooking. The balloon bursts. Using kinetic molecular theory, explain what has happened.
The balloon bursts due to exposure to heat from the barbecue. Increased temperature causes the helium molecules inside
the balloon to move faster and collide more frequently with the balloon's surface. This increases the pressure inside the
balloon beyond its limit, causing it to burst.

2. One cool morning, when the temperature is 6.00 °C, a balloon containing 2.00 kL of helium is used as a promotional
attraction over a shopping centre. The noonday sun heats the gas. If the atmospheric pressure remains constant and the
final volume of the balloon is 2.14 kL, what is the Celsius temperature?
T* V# (279.15 K)(2.14 kL)
T# = = = 299 K = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓°𝐂
V* (2.00 kL)

The Combined Gas Law

1. A sample of gas has a volume of 525 mL at 300 K and 746 mmHg. Find the volume if the temperature increases to 350 K
and the pressure increases to 780 mmHg.
P* V* T# (746 mm Hg)(525 mL)(350 K)
V# = = = 𝟓𝟖𝟔 𝐦𝐋
T* P# (300 K)(780 mm Hg)

2. A 2.7 L sample of nitrogen gas is collected at a temperature of 45.0 °C and a pressure of 0.92 atm. What pressure would
have to be applied to the gas to reduce its volume to 2.0 L at a temperature of 25.0 °C?
P* V* T# (0.92 atm)(2.7 L)(298.15 K)
P# = = = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐦
T* V# (318.15 K)(2.0 L)

3. A 500 mL sample of oxygen is kept at 950 mmHg and 21.5 °C. The oxygen is expanded to a volume of 700 mL and the
temperature is adjusted until the pressure is 101.325 kPa. Predict the final temperature of the oxygen gas.
T* P# V# (294.65 K)(101.325 kPa)(700 mL)
T# = = = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝐊
P* V* (126.656 kPa)(500 mL)

Law of Combining Volumes

1. What volume of water vapour forms when 250 mL of hydrogen combines with 125 mL of oxygen?
2 H2(g) + O2(g) ➜ 2 H2O(g)

There is no LR because the volume of hydrogen is twice the volume of oxygen.

2 mol H# O
125 mL O# × = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐦𝐋
1 mol O#

Molar Volume of Gases

1. An empty, sealed vacuum container with a volume of 0.652 L is found to have a mass of 2.50 g. When filled with nitrogen
gas, the container has a mass of 3.23 g. The pressure of the nitrogen in the container is measured and found to be 97.5 kPa
when the temperature is 21.0 °C. Calculate the molar volume of nitrogen gas at STP.
m+! = 3.23 g − 2.50 g = 0.73 g

mol
n+! = 0.73 g × = 0.026 mol
28.02 g

P* V* T# (97.5 kPa)(0.652 L)(273.15 K)

V# = = = 0.583 L
T* P# (294.15 K)(101.325 kPa)

0.583 L
= 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒 𝐋/𝐦𝐨𝐥
0.0261 mol
Ideal Gas Law
1. Find the volume of 100.0 g of oxygen gas at SATP.
100.0 g
n= = 3.125 mol
32.00 g⁄mol

,∙./0
nRT (3.125 mol)b8.314 123∙4 c(298.15 K)
V= = = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓 𝐋
P (100 kPa)

2. Find the Celsius temperature when 2.50 moles of a gas occupies a volume of 56.5 L under a pressure of 1.20 atm.
PV (1.20 atm)(56.5 L)
T= = ,∙051
= 330.49 K = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟒°𝐂
nR (2.50 mol)b0.08206 123∙4 c

3. Find the molar mass of a gas if a 1.58 g sample occupies a volume of 500.0 mL at STP.
PV (101.325 kPa)(0.5000 L)
n= = ,∙./0
= 0.0223 mol
RT b8.314 123∙4 c(273.15 K)

1.58 g
M= = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟐 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥
0.0223 mol

4. A sample of a gas with a mass of 0.571 g has a volume of 375 mL at 99.0 kPa and 23.8 °C. Find the molar mass of the gas.
PV (99.0 kPa)(0.375 L)
n= = ,∙./0
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥
RT b8.314 123∙4 c(296.95 K)

0.571 g
M= = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥
0.0150 mol
 Unit 5: Stoichiometry
Note: Answers are likely not to the correct number of significant digits
Stoichiometry and Quantitative Analysis
1. The 2-methylpropane, C4H10(g), that fuels a portable camping stove burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water
vapour, and, of course, heat:
2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) ® 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g)

a) Write the ratio of all the components of the reaction.

