Finals

Every living organism is made up of cells, the very

tiny units of life. Within the cells are organic molecules
joined to form larger molecule.

There are four classes of macromolecules. This

include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acid
forming a chainlike structure called polymers. Recall that
these macromolecules composed mainly the elements like
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other macromolecules have
nitrogen and phosphate in their structure.
 Explain how the structures of
01 biological macromolecules such
as: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic
acid, and proteins determine their
properties and function.
(S11/12PS-llle-22)
 You noticed that all the structures contain the same
elements C, H, and O. These structures are carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are one of the macromolecules which contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only with the ratio 1:2:1. This can
be written as CnH₂nOn, where n corresponds to the number of
carbon atoms. The term carbohydrate comes from the Latin
word saccharum which means sugar.

The carbohydrate that we eat which is our main source

of energy is converted into glucose which is readily used in the
body. It is classified as simple sugar (monosaccharides and
disaccharides) and complex sugars (polysaccharides).
Structure of Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharides
Are sugar with one saccharide units. Glucose
(used as dextrose and sugar and found in blood),
galactose (found in milk and other milk products) and
fructose (sugar found in fruits and honey) are
monosaccharides. They are isomers which mean, they
have the same molecular formula but different structural
formula. The difference in their structure (Figure 2) is the
one that made also difference in their properties like
boiling point galactose has higher boiling point than
glucose. Glucose is the sweeter than galactose.
 Disaccharides
Are sugar with two saccharides
unit joined by a glycosidic bond. Maltose is
a disaccharide formed from 2 Glucose
units and is found in malt. Sucrose found
in regular table sugar contains glucose and
Polysaccharides
fructose units. Lactose found in milk and Are sugar contains many
milk products is a disaccharide containing saccharide units. Starch and
Glucose and Galactose. Cellulose are polysaccharides.
Starch, a storage form of glucose in
plants and cellulose, the structural
material in plant cell wall composed
of 250 – 400 glucose molecules
connected via a-1-4-glycosidic bond.
 Protein was believed to be the beginning of life. It comes
from the Greek word proteios which means first. Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, and Nitrogen are the elements that make up protein. Sulfur and
other metals can also be found in some proteins. Proteins as one of the
macromolecules that are made from multiple units of simple molecules
called amino acid (shown in the figure below). Combination of 20 amino
acid joined by a peptide bond makes a protein. Thus, proteins are called
polypeptides. The structure of amino acid is shown below.
Each type of protein is made up of different combination
of amino acid arranged in specific way. The order to
which the amino acids are arranged determines the
configuration and function of protein. Examples of
proteins are the following:
Collagen
Found in connective
tissues such as
tendons, ligaments,
skin, cartilage and
cornea of the eye.
Fibroin/Silk protein
One of the strongest
natural fibers found
in silk.
 Keratin Myoglobin

- a fibrous protein in hair, skin and - a heme group contains iron (II)
nails. ion at its center where oxygen is
being stored.

Hemoglobin

- is a globular protein that carries

oxygen from the lungs to the
bloodstream.
Enzymes • On the other hand, are substances that
catalyze a reaction. The following are
the examples of enzymes and their
specific function.

02 Pepsin
01
01 Lipase • Help in breaking down proteins
• Helps in digestion of fats. into peptides (smaller units).

03 Sucrase
• Help in digestion of sugars
and starches.
 Lipids come from the Greek word lipos meaning fat.
Lipids are family of biomolecules group together because of its
property of being hydrophobic (water fearing). Lipids are non-
polar molecules making it soluble to non-polar solvents like
acetone, ether and benzene. It is classified into four categories
(1) Triglycerides, (2) Phospholipids, (3) Steroids.
 Fatty Acid

Is a chain like molecule containing a long chain of carboxylic acid.

Fatty acid can be saturated (contains single bonds) in its long chain
hydrocarbon chain or unsaturated (contains double bond). Since lipids are
non-polar molecule, it is insoluble in water. Saturated fatty acid is a straight
chain where all the carbon atoms in the chain have two hydrogen singly
bonded to making the molecules to form a strong attraction. Because of this
strong attraction, saturated fatty acid have high melting point and are solid at
room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acid on the other hand, tends to bend
due to the presence of a double bond in one of the carbon in the chain. The
molecule will not be as close to that of the saturated fatty acid. Unsaturated
fatty acids have low melting points than saturated fatty acids.
Triglycerides
Are lipids that contain
glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acids.
The 3 fatty acids connected to the
glycerol backbone are not necessarily
of the same kind.

Fat and oils are example of

triglycerides. Fats are usually from
animal sources contain mostly
saturated fatty acid making it solid at
room temperature. Oil refers to
triglyceride from plat sources. It
contains unsaturated fatty acid and is
liquid at room temperature.
 Phospholipids
Is another type of lipids that contains
glycerol, two fatty acids, and a
phosphate group. Phospholipids,
unlike other kind of lipids, it has a
polar end (hydrophilic end) which is
the phosphate group and non-polar
end (Hydrophilic end).
 Nucleic acid is important
macromolecules that serve as storage
of genetic information of the cell. It is
made up of nucleotide monomers that
contain a nitrogenous base, a pentose
sugar, and a phosphate group. DNA
and RNA are the two types of nucleic
acid with specific functions.
DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
blueprint of life carries the genetic
material and provides information for its
own replication. It is a double helix
structure composed of a sugar and
phosphate backbone and complementary
bases Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-
Guanine pair.
RNA

RNA (ribonucleic acid) on the other

hand, carries the information from
DNA for protein synthesis. These are
three types of RNA namely:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)