Polynomials with its appropriate sign is the product

of the roots
A polynomial in x is a function in the form
Example 1
f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + … + anxn where
a 0 Find the sums and products of the roots of
the following equations
(a) Quadratics
(a) 5x5 + 4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6 = 0
If α and β are the two roots, then, x=α Solution
and x =β Dividing through by 5
x2 – (α + β)x + αβ = 0 x5 + x4 – x3 + x2 – x + = 0
sum of roots =
(b) Cubic
If α, β and λ are the three roots, then, product of roots =
x = α, x =β and x = λ
 (x – α)(x – β)(x – λ) = 0 (b) 3x4 - 5x3 + 2x2 + 0x + 9 = 0
Dividing through by 3
[x2 – (α + β)x + αβ]( x – λ) = 0
x4 - x3 + x2 + 0x + 3 = 0
3 2 2
x – λx – (α + β)x + (α + β)λx +αβx-αβλ = 0

x3 – (α + β + λ)x2 + (αβ + αλ + βλ)x -αβλ = 0 Sum of roots =

(c) Qurtic Product of roots = 3

If α, β, λ and ρ are the four roots, then

Addition and subtraction of polynomial
x = α, x =β, x = λ and x = ρ
Polynomial are added or subtracted if they are
 (x – α)(x – β)(x – λ)(x – ρ) = 0 of the same degree. This is done by adding or
[x3 – (α + β + λ)x2 + (αβ + αλ + βλ)x –αβλ] (x – ρ) = 0 subtracting the coefficients of the
corresponding term
X4 – (α + β + λ+ρ)x3 + (αβ + αλ + αρ + βλ +βρ +λρ )x2
– (αβλ + αβρ + αλρ +βλρ)x + αβλρ = 0 Example 2

The above illustration shows that: (a) Given the polynomial

f(x) = 5x5 + 4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6 and
(i) The signs of the terms alternate in the
g(x) = 3x4 – 5x3 + 2x2 + 9
order: +, - , + ….. starting with the first
Find (i) f(x) + g (x) (ii) f(x) – g(x)
term.
(ii) The coefficient of the second term is –
(sum of the roots) and the last term

digitalteachers.co.ug
 Solution Find coefficient of x3 in the expansion
(i) f(x) + g(x)
(2x3 + x2 – 5x + 6)(2x + 4)
5x5 + 4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6
+ 3x4 – 5x3 + 2x2 + 0x + 9 Solution
= 5x5 + 7x4 – 8x3 + 2x2 – x + 15
(2x3 + x2 – 5x + 6)(2x + 4)
f(x) - g(x) = 2x(2x3 + x2 – 5x + 6) + 4(2x3 + x2 – 5x + 6)
5x5 + 4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6
- 3x4 – 5x3 + 2x2 + 0x + 9 = (2x4 + 2x3 – 10x2 + 12x)+ 8x3 + 4x2 – 20x + 16

= 5x5 + x4 + 2x3 + 0x2 – x – 3 =2x4 + 10x3 – 6x2 – 8x + 16

(b) Given polynomials The coefficient of x3 is 10

f(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 – 2x – 8 and
Division of polynomials
g(x) = x3 -2x2 + 3x + 5
The division of polynomial may be done by
Find (i) f(x) + g (x) (ii) f(x) – g(x)
long division as follows.
Solution
Example 5
(i) f(x) + g (x)
(a) Divide x3 – 7x – 6 by (x+ 1)
= (2 + 1)x3 + (4 – 2)x2 + (-2 + 3)x + (-8 + 5)
Solution
= 3x3 + 2x2 + x – 3
x2- x - 6
(ii) f(x) – g(x) (x + 1) )x3 – 7x - 6
= (2 - 1)x3 + (4 – -2)x2 + (-2 - 3)x + (-8 - 5) – x3 – x2
= x3 + 6x2 – 5x -13
x2 – 7x – 6
Multiplication of polynomials – x2 – x
When multiplying two functions together, the -6x – 6
terms of the first function are multiplied by
the terms of the second function – -6x – 6

