CHAPTER 8

OBJECTS AND
CLASSES
 Objects and Programs
 Java programs are made of objects that interact
with each other
 Each object is based on a class
 A class describes a set of objects with the same
behavior
 Each class defines a specific set of methods to
use with its objects
 For example, the String class provides methods:
• Examples: length() and charAt() methods
String greeting = “Hello World”;
int len = greeting.length();
char c1 = greeting.charAt(0);
 Diagram of a Class
 Private Data Class
 Each object has its own private Private Data
data that other objects cannot (Variables)
directly access
 Methods of the public interface
provide access to private data, Public Interface
while hiding implementation (Methods)
details:
 This is called Encapsulation
 Public Interface
 Each object has a set of
methods available for other
objects to use
 8.2 Implementing a Simple Class
 Example: Tally Counter: A class that models
a mechanical device that is used to count people
 For example, to find out how many people attend a
concert or board a bus
 What should it do?
 Increment the tally
 Get the current total
 Tally Counter Class
 Specify instance variables in the class
declaration:

 Each object instantiated from the class has its own

set of instance variables
 Each tally counter has its own current count
 Access Specifiers:
 Classes (and interface methods) are public
 Instance variables are always private
 Instantiating Objects
 Objects are created based on classes
 Use the new operator to construct objects
 Give each object a unique name (like variables)
 You have used the new operator before:
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
 Creating two instances of Counter objects:
Class name Object name Class name

Counter concertCounter = new Counter();

Counter boardingCounter = new Counter();

Use the new operator to

construct objects of a class.
 Tally Counter Methods
 Design a method named count that adds 1 to the
instance variable public class Counter
 Which instance variable? {
private int value;
 Use the name of the object
• concertCounter.count() public void count()
• boardingCounter.count() {
value = value + 1;
}

public int getValue()

{
return value;
}
}
 8.3 Public Interface of a Class
 When you design a class, start by specifying the
public interface of the new class
 Example: A Cash Register Class
• What tasks will this class perform?
• What methods will you need?
• What parameters will the methods need to receive?
• What will the methods return?
Task Method Returns
Add the price of an item addItem(double) void

Get the total amount owed getTotal() double

Get the count of items purchased getCount() int

Clear the cash register for a new sale clear() void

 Writing the Public Interface
/**
A simulated cash register that tracks the item count
and the total amount due.
*/ Javadoc style comments
public class CashRegister document the class and the
{ behavior of each method
/**
Adds an item to this cash register.
@param price: the price of this item
*/
public void addItem(double price)
{
The method declarations make up
// Method body
} the public interface of the class
/**
Gets the price of all items in the current sale.
@return the total price
The data and method bodies make up
*/
public double getTotal() ... the private implementation of the class
 Non-static Methods Means…
 We have been writing class methods using the static
modifier: public static void addItem(double val)
 For non-static (instance) methods, you must instantiate
an object of the class before you can invoke methods

 Then invoke methods of the object

public void addItem(double val)

public static void main(String[] args)

{
// Construct a CashRegister object
CashRegister register1 = new CashRegister();
// Invoke a non-static method of the object
register1.addItem(1.95);
}
 Accessor and Mutator Methods
 Many methods fall into two categories:
1) Accessor Methods: 'get' methods
• Asks the object for information without changing it
• Normally return a value of some type
public double getTotal() { }
public int getCount() { }

2) Mutator Methods: 'set' methods

• Changes values in the object
• Usually take a parameter that will change an instance variable
• Normally return void
public void addItem(double price) { }
public void clear() { }
 Special Topic 8.1: Javadoc
 The Javadoc utility generates a set of HTML files
from the Javadoc style comments in your source
code
 Methods document parameters and returns:
• @param
• @return
 8.4 Designing the Data Representation
 An object stores data in instance variables
 Variables declared inside the class
 All methods inside the class have access to them
• Can change or access them
 What data will our CashRegister methods need?
Task Method Data Needed
Add the price of an item addItem() total, count

Get the total amount owed getTotal() total

Get the count of items purchased getCount() count

Clear the cash register for a new clear() total, count

sale
An object holds instance variables
that are accessed by methods
 Instance Variables of Objects
 Each object of a class has a separate set of
instance variables.