2 C4H10 : 13 O2
2 C4H10 : 8 CO2
2 C4H10 : 10 H2O
13 O2 : 8 CO2
13 O2 : 10 H2O
8 CO2 : 10 H2O

b) What amount of oxygen is required to consume all 8.0 mol of 2-methylpropane in a small canister of the
stove fuel?
13 mol O#
8.0 mol C& H*6 × = 𝟓𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐
2 mol C& H*6

c) What amount of water vapour is produced when3.50 mol of 2-methylpropane is consumed in the reaction?

2. What mass of metal oxide is formed when 50 g of magnesium in a road flare reacts with excess oxygen?

2 Mg(s) + O2(g) ➜ 2 MgO(s)

mol Mg 2 mol MgO 40.31 g MgO

50 g Mg × × × = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟗 𝐠 𝐌𝐠𝐎
24.31 g Mg 2 mol Mg mol MgO

3. If a sample of sodium is lowered into a beaker filled with excess chlorine, it “burns” brightly with the release of a great
amount of thermal energy to produce a white solid:
Cl2(g) + 2Na(s) ® 2NaCl(s)
What mass of white solid is expected from the reaction of 4.6 g of sodium metal?

mol Na 2 mol NaCl 58.44 g NaCl

4.6 g Na × × × = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕 𝐠 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥
22.99 g Na 2 mol Na mol NaCl

4. MSR camping stoves burn white gas, which is essentially octane, C8H18(l). The white gas burns in oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water vapour. What mass of carbon dioxide is expected from the complete combustion of 72.1 g of white gas?

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) ➜ 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

mol C7 H*7 16 mol CO# 44.01 g CO#

72.1 g C7 H*7 × × × = 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐠 𝐂𝐎𝟐
114.26 g C7 H*7 2 mol C7 H*7 mol CO#

5. The reaction of titanium(IV) chloride and water produces a smoky white haze of titanium(IV) oxide and hydrogen chloride
(this reaction has been used to create smoke screens):
TiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → TiO2(s) + 4HCl(g)
What mass of titanium(IV) oxide is expected from the reaction of 85.6 g of titanium(IV) chloride?

mol TiCl& 1 mol TiO# 79.87 g TiO#

85.6 g TiCl& × × × = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟎 𝐠 𝐓𝐢𝐎𝟐
189.67 g TiCl& 1 mol TiCl& mol TiO#
6. The tarnish on silverware is almost entirely the compound silver sulfide, Ag2S(s). If you touch a tarnished piece of
silverware to some aluminium foil lining a plastic tub filled with a hot water solution of sodium carbonate, the tarnish will
seem to disappear. The reaction that occurs can be represented as follows:
3Ag2S(s) + 2Al(s) → 6Ag(s) + Al2S3(aq)

This doesn’t seem to be a question. Sorry, team!

Acid–Base Titration
1. A student used the endpoint from an indicator that changes colour between pH 10.1 and pH 12.0, to measure the volume
of a standardized NaOH(aq) titrant necessary to neutralize a sample of HCl(aq). Use the pH curve in the above diagram to
decide if this student’s calculated acid concentration is likely to be higher, lower, or the same as the acid’s true
concentration.

No pH curve, but we can answer the question. Sorry, team!

Indicator is alizarin yellow R and changes colour from yellow to orange at a pH of 10.1 and orange to red at a pH of 12.0.

When HCl(aq) is titrated with NaOH(aq), the species present at the equivalence point are NaCl(aq) and H2O(l) – both neutral.
Therefore, the equivalence point will have a pH of 7.0.

The colour change of alizarin yellow R (i.e. the endpoint of the titration) occurs at a higher pH than the equivalence point of the
titration. This means more NaOH must be added to the sample to reach the endpoint than to reach the equivalence point.
Therefore, the calculated concentration of acid will be higher than the acid’s true concentration.

2. Some of the glassware used in a titration analysis can be wet (with water) and have no effect on the results of the analysis.
Other glassware if wet, will lead to unreliable results.

a) Which of the burette, the pipette, or the Erlenmeyer flask will spoil the data obtained if they are wet? Explain the
effect(s) on the results.
Burette – will dilute the titrant and ruin the data (more titrant will need to be added, so the calculated
concentration of the sample will be higher than the actual concentration).

Pipette – will dilute the sample and ruin the data (less titrant will need to be added, so the calculated
concentration of the sample will be lower than the actual concentration).

b) Which of the burette, the pipette, or the Erlenmeyer flask can be wet without affecting the data? Explain why.
Erlenmeyer flask – the amount of titrant required is determined by the moles of sample, not the concentration of
the sample; therefore, having additional water present before the sample is added does not change the number of
moles of sample present and shouldn’t affect the results.