Example 3 0+0

(a) Given the polynomial Example 6

f(x) = 5x3 + 2x2 + 9 and Find the remainder when 2x3 + x2 + 5x – 4 is
g(x) = 4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6 divided by 2x - 1
Find f(x) x g (x)
Solution x2+ x + 3
(2x - 1) )2x33 + x22 + 5x - 4
= 5x3 (4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6) – 2x – x
+ 2x2 (4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6)
+ 9 (4x4 – 3x3 + 2x2 – x + 6) 2x2 + 5x – 4
= (20x7 – 15x6 + 10x5 – 5x4 + 30x3) – 2x2 – x
+ (8x6 – 6x5 + 4x4 - 2x3 + 12x2)
+ (36x4 – 27x3 + 18x2 -9x + 54) 6x – 4
= 20x7 – 7x6 + 4x5 + 35x4 + x3 + 30x2 – 9x + 54
– 6x – 3
Hence f(x) .g(x) =
-1
20x7 – 7x6 + 4x5 + 35x4 + x3 + 30x2 – 9x + 54
Hence the remainder is -1
Example 4

digitalteachers.co.ug
Example 7 (d) 2x4 + 10x3 – 6x2 – 8x + 16 [4]
2. Given that
Show that x = -2 is a root of the equation
(a) f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 3x + 2 and
2x3 – x2 – 8x + 4 = 0. Hence find the other
g(x) = 2x3 – x2 + 5x – 4, find f(x) – g(x)
roots
[-x3 + 3x2 – 8x + 6]
Solution (b) f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 3x + 2 and
g(x) = 2x3 – x2 + 5x – 4, find g(x) – f(x)
If x =-2 is a root of the function, then its [x3 - 3x2 + 8x - 6]
Remainder must be equal to zero (c) f(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x and
g(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 5x + 1, find f(x) – g(x)
Hence x = -2 is a root of 2x3 – x2 – 8x+ 4 = 0 [x3 + x2 + x – 1 ]
x = -2 => x + 2 =0 (d) f(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 6x and
g(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 5x + 1, find 2f(x) + g(x)
[5x3 – 16x2 + 7x + 1 ]
3. Given that
2x2 - 5x + 2 (a) f(x) = x2 – 2x + 5 and
(x - 2) )2x33 - x2 2- 8x + 4 g(x) = x3 + 6x – 4, find xf(x) + 3g(x)
– 2x + 4x
[4x3 – 2x2 + 23x – 12]
-5x2 - 8x + 4 (b) f(x) = x3 + 6x – 4 and
g(x) = x2 – 2x + 5, find 3f(x) + xg(x)
– 5x2 – 10 x
[2x3 + 2x2 + 13x – 12]
2x + 4

– 2x + 4 Other methods of finding the remainder

0 Apart from using long division, the remainder
Since a cubic equation has at most three when a function is divided by a certain factor
roots; the remaining two roots are obtained can be obtained by remainder theorem and
by solving the quadratic equation by synthetic approach.
factorization
(a) The remainder and factor theorems
2x2 – 5x + 2 = 0
When a number say 186 is divided by 4, this
2x2 – 4x – 2x + 2 =0 can be represented simply as follow
2x(x – 2) – 1(x – 2) = 0 46
4 )186
(2x – 1)(x – 2) = 0 – 16
2x – 2 = 0 or x – 2 = 0 26
x= or x = 2 - 24

the other roots are x = and x = 2 2

the quotient is 46 and the remainder is 2
Revision exercise 1 The above alogarithm can be written as
1. Find the degree of each of the following
polynomials Or simply 186 = 4Q + R, where the quotient
(a) x6 + 4x4 – 2 [6] Q = 46 and the remainder, R = 2. This is
(b) 2x3 – x2 – 8x+ 4 [3] referred to as the remainder theorem
(c) 5x3 + 2x2 + 9 [3]