The values stored in

instance variables make up
the state of the object.
 Accessing Instance Variables
 private instance variables cannot be accessed
from methods outside of the class
public static void main(String[] args)
{
. . .
System.out.println(register1.itemCount); // Error
. . . The compiler will not allow
} this violation of privacy
 Use accessor methods of the class instead!
public static void main(String[] args)
{
. . .
System.out.println( register1.getCount() ); // OK
. . .
}
Encapsulation provides a public interface
and hides the implementation details.
 8.5 Implementing Instance Methods
 Implement instance methods that will use the
private instance variables
public void addItem(double price)
{
itemCount++;
totalPrice = totalPrice + price;
}

Task Method Returns

Add the price of an item addItem(double) void

Get the total amount owed getTotal() double

Get the count of items purchased getCount() int

Clear the cash register for a new sale clear() void

 Syntax 8.2: Instance Methods
 Use instance variables inside methods of the class
 There is no need to specify the implicit parameter
(name of the object) when using instance variables
inside the class
 Explicit parameters must be listed in the method
declaration
 Implicit and Explicit Parameters
 When an item is added, it affects the instance
variables of the object on which the method is
invoked

The object on which a

method is applied is the
implicit parameter
 8.6 Constructors
 A constructor is a method that initializes instance
variables of an object
 It is automatically called when an object is created
 It has exactly the same name as the class
public class CashRegister
{
. . .
/**
Constructs a cash register with cleared item count and total.
*/
public CashRegister() // A constructor
{
itemCount = 0; Constructors never return values, but
totalPrice = 0; do not use void in their declaration
}
}
 Multiple Constructors
 A class can have more than one constructor
 Each must have a unique set of parameters
public class BankAccount
{ The compiler picks the constructor that
. . . matches the construction parameters.
/**
Constructs a bank account with a zero balance.
*/
public BankAccount( ) { . . . }
/**
Constructs a bank account with a given balance.
@param initialBalance the initial balance
*/
public BankAccount(double initialBalance) { . . . }
}
BankAccount joesAccount = new BankAccount();
BankAccount lisasAccount = new BankAccount(499.95);
 Syntax 8.3: Constructors
 One constructors is invoked when the object is created
with the new keyword
 The Default Constructor
 If you do not supply any constructors, the compiler
will make a default constructor automatically
 It takes no parameters
 It initializes all instance variables
public class CashRegister By default, numbers are initialized to 0,
{
booleans to false, and objects as null.
. . .
/**
Does exactly what a compiler generated constructor would do.
*/
public CashRegister()
{
itemCount = 0;
totalPrice = 0;
}
}
CashRegister.java
 Common Error 8.1
 Not initializing object references in constructor
 References are by default initialized to null
 Calling a method on a null reference results in a runtime
error: NullPointerException
 The compiler catches uninitialized local variables for you
public class BankAccount
{
private String name; // default constructor will set to null

public void showStrings()

{ Runtime Error:
String localName; java.lang.NullPointerException
System.out.println(name.length());
System.out.println(localName.length());
} Compiler Error: variable localName might
} not have been initialized
 Common Error 8.2
 Trying to Call a Constructor
 You cannot call a constructor like other methods
 It is ‘invoked’ for you by the new reserved word
CashRegister register1 = new CashRegister();
 You cannot invoke the constructor on an existing object:
register1.CashRegister(); // Error
 But you can create a new object using your existing
reference
CashRegister register1 = new CashRegister();
Register1.newItem(1.95);
CashRegister register1 = new CashRegister();
 Common Error 8.3
 Declaring a Constructor as void
 Constructors have no return type
 This creates a method with a return type of void which
is NOT a constructor!
• The Java compiler does not consider this an error
public class BankAccount
{
/**
Intended to be a constructor.
*/
public void BankAccount( ) Not a constructor…. Just another
{ method that returns nothing (void)
. . .
}
}
 Special Topic 8.2
 Overloading
 We have seen that multiple constructors can
have exactly the same name
• They require different lists of parameters
 Actually any method can be overloaded
• Same method name with different parameters
void print(CashRegister register) { . . . }
void print(BankAccount account) { . . . }
void print(int value) { . . . }
Void print(double value) { . . . }