3. In an acid–base titration, an acid (or base) is added to a base (or acid) and the pH of the initial sample and the reaction
mixture is monitored after each addition of titrant. For equal concentration of monoprotic entities, compare the titration
of (i) a strong acid by a strong base and (ii) a strong base by a strong acid, in terms of

a) the initial pH
i. Low pH (determined by concentration of acid, but typically well below 7)
ii. High pH (determined by concentration of base, but typically well above 7)
b) the volume of titrant required to reach equivalence
i. Since the sample and titrant have equal concentrations, a volume of titrant equal to the initial volume
of sample must be added to reach the equivalence point.
ii. Since the sample and titrant have equal concentrations, a volume of titrant equal to the initial volume
of sample must be added to reach the equivalence point.
c) the equivalence point pH
i. At the equivalence point, the species present are a neutral salt (cation from base and anion from
acid) and water; therefore, the pH is 7.
ii. At the equivalence point, the species present are a neutral salt (cation from base and anion from
acid) and water; therefore, the pH is 7.
 d) the choice of indicator
i. The indicator would ideally change colour close to 7. If the indicator changes colour before pH 7, the
calculated concentration will be too low; if the indicator changes colour after pH 7, the calculated
concentration will be too high.
ii. The indicator would ideally change colour close to 7. If the indicator changes colour before pH 7, the
calculated concentration will be too high; if the indicator changes colour after pH 7, the calculated
concentration will be too low.
e) the final pH
i. The final pH will be high, as the base is in excess. The exact pH will be determined by the
concentration of the titrant.
ii. The final pH will be low, as the acid is in excess. The exact pH will be determined by the
concentration of the titrant.

Applications of Stoichiometry
1. A chemist adds some zinc shavings to a beaker containing a blue solution of copper(II) chloride. The contents of the
beaker are stirred. After several hours, the chemist observes that the blue colour has almost, but not completely,
disappeared.

a) Write a balanced chemical equation to describe this reaction.

CuCl2(aq) + Zn(s) à Cu(s) + ZnCl2(aq)
b) What other observations would you expect the chemist to make?
The colour of the solid would turn from grey to reddish-brown.
c) According to the chemist’s observations, which reactant was the limiting reactant?
Zn is the LR because the solution retained some blue colour, indicating that some CuCl2 was left in solution after the
reaction had stopped.
d) The beaker contained 3.12 g of copper(II) chloride dissolved in water. What does this tell you, quantitatively,
about the amount of zinc that was added?
mol CuCl# 1 mol Zn 65.41 g Zn
3.12 g CuCl# × × × = 1.52 g
134.45 g CuCl# 1 mol CuCl# mol Zn

The mass of zinc was less than 1.52 g.

2. 20.8 g of calcium phosphate, 13.3 g of silicon dioxide, and 3.9 g of carbon react according to the following equation:

2Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6SiO2(s) + 5C(s) ® P4(s) +6CaSiO3(s) + 5CO2(g)

a) What is the limiting reactant?

mol Ca$ (PO& )# rxn
20.8 g Ca$ (PO& )# × × = 0.0327 rxns
318.18 g Ca$ (PO& )# 2 mol Ca$ (PO& )#

mol SiO# rxn

13.3 g SiO# × × = 0.0369 rxns
60.09 g SiO# 6 mol SiO#

mol C rxn
3.9 g C × × = 0.0649 rxns
12.01 g C 5 mol C

The limiting reagent is calcium phosphate.

b) Determine the mass of calcium silicate that is produced.

mol Ca$ (PO& )# 6 mol CaSiO$ 116.17 g CaSiO$
20.8 g Ca$ (PO& )# × × × = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖 𝐠 𝐂𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐎𝟑
318.18 g Ca$ (PO& )# 2 mol Ca$ (PO& )# mol CaSiO$
3. 2.85 × 102 g of pentane, C5H12(l) reacts with 3.00 g of oxygen gas according to the following equation:

C5H12(l) + 8O2(g) → 5CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

a) What is the limiting reactant?

mol C9 H*# rxn
2.85 × 10# g C9 H*# × × = 3.95 rxns
72.17 g C9 H*# 1 mol C9 H*#

mol O# rxn
3.00 g O# × × = 0.0117 rxns
32.00 g O# 8 mol O#

The limiting reagent is oxygen.

b) What mass of carbon dioxide is produced?

mol O# 5 mol CO# 44.01 g CO#
3.00 g O# × × × = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 𝐠 𝐂𝐎𝟐
32.00 g O# 8 mol O# mol CO#

c) What mass of the excess reactant remains after the reaction is complete?
mol O# 1 mol CO# 72.17 g C9 H*#
3.00 g O# × × × = 3.38 g C9 H*#
32.00 g O# 8 mol O# mol CO#

m:; = 2.85 × 10# g − 3.38g = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐠

4. Zinc reacts with carbon monoxide according to the following equation:

ZnO(s) + CO(g) ® Zn(s) + CO2(g)

a) If you combined 40.7 g of zinc oxide and 28.0 g of carbon monoxide, how many grams of metallic zinc could be
produced in the reaction?
mol ZnO 1 mol Zn 65.41 g Zn
40.7 g ZnO × × × = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕 𝐠 𝐙𝐧
81.41 g ZnO 1 mol ZnO mol Zn

mol CO 1 mol Zn 65.41 g Zn

28.0 g CO × × × = 65.4 g Zn
28.01 g CO 1 mol CO mol Zn

The mass of zinc produced is 32.7 g.

b) What was the limiting reactant?

The limiting reactant was zinc oxide.

c) How many grams of the excess reactant would remain after the reaction was complete?
mol ZnO 1 mol CO 44.01 g CO
40.7 g ZnO × × × = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎 𝐠 𝐂𝐎
81.41 g ZnO 1 mol ZnO mol CO

m:; = 28.0 g − 22.0 g = 𝟔. 𝟎 𝐠 𝐂𝐎

5. Nitroglycerin (C3H5N3O9(l)) is a powerful explosive. Its decomposition may be represented by:

4C3H5N3O9(l) ® 6N2 (g) + 12CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) + O2(g)

This reaction generates a large amount of heat and many gaseous products. It is the sudden formation of these gases,
together with their rapid expansion, that produces the explosion.

a) What is the maximum amount of oxygen, in grams, that can be obtained from the decomposition of nitroglycerin?
This question is not possible to answer because there’s no mass of nitroglycerin given. Sorry, team!
b) Calculate the percentage yield in this reaction if the amount of oxygen generated is found to be 6.55 g.
This question is not possible to answer because there’s no mass of nitroglycerin given. Sorry, team!
c) Based on your answer to part b), what mass of nitrogen was formed in the reaction?
This question is not possible to answer because there’s no mass of nitroglycerin given. Sorry, team!
6. The complete combustion of octane, the major component of gasoline for automobiles, can be described by the equation
below.
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) ® 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

If automobile engines are not properly tuned and the air filter replaced, there is often not sufficient oxygen for complete
combustion. Under these conditions, a competing reaction occurs along with the complete combustion reaction. The
equation for this reaction is shown below. This reaction is the source of carbon monoxide in automobile exhaust.

2C8H18(l) + 17O2(g) ®16CO(g) + 18H2O(g)

a) What is the maximum amount of carbon dioxide that can be produced by the complete combustion of 750 g
octane?
1 mol C7 H*7 16 mol CO# 44.11 g CO#
750 g C7 H*7 × × × = 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝐠 𝐂𝐎𝟐
114.26 g C7 H*7 2 mol C7 H*7 mol CO#
b) If 350 g of carbon monoxide are produced by the burning of 750 g of octane, how many grams of carbon dioxide
would you predict were generated?
mol CO 2 mol C7 H*7 114.26 g C7 H*7
350 g CO × × × = 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝐠 𝐂𝟖 𝐇𝟏𝟖
28.01 g CO 16 mol CO mol C7 H*7

m>"?#" = 750 g − 178 g = 572 g C7 H*7

mol C7 H*7 16 mol CO# 44.01 g CO#

572 g C7 H*7 × × × = 𝟑𝟓𝟐𝟐 𝐠 𝐂𝟖 𝐇𝟏𝟖
114.26 g C7 H*7 2 mol C7 H*7 mol CO#

7. Ammonium nitrate is used as a fertilizer. It is synthesized from ammonia and nitric acid.

a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between ammonia and nitric acid to produce ammonium nitrate.
NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) ➜ NH4NO3(aq)

b) What is the predicted yield of ammonium nitrate if 17 t of ammonia is consumed in the reaction?
mol NH$ 1 mol NH& NO$ 80.06 g NH& NO$
17 000 000 g NH$ × × × = 𝟕𝟗 𝟖𝟕𝟐 𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝐠 𝐍𝐇𝟒 𝐍𝐎𝟑
17.04 g NH$ 1 mol NH$ mol NH& NO$

c) If 63 t of fertilizer is obtained from the reaction that consumed 17 t of ammonia, what is the percentage yield?
63 000 000 g
Percent Yield = × 100 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟗%
79 872 066 g

8. In a titration experiment, 50.0 mL of 0.010 mol/L hydrochloric acid was required to neutralize 25.0 mL of an aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide. What was the molar concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ➜ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

