CE-122: Civil Engineering Materials and Concrete Technology

Glass
Week-14

By

Prof. Dr. Khan Shahzada

CED, UET Peshawar

2
 Week-14
Topics
“Glass”
• Constituents of glass
• Methods of manufacture
• Types of Glass
• Use and significance in civil engineering
• Advantages and drawbacks.
 Glass
Introduction:
Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture.
• It is a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material.
• It is the most common material glazed into frames for doors, windows and curtain
walls.
 Constituents of Glass
• The raw materials used in manufacturing glass are sand, lime (chalks) and soda or
potash which are fused over 1000°C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to
modify hardness, brilliance and colour.
The functions of the various ingredients are as follows.
1) Silica
2) Lime
3) Soda
4) Potash
5) Lead Oxide
6) Cullet's
 Constituents of Glass
1) Silica:
• It is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone and pulverised flint.
• It should be free from iron contents for best quality glass.
• Since it melts at very high temperatures (1710°C) carbonates of sodium or potassium
are added to lower down the fusing temperature to about 800°C.
• These also make liquid silica more viscous and workable.
2) Lime:
• Is used in the form of limestone, chalk or pure marble and sometimes marl.
• The addition of lime makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing, rolling,
pressing or spinning.
• It also imparts durability and toughness to glass.
• Excess of lime makes the molten mass too thin for fabrication.
 Constituents of Glass
3) Soda:
• Acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass and an excess of it is harmful.

4) Potash:
• Renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.