digitalteachers.co.ug
The remainder theorem states that, when a (iv) The first digit in the second row comes
function f(x) is divided by by (x – a) and leaves under the second digit in the first row
a remainder, then the remainder of the and this digit is equal to a0 x a, where a0
function is f(a) is the coefficient of xn.
From f(x) = (x –a)Q(x) + R (v) The second digit in the 3rd row is the same
When we substitute for x = a; f(a) = R as the sum of the digits in the 1st and 2nd
rows
When R = 0, => f(a) = 0. This is referred to as (vi) The next digit in the 2nd row is equal to
the factor theorem, a0 x the 2nd digit in the 3rd row
(vii) The corresponding numbers in the 1st and
Example 8 2nd row are added to give the digit in the
3rd row and the process continues
Find the remainder when
(viii) The last digit in the 3rd row is the
(a) f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x + 2 is divided by x – 1 remainder of the polynomial and the
Solution digit to the left of the remainder are
Let x3 + 3x2 – 4x + 2 = (x – 1)Q(x) + R coefficients of the quotient provided the
Putting x = 1: 1 + 3 – 4 + 2 = R divisor is in the form tx + b, where t = 1.
2=R If t ≠ 0, then we divide the digit to left of
(b) f(x) = 3x3 + 2x – 4 is divided by x – 2 the remainder by t to obtain the
Solution coefficients of the quotient.
Let 3x3 + 2x – 4 = (x – 2)Q(x) + R
Example 9
Putting 2: 24 + 4 – 4 = R
R = 24 Find the remainder and quotient when the
(c) f(x) = 2x + 4x2 – 6x + 5 is divided by x – 1
3
function
Let 2x3 + 4x2 – 6x + 5 =(x – 1)Q(x) + R
(a) f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x + 2 is divided by x – 1
Putting 1: 2 + 4 – 6 + 5 = R
from f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 4x + 2, the
R=5
coefficients of x in a descending order are
(d) 8x3 + 4x + 3 is divided by 2x -1
1, 3, -4 and 2
Let 8x3 + 4x + 3 = (2x – 1)Q(x) + R
From x – 1 = 0, => x = a = 1
Putting : 1 + 2 + 3 = R 1st row 1 3 -4 2
R=6 2nd row 1 4 0 +; a=1
3rd row 1 4 0 (2)←remainder
Synthetic approach for finding the The remainder is 2
remainder Quotient x2 + 4x
The synthetic approach can be illustrated as (b) x5 + x – 9 is divided by x + 1
follows
x5 + x – 9 x5 + 0x4 + 0x3 +0x2 + x - 9
f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 + …. + an is divided by
x – a, then the following steps are taken using 1st row 1 0 0 0 1 -9
a table +; x = -1
(i) The factor in question must be linear 2nd row -1 1 -1 1 -2
(ii) The 1st row of the table contains the
3rd row 1 -1 1 -1 2 (-11) ←remainder
coefficients of x in f(x) in descending
order. Remainder: -11
(iii) The at most left hand side of the 3rd row
contains a value a from the division, x – a Quotient: x4 – x3 + x2 –x + 2
i.e. if x – a = 0, then x = a
(c) 4x5 – 3x3 + 2x + 7is divided by 2x – 1

digitalteachers.co.ug
4x5 – 3x3 +2x+ 7 4x5+ 0x4– 3x3 +0x2 +2x+7 By long division to find other factors

1st row 4 0 -3 0 2 7 x2 + x – 6
+; x=
2nd row 2 1 -1 - x2 + 3x + 2 x4 + 4x3 –x2 - 16x – 12

rd – x4 + 3x3 + 2x2
3 row 4 2 -2 -1 ( ) ←remainder
x3 – 3x2 – 16x
The quotient is [4x4 + 2x3 -2x2 – x + ] =
– x3 + 3x2 + 2x
4 3 2
2x + x – x - x + and remainder is
– 6 x2 –18x – 12
Example 10
– – 6 x2 –18x – 12
The polynomial x4 + px3 –x2 + qx – 12 has
0 + 0 + 0
factors x + 1 and x + 2.

Find the values of p and q, hence factorize the x4 + 4x3 –x2 + 16x – 12
polynomial completely. =( x2 + 3x + 2)( x2 + x – 6)
Solution Now x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3)(x – 2)
Let f(x) = x4 + px3 –x2 + qx – 12 Hence x4 + 4x3 –x2 + 16x – 12
By factor theorem = (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x – 2)
Putting x = -1 Example 11
f(-1) = 1 – p - 1 – q – 12 =0 When f(x) = x3 – ax + b is divided by x + 1, the
p + q = -12 …………………………. (i) remainder is 2 and x + 2 is a factor. Find a and
b.
Putting x = -2
Solution
f(-2) = 16 – 8p – 4 – 2q – 12 = 0
By substitution for x = -1 in the function
4p + q = 0 ………………………….(ii)
(-1)3 – a(-1) + b = 0
Eqn. (ii) – eqn. (i)
-1 + a + b = 2
3p = 12
a + b = 3 ………………. (i)
p=4
since x + 2 is a factor, substituting for x = -2 in
substituting for p into eqn. (i) the function gives zero
4 + q = -12 (-2)3 – a(-2) + b = 0
q = -16 -8 + 2a + b = 0
f(x) = x4 + 4x3 –x2 + 16x – 12 2a + b = 8 …………….(ii)
Now (x + 1)(x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2 Eqn. (ii) – eqn. (i)
Since (x + 1)(x + 2) is a factor, then x2 + 3x + 2 a=5
is also a factor of f(x)
substituting for a in eqn. (i)

5 + b = 3 => b = -2

digitalteachers.co.ug
Example 12 4p – q = 0 …………….(ii)