 We will not be using overloading in this book

• Except as required for constructors
 8.7 Testing a Class
 We wrote a CashRegister class but…
 You cannot execute the class – it has no main method
 It can become part of a larger program
 Test it first though with unit testing
 To test a new class, you can use:
 Programming tools that interactively create objects:
• DrJava: www.drjava.org
• BlueJ: www.bluej.org
 Or write a tester class:
• With a main public class CashRegisterTester
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
CashRegister c1 = new CashRegister();
...
CashRegisterTester.java
 Test all methods
 Print expected
results
 Output actual results
 Compare results

A unit test verifies that a class

works correctly in isolation, outside
a complete program.
 Steps to Implementing a Class
1) Get an informal list of responsibilities
for your objects

2) Specify the public interface

3) Document the public interface

 Javadoc comments
 Steps to Implementing a Class
4) Determine the instance variables

5) Implement constructors and methods

6) Test your class

 8.8 Problem Solving: Tracing Objects
 Use an Index card for each object

 An object is manipulated through the public

interface (front of the card)
 The encapsulated data is on the back of the
card
 8.9 Problem Solving
Patterns for Object Data
 Common patterns when designing instance

variables
 Keeping a Total
 Counting Events
 Collecting Values
 Managing Object Properties
 Modeling Objects with Distinct States
 Describing the Position of an Object
 Patterns: Keeping a Total
 Examples public class CashRegister
{
 Bank account balance
private double totalPrice;
 Cash Register total
 Car gas tank fuel level public void addItem(double price)
{
 Variables needed totalPrice += price;
}
 Total (totalPrice) public void clear()
 Methods Required {
totalPrice = 0;
 Add (addItem) }
 Clear public double getTotal()
{
 getTotal return totalPrice;
}
}
 Patterns: Counting Events
public class CashRegister
 Examples {
 Cash Register items private double totalPrice;
private int itemCount;
 Bank transaction fee public void addItem(double price)
 Variables needed {
totalPrice += price;
 Count itemCount++;
}
 Methods Required public void clear()
 Add {
totalPrice = 0;
 Clear itemCount = 0;
 Optional: getCount }
public double getCount()
{
return itemCount;
}
}
 Patterns: Collecting Values
public class Cart
 Examples {
 Multiple choice private String[] items;
private int itemCount;
question public Cart() // Constructor
 Shopping cart {
items = new String[50];
 Storing values itemCount = 0;
 Array or ArrayList }
public void addItem(String name)
 Constructor {
 Initialize to empty if(itemCount < 50)
{
collection items[itemCount] = name;
 Methods Required itemCount++;
}
 Add }
}
 Patterns: Managing Properties
public class Student
A property of an object {
can be set and private String name;
private int ID;
retrieved public Student(int anID)
{
 Examples
ID = anID;
 Student: name, ID }
public void setName(String newname)
 Constructor {
 Set a unique value if (newName.length() > 0)
name = newName;
 Methods Required }
 set public getName()
{
 get return name;
}
}
 Patterns: Modeling Stateful Objects
public class Fish
Some objects can be in one {
of a set of distinct states. private int hungry;
public static final int
 Example: A fish NOT_HUNGRY = 0;
public static final int
 Hunger states: SOMEWHAT_HUNGRY = 1;
• Somewhat Hungry public static final int
• Very Hungry VERY_HUNGRY = 2;
• Not Hungry
public void eat()
 Methods will change the {
hungry = NOT_HUNGRY;
state }
 eat public void move()
{
 move if (hungry < VERY_HUNGRY)
{ hungry++; }
}
 Patterns: Object Position
 Examples public class Bug
{
 Game object private int row;
 Bug (on a grid) private int column;
private int direction;
 Cannonball // 0 = N, 1 = E, 2 = S, 3 = W
 Storing values public void moveOneUnit()
{
 Row, column, direction, switch(direction) {
speed. . . case 0: row--; break;
case 1: column++; break;
 Methods Required . . .
 move }
}
 turn }
 8.10 Object References
 Objects are similar to arrays because they always
have reference variables
 Array Reference

double[] values = new double[5];

 Object Reference

CashRegister reg1 = new CashRegister;

An object reference specifies the

memory location of the object
 Shared References
 Multiple object variables may contain references
to the same object.
 Single Reference
CashRegister reg1 = new CashRegister;