0.010 mol HCl 1 mol NaOH 1

× 0.0500 L HCl × × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇
L HCl 1 mol HCl 0.0250 L NaOH

9. You measured 25.0 mL of a nitric acid solution and poured it into an Erlenmeyer flask and added a drop of
phenolphthalein solution. You then filled a burette with 0.115 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution. Before beginning your
titration, you observed that reading on the burette was 1.7 mL. As you titrated the nitric acid, you began to see a pink
colour when the burette read 19.4 mL. However, when you swirled the flask, the pink colour disappeared. When the
burette reading was 20.0 mL, the pink colour remained after mixing. What was the concentration of the nitric acid
solution?
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) ➜ NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

0.115 mol NaOH 1 mol HCl 1

× (20.0 mL − 1.7 mL) NaOH × × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟐 𝐦𝐨𝐥/𝐋 𝐇𝐂𝐥
L NaOH 1 mol NaOH 25.0 mL HCl
10. If it takes 18.0 mL of 0.500 mol/L aqueous sodium hydroxide to neutralize a 15.0 mL sample of sulfuric acid, what is the
acid’s concentration?
H2SO4(aq) + 2 NaOH(aq) ➜ Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

0.500 mol NaOH 1 mol H# SO& 1

× 18.0 mL NaOH × × = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥⁄𝐋 𝐇𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒
L NaOH 2 mol NaOH 15.0 mL H# SO&

11. Commercial processors of potatoes remove the skins by briefly soaking the potatoes in a solution of caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide). The potatoes are soaked in the solution for a short time at 60°C–70°C, after which the peel is easily removed
with a spray of fresh water. As a technician at a large food-processing facility, you are responsible for analyzing a batch of
NaOH(aq) solution. You titrate 25.00 mL samples of the base and find that, on average, it requires 30.21 mL of 1.986
mol/L HCl(aq) to reach a satisfactory endpoint.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ➜ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

a) Calculate the molar concentration of the sodium hydroxide.

1.986 mol HCl 1 mol NaOH 1
× 30.21 mL HCl × × = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥⁄𝐋 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇
L HCl 1 mol HCl 25.00 mL

b) If the sodium hydroxide concentration drops below 10 g/100 mL, it cannot be used for the skin removing process.
Calculate the concentration of the solution in grams of NaOH per 100 mL and determine whether the solution can
be re-used.
2.400 mol NaOH 40.00 g NaOH
× 0.100 L × = 9.6 g
L NaOH mol NaOH

A 100 mL sample will contain 9.6 g of NaOH, meaning the concentration is below 10 g/100 mL.

c) What safety gear is likely worn by workers at the potato-processing plant? Explain your answer.
Gloves, goggles, apron / labcoat – cover skin and eyes to protect from caustic and corrosive chemicals.

12. The arsenic in a 1.22 g sample of pesticide was converted by a chemical reaction to aqueous arsenate ion, AsO43–(aq). This
aqueous arsenate solution was titrated with an aqueous solution of silver ions, Ag+(aq), to give a precipitate of silver
arsenate.

a) Write the net ionic equation for the formation of the precipitate from arsenate and silver ions.
3 Ag+(aq) + AsO43–(aq) ➜ Ag3AsO4(s)
b) It took 25.0 mL of a 0.102 mol/L Ag+(aq) titrant to precipitate all the arsenate ions in the solution. What mass of
arsenate ion was in the solution?
0.102 mol Ag % 1 mol Ag $ AsO& 462.32 g Ag $ AsO&
%
× 0.0250 L Ag % × × = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟑 𝐠
L Ag 3 mol Ag % mol Ag $ AsO&
c) What is the percentage by mass of arsenic in the pesticide?
mol Ag $ AsO& 1 mol As 74.92 g As
0.393 g Ag $ AsO& × × × = 0.0637 g As
462.32 g Ag $ AsO& 1 mol Ag $ AsO& mol As

0.0637 g As
× 100 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟐% 𝐰/𝐰
1.22 g pesticide

13. A 2.50 mL sample of pickling vinegar (a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq), in water) requires 34.9 mL of
0.0960 mol/L sodium hydroxide to reach the equivalence point when titrated. How many grams of ethanoic acid are in
2.00 L of this pickling vinegar?

CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) ➜ NaCH3COO(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

0.0960 mol NaOH 1 mol CH$ COOH 1

× 0.0349 L NaOH × × = 1.34 mol/L
L NaOH 1 mol NaOH 0.00250 L CH$ COOH

1.34 mol 60.06 g

× 2.00 L × = 𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝐠
L mol