The function f(x) = x3 + px2 – 5x + q has a Eqn. (i) + eqn. (ii)

factor x – 2 and has a value of 5 when x = -3.
3p = 12
Find the values of p and q
p=4
Solution
From eqn. (i)
By substitution for x = 2 in the function
q = -4 – 12 = -16
23 + p(2)2 – 5(2) + q = 0
Hence p = 4 and q = -16
4p + q = 2 ………….(i)
x4 + px3 – x2 + qx – 12= x4 + 4x3 – x2 – 16x – 12
By substitution for x = -3 in the function
By long division to find other factors
(-3)3 + p(-3)2 – 5(-3) + q = 5

9p + q = 17 ………. (ii) x2 + x – 6

Eqn. (ii) – eqn.(i) x2 + 3x + 2 x4 + 4x3 –x2 - 16x – 12

5p = 15 – x4 + 3x3 + 2x2

p=3 x3 – 3x2 – 16x

From eqn. (i) – x3 + 3x2 + 2x

4x3+q=2 – 6 x2 –18x – 12

q = -10 – – 6 x2 –18x – 12

Hence p = 3 and q = -10 0 + 0 + 0

Example 13 x4 + 4x3 –x2 + 16x – 12

The polynomial x4 + px3 – x2 + qx – 12 has a =( x2 + 3x + 2)( x2 + x – 6)
factor x2 + 3x + 2.
Now x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3)(x – 2)
Find the value of p and q and hence factorise
completely Hence x4 + 4x3 –x2 + 16x – 12

Solution = (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x – 2)

x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1) (x + 2) Example 14

Let f(x) = x4 + px3 – x2 + qx – 12 If 4x3 + ax2+ bx + 2 is divisible by x2 + k2, show

that ab = 8
f(-1) = (-1)4 + p(-1)3 – (-1)2 + q(-1) – 12 = 0
Solution
1 – p – 1 + q – 12 = 0

-p + q = 12……………..(i)

f(-2) =(-2)4 + p(-2)3 – (-2)2 + q(-2) – 12 = 0

16 – 8p – 4 – 2q – 12 = 0

-8p – 2q = 0

digitalteachers.co.ug
 leaves a remainder of 18 and when
By long division divided by x + 3, it leaves a remainder -50.
Determine the values of a, b, and c. Hence
4x + a
factorize the polynomial completely
(x2 + k2) 4x3 + ax2 + bx + 2 [ a = 6, b = 13, c = -1; (x + 2)(2x +1)(3x-1)]
4. Factorize completely
– 4x3 + 4 k2
f(xyz) = (x + y)3(x – y) + (y + z)3(y – z)+
ax2 + (b – 4 k2)x + 2 (z + x)3(z – x)
[(x + y + z)(x – y)(y – z)(z – x)
– ax2+ a k2 5. When the quadratic expression ax2 + bx +
2
(b – 4 k )x + 2 - ak 2 c is divided by x – 1, x – 2 and x + 1, the
remainders are 1, 1, and 25 respectively,
determine the factors of the expression
Since the remainder is zero,
[(2x – 3) and (2x – 3)]
(λ – 4k2)x + 2 - ak2 = 0 6. The remainder when px3 + 2x2 – 5x + 7 is
divided by x – 2 is equal to the remainder
Comparing coefficients of x:
when the same expression is divided by x
b – 4 k2 = 0 …………………. (i) + 1. Find the value of p [p = 1]
7. Given that x – 4 is a factor of
2 - ak2 = 0 2x3 – 3x2 – 7x + k, where k is a constant,
k2 = ……………….……… (ii) find the remainder when the expression is
divided by 2x -1 [k = - 52, remainder = -56]
Eqn. (ii) into eqn. (i) 8. The expression px3 + qx2 + 3x + 8 leaves a
remainder of -6 when divided by x – 2
b - 4( ) = 0 and a remainder of -34 when divided by
x + 2. Find the values of constants p and q.
 ab – 8 = 0 [p = 1, q = -7]
ab = 8 9. Show that x – 2 is a factor of
x3 – 9x2 + 26x – 24. Find the set of values
Revision exercise 2 of x for which x3 – 9x2 + 26x – 24< 0
[x < 2 and 3< x < 4]
1. Given that f(x) 3x3 – 4x2 -5x + 2, factorize
10. The remainder when x3 – 2x2 + kx + 5 is
f(x) completely and hence solve the
divided by x – 3 is twice when the same
equation f(x) = 0 * + expression is divided by x + 1. Find the
2. Prove that a – b is a factor of value of the constant k [k = -2]
a2(b – c) + b2(c – a) + c2(a – b) and write
down two other factors of the expression.
Hence or otherwise factorize the Thank you
expression completely
[-(a – b)(b – c)(c – a) or (b – a) )(b – c)(c – a)] Dr. Bbosa Science
3 2
3. The polynomial ax + bx – cx – 2 is
divisible by x +2. When divided by x – 1 it

digitalteachers.co.ug