 Shared References
CashRegister reg2 = reg1;

The internal values can be

changed through either reference
 Primitive versus Reference Copy
 Primitive variables can be copied, but work
differently than object references
 Primitive Copy Reference Copy
• Two locations One location for both
int num1 = 0; CashRegister reg1 = new CashRegister;
int num2 = num1; CashRegister reg2 = reg1;
num2++; reg2.addItem(2.95);

Why? Primitives take much less

storage space than objects!
 The null reference
 A reference may point to ‘no’ object
 You cannot invoke methods of an object via a
null reference – causes a run-time error
CashRegister reg = null;
System.out.println(reg.getTotal()); // Runtime Error!

 To test if a reference is null before using it:

String middleInitial = null; // No middle initial

if (middleInitial == null)
System.out.println(firstName + " " + lastName);
else
System.out.println(firstName + " " + middleInitial + ". "
+ lastName);
 The this reference
 Methods receive the ‘implicit parameter’ in a
reference variable called ‘this’
 It is a reference to the object the method was
invoked on:

 It can clarify when instance variables are used:

void addItem(double price)
{
this.itemCount++;
this.totalPrice = this.totalPrice + price;
}
 Constructor this reference
 Sometimes people use the this reference
in constructors
 It makes it very clear that you are setting the
instance variable:
public class Student
{
private int id;
private String name;
public Student(int id, String name)
{
this.id = id;
this.name = name;
}
}
 8.11 Static Variables and Methods
 Variables can be declared as static in the Class
declaration
 There is one copy of a static variable that is shared
among all objects of the Class
public class BankAccount
{
private double balance;
private int accountNumber;
private static int lastAssignedNumber = 1000;

public BankAccount()
{
lastAssignedNumber++;
accountNumber = lastAssignedNumber;
}
. . . Methods of any object of the class can use
} or change the value of a static variable
 Using Static Variables

 Example:
 Each time a new account is created,
the lastAssignedNumber variable is
incremented by the constructor
 Access the static variable using:
 ClassName.variableName
 Using Static Methods

 The Java API has many classes that provide

methods you can use without instantiating objects
 The Math class is an example we have used
 Math.sqrt(value) is a static method that returns the
square root of a value
 You do not need to instantiate the Math class first
 Access static methods using:
 ClassName.methodName()
 Writing your own Static Methods
 You can define your own static methods
public class Financial
{
/**
Computes a percentage of an amount.
@param percentage the percentage to apply
@param amount the amount to which the percentage is applied
@return the requested percentage of the amount
*/
public static double percentOf(double percentage, double amount)
{
return (percentage / 100) * amount;
}
static methods usually return a value. They
}
can only access static variables and methods.
 Invoke the method on the Class, not an object
double tax = Financial.percentOf(taxRate, total);
 Summary: Classes and Objects
 A class describes a set of objects with the same
behavior.
 Every class has a public interface: a collection of
methods through which the objects of the class
can be manipulated.
 Encapsulation is the act of providing a public
interface and hiding the implementation details.
 Encapsulation enables changes in the
implementation without affecting users of a class
 Summary: Variables and Methods
 An object’s instance variables store the data
required for executing its methods.
 Each object of a class has its own set of instance
variables.
 An instance method can access the instance
variables of the object on which it acts.
 A private instance variable can only be accessed
by the methods of its own class.
 Variables declared as static in a class have a
single copy of the variable shared among all of the
instances of the class.
 Summary: Method Headers, Data
 Method Headers
 You can use method headers and method comments to
specify the public interface of a class.
 A mutator method changes the object on which it operates.
 An accessor method does not change the object on which
it operates.
 Data Declaration
 For each accessor method, an object must either store or
compute the result.
 Commonly, there is more than one way of representing the
data of an object, and you must make a choice.
 Be sure that your data representation supports method
calls in any order.
 Summary: Parameters, Constructors
 Methods Parameters
 The object on which a method is applied is the implicit
parameter.
 Explicit parameters of a method are listed in the method
declaration.
 Constructors
 A constructor initializes the object’s instance variables
 A constructor is invoked when an object is created with
the new operator.
 The name of a constructor is the same as the class
 A class can have multiple constructors.
 The compiler picks the constructor that matches the
construction arguments.