5) Lead Oxide:
• It imparts colour, brightness and shine.
• When 15–30% of it added to substitute lime it lowers the melting point, imparts good
workability, while its transparency is lost with the glass becoming brittle and
crystalline.
 Constituents of Glass
6) Cullet's:
• These are broken glasses(use in glass making) added to act as a flux to prevent loss of
alkali by volatilization during the process of forming glass and also to lower the fusion
temperature.
• However, flux may reduce the resistance of glass to chemical attack, render it water-
soluble or make it subject to partial or complete devitrification (crystallization) on
cooling. These crystalline areas are extremely weak and brittle.
• Stabilizers are added to overcome these defects.
• Titanic acid, oxide of nickel and cobalt are used for chromatic neutralization.
Note:
Iron is not desirable as constituent. However when present it imparts a bottle green colour
to the glass. To overcome this manganese dioxide known as glass maker’s soap is added
which washes the liquid glass and remove the colour.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Manufacture:
Glass is manufactured in the following steps:
• Melting
• Forming and Shaping
The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shapes by any one of the following methods:
• Blowing
• Flat Drawing
• Compression Moulding
• Spinning
• Annealing
• Finishing
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Melting:
• The raw materials — lime, soda and sand — separately cleaned, ground, sieved (called
‘Batch’) in definite proportion and mixed with water are fused in a continuous type
(tank) furnace or batch-type (pot) furnace.
• The charge in the first stage melts, forming a bubbly, sticky mass, and as the
temperature is raised (1100°C–1200°C) it turns to a more watery liquid and the bubbles
rise to the surface.
• The melting process in case of ordinary soda glass involves the following series of
reactions:
CaCO3+SiO2 ► CaSiO3 + CO2(evolve)
Na2CO3 + SiO2 ► Na2SiO3 + CO2(evolve)
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Melting: (Contd. ..)
• When all the carbon dioxide has escaped out of the molten mass, decolourisers such as
MnO2 or nitre are added to do away with ferrous compounds and carbon.
• The colouring salts are added at this stage.
• Heating is continued till the molten mass is free from bubbles and glass balls.
• As the glass cools (800°C), it is ready to be drawn or floated to its desired thickness and
size at the other end of the furnace as shown by a flow diagram in Fig.15.1.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Melting: (Fig 15.1)
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping:
The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shapes by any one of the following methods:
1) Blowing:
• A 2m long and 12mm diameter blow pipe is dipped in the molten glass and taken out.
• It is held vertically and is vigorously blown by the operator.
• The sticking molten glass takes the shape of a hollow ball.
• On cooling it is reheated and the blowing operation
repeated a number of times till the desired articles are ready.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
2) Flat Drawing:
• The process of drawing the glass up into a sheet begins when an grille (bait) is lowered
into the glass in the kiln.
• In a short time the liquid molten glass adheres to the bait, and as the bait is slowly lifted
it draws a sheet of glass.
• The bait and the drawn sheet of glass are then drawn through rollers, the bait is cracked
off and a continuous sheet of glass is drawn up.
• This sheet is then slowly cooled in a chamber and annealed for cutting into proper size.
• A machine for vertical drawing of glass is shown in Fig. 15.2.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
2) Flat Drawing:
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
3) Compression Moulding:
• In this process moulds are used to obtain the articles of desired shapes.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
4) Spinning:
• A machine is used to spin the molten glass.
• The fibres so produced are very fine and are
used for heat and sound insulation.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
5) Annealing:
Annealing is the process of slowly cooling the glass to relieve internal stresses in glass.
• Glass articles are allowed to cool under room temperature by passing through different
chambers with descending temperature.
• If cooled rapidly, the glass being bad conductor of heat, the superficial layer cools down
first and strain develops in the interior portions, which causes unequal expansion and the
articles are likely to crack.
 Method of Manufacture of Glass
Forming and Shaping: (Contd. ..)
6) Finishing:
• After annealing the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished, cut and sand blasted.
 Types of Glass
The most common types used in building construction are:
1) Sheet Glass
2) Plate Glass
3) Laminated Glass
4) Insulating Glass
5) Tempered Glass or toughened Glass
6) Wired Glass
7) Obscured Glass or Patterned Glass
8) Coloured Glass or Tinted Glass
9) Heat absorbing glass
10) Ground Glass
 Types of Glass
1) Sheet Glass:
• Is used for glazing doors, windows and partitions and is obtained by blowing the
molten glass into the shape of a cylinder.
• The ends of the cylinder so produced are cut away and the cylinder is flattened over a
plane tray.
• It is available in thicknesses of 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 5.5 and
6.5mm and up to 1750 × 1100 mm size and is classified as.
Type Uses
Ordinary Glazing Quality General Engineering Purpose
Selected Glazing Quality Class Works
Special Glazing Quality Superior quality works such as show
cases and cabinets etc.
 Types of Glass
2) Plate Glass:
• It is used for all engineering purposes and is superior to sheet glass.
• A plate glass differs from a sheet glass in that it has a parallel, distortion-free surface
obtained by grinding or floating process.
• It is produced by pouring the molten glass on casting tables and levelling it to an
uniform thickness.
• Both the glass surfaces are then ground, smoothened and polished.
• Glass so produced is clear and contains unblemished true plane
surfaces and is available in thicknesses of 3 to 32 mm and sizes
up to 2750 × 900 mm.
 Types of Glass
2) Plate Glass:
• It is classified as:
Types Uses
Ground Glass quality Showcases, cabinets, counters, shop
fronts, etc.
Selected glazing quality Making mirrors
Special selected quality High class works, wind screen of vehicles
 Types of Glass
3) Laminated Glass:
• It is made by sandwiching a layer of polyvinyl butyral between two or more layers of
plate or sheet glass.
• It is also known as safety glass.
• It is combination of different layers of a normal glass.
The examples are:
• Heat proof glass and sound proof glass
• Bullet proof glass.
• Shatterproof Glass
 Types of Glass
3) Laminated Glass: (Contd. .. )
• Heat and Sound Proof Glass:
• Two or more glass plates are sandwiched by a tinted plastic inner layer.
• It provides high resistance to heat and glare. By increasing the thickness of plastic layer
the glass can be made more sound resistant.
• Bullet Proof Glass:
• It is produced by placing vinyl plastic and glass in several alternate layers and pressing
them with outer layers of glass.
Uses:
• It is used in banks, jewellery stores and display windows, and also in other safety
purposes.
 Types of Glass
3) Laminated Glass: (Contd. .. )
• Shatter Proof Glass:
• Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc.
• Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process.
• So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
 Types of Glass
4) Insulating Glass:
• It is also known as double glazing or double glazed units.
• It is composed of two glass plates of 6–13mm thickness range, dehydrated air is sealed.
• The round edges are formed by fusing together the two glass plates.
• These glasses reduce the heat transmission by 30–60%.
Uses:
• Insulating glass is traditionally used at office buildings,
Hospitals, Hotels, Houses and those buildings where large
amount of heating or cooling is required.
• Those places where humidity and temperature needs to be
controlled, Insulated glass is best suited for them.
 Types of Glass
5) Tempered Glass or Toughened Glass:
• It is made from plate glass by reheating and sudden cooling and is 3 to 5 times
stronger than plate glass.
• Although not unbreakable, it resists bending stress better than plate glass and, when
broken, the pieces are relatively small in size.
Uses:
• It is used extensively in sports arenas, sliding doors and
curtain walls etc.
• It is also used for the protection of smart phone screens.
 Types of Glass
6) Wired Glass:
• It is produced by embedding wire nets 0.46 to 0.56mm into the centre of sheet glass
during casting.
• The minimum thickness of wired glass is 6mm.
• When broken it does not fall into pieces.
• It has higher melting point than ordinary glass.
Uses:
• Wired glass is used for fir resisting doors and windows,
for sky lights and roofs.
• A special example of this is wired refrax glass which transmits
100 percent more light than the other glasses.
 Types of Glass
7) Obscured Glass or Patterned Glass:
• It is made comparatively opaque to sunlight. Also known as patterned glass.
They are classified as:
• Frosted glass
• Rolled glass
• Ribbed glass
Frosted Glass:
• It is produced by subjecting the polished face of the glass to a sand blast which grinds
off the surface. It can also be produced by etching on glass by hydrofluoric acid.
Rolled Glass:
• It has a series of waves of desired pattern on the surface and is also known as figured
rolled glass.
 Types of Glass
7) Obscured Glass or Patterned Glass:
• Ribbed Glass:
• A series of triangular ribs are produced in the glass during casting.
 Types of Glass
8) Coloured Glass or Tinted Glass:
• It is produced by adding oxides of metals to molten glass. It do not effect property of
glass.
 Types of Glass
8) Coloured Glass or Tinted Glass:
It is used in doors , windows, kitchens etc.
 Types of Glass
9) Heat absorbing glass:
• It is bluish green or blue in colour and cuts ultra violet rays of sun. The example is
calorex.
Uses:
It is used in railway carriages, factories, hospitals, health clubs and kitchens.
 Types of Glass
10) Ground Glass:
• In this type of glass one face of plate or sheet glass is made rough by grinding.
• It is used for maintaining privacy by obstructing vision and at the same time allowing
light.
• The ground glass is used for bedrooms, toilets and for making black boards.
 Types of Glass
Other types of glass are:

• Block glass or Glass Blocks

• Opal Glass
• Enamel Glass
• Optical Glass
• Extra Clean Glass
• Chromatic Glass
 Types of Glass
1) Block Glass:
• It is hollow sealed made by fastening together two halves of pressed glass while
melting process of glass.
Uses:
• These are used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls, skylights etc.
• They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.
• It is also used for making partitions.
 Types of Glass
2) Opal Glass:
• It is also known as milk glass.
• It is produced by adding bone ash, oxide of tin and white arsenic to vitreosil (99.5%
silica glass known as clear silica glass).
• The composition is 10 parts of sand, 4 parts cryolite and 1 part zinc oxide.
Uses:
• It is used where high thermal shock resistance and high chemical durability are desired.
 Types of Glass
3) Enamel Glass:
• It is produced by adding calcined lead and tin oxide to the ordinary glass.
• The composition is 10 parts sand, 20 per cent lead and tin oxide and 8 parts potash.

4) Optical Glass:
• It contains phosphorus, lead silicate and a little cerium oxide, the latter capable of
absorbing ultraviolet light injurious to eyes.
Uses:
They are used for making lenses.
 Types of Glass
5) Extra Clean Glass:
• Extra clean glass has two special properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic(tendency of
mixing and dissolving).
• Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful appearance.
• Maintenance is also easy.
 Types of Glass
6) Chromatic Glass:
• Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc.
• It can control the transparent efficiency of glass and protects the interior from daylight.
• The chromatic glass may be photochromic which has light sensitive lamination,
thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and electro chromic which has
electric lamination over it.
 Use and Significance of Glass in Civil Engineering
Several uses and significance of glass are:
1. Use in Doors and windows
2. Use for insulation in buildings.
3. Renewable energy (solar energy glass, Wind turbines)
4. Interior design and furniture element like mirrors, balustrades, tables, partitions, etc.
5. Nowadays glass is used as a partition in building facades which divides space
physically as well visually connects the inside with outside.
 Advantages of Glass
Several advantages are:
• The glass that absorb, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or
translucent so it adds extraordinary beauty to the building.
• Glass transmits up to 80% of available natural day light in both directions without any
yellowing, clouding or weathering.
• The glass is fully weather resistance so it can withstand the effects of the wind, rain, or
the sun and can retain its appearance and integrity.
• Glass does not rust so it does not degrade gradually by chemical and surrounding
environment effects.
• Glass has a smooth glossy surface so it is dust proof and can be easily cleaned.
• Glass allows natural light to enter the house even if doors/windows are closed so thus it
saves energy and also lowers the electricity bills, brightens up the room and brings out
the beauty of the home, and most importantly it boosts the mood of occupant.
 Advantages of Glass
• It is an excellent insulator against electricity
• Available in varieties of colours and when we combine the glass sheet in laminated or
insulated units, they change in colour and appearance.
• Glass is 100% recyclable and it does not degrade during the recycling process, hence it
can be recycled again and again without loss of quality or purity.
• The glass is UV stable, Since It is not attacked by ultraviolet radiation and hence cracks,
discolouration or disintegration will not occur.
• The glass is stable over wide range of temperatures.
• The glass is excellent abrasion resistant so it will resist surface wear caused by flat
rubbing and contact with another material.
• Glass has the ability to make the structure look more stunning, sophisticated and adds
beauty to the building. It is used to achieve the architectural view for external
decoration.
 Disadvantages of Glass
Several Disadvantages are:
• Manufacturing of glass is high energy consuming process due to high temperature
required for processing the raw materials, and it is expensive material and ultimately
increases the cost of a building.
• The glass is very rigid and brittle materials so when it is subjected to stress, it breaks
without significant (strain). Broken pieces of Glass may be sharp and chances of injury
are very high.
• The glass is less impact resistant so the capability of the glass to withstand a suddenly
applied load is very poor.
• The glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area. Unfortunately, there is no such
Glass as an earthquake proof material but costly treatment makes them withstand
against earthquake.
• Glass absorb heat and is not suitable for warm and hot places. So it can use more
energy for air conditioning.
Quotes