EG2202

Mechatronics and
Systems
Introduction

Dr Mohsen Ghavami
2024-25

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 Contents of this
session
• Introduction to what is Mechatronics
about
• Design process for Mechatronic systems
• Systems (definition and components)
• Control Systems
• Feedback
• Open and closed loop control
• Analogue and Digital control
• Controllers

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Learning outcomes
After this session, you should be able to:
• Explain what is meant by mechatronics and
appreciate its relevance in engineering
design.
• Explain what is meant by a system and
define the elements of measurement
systems.
• Describe the various forms and elements of
open-loop and closed-loop control
systems.
• Recognise the need for models of systems
in order to predict their behaviour.

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 What is Mechatronics?
Mechatronics involves a concurrent approach rather than a
sequential approach.

Ryalat et al. 2024

The word Mechatronics was initially generated as the combination of mechanisms and
electronics (mech + tronics). But it has now a wider meaning than it used to (just the
combination of mechanical and electronics). It is used to describe a philosophy in
engineering technology in which there is a co-ordinated, and concurrently developed,
integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in
the design and manufacture of products and processes. As a result, mechatronic
products have many mechanical functions replaced with electronic ones.

The figure on the left shows the Mechatronic ecosystem.

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Examples of
Mechatronics Systems

• Auto-focus camera
• Suspension system of a Loading-
unloading truck
• Automated production line

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Embedded Systems
• Microprocessors embedded into systems This is
the type of systems that we normally deal with in
Mechatronics
• {Microprocessor + Data storage chips + I/O
Memory chips} = Microcontroller
• Microcontroller based washing machine
• Cars, digital cameras, mobile phones …

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 Preparation
Analysis of
The Need of a
the problem
specification

The
Systems Generation of
possible
Selections of
a suitable
Production of
a detailed
Design solutions solution design
Process
Production of Production of
a detailed working
design drawings

• The need
The design process begins with a need from, perhaps, a customer or client. This
may be identified by market research being used to establish the needs of
potential customers.
• Analysis of the problem
The first stage in developing a design is to find out the true nature of the problem,
i.e. analysing it. This is an important stage in that not defining the problem
accurately can lead to wasted time on designs that will not fulfil the need.
• Preparation of a specification
Following the analysis, a specification of the requirements can be prepared. This
will state the problem, any constraints placed on the solution, and the criteria
which may be used to judge the quality of the design. In stating the problem, all
the functions required of the design, together with any desirable features, should
be specified. Thus there might be a statement of mass, dimensions, types and
range of motion required, accuracy, input and output requirements of elements,
interfaces, power requirements, operating environment, relevant standards and
codes of practice, etc.
• Generation of possible solutions
This is often termed the conceptual stage. Outline solutions are prepared which
are worked out in sufficient detail to indicate the means of obtaining each of the
required functions, e.g. approximate sizes, shapes, materials and costs. It also
means finding out what has been done before for similar problems; there is no

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sense in reinventing the wheel.
• Selections of a suitable solution
The various solutions are evaluated and the most suitable one selected.
Evaluation will often involve the representation of a system by a model and then
simulation to establish how it might react to inputs.
• Production of a detailed design
The detail of the selected design has now to be worked out. This might require the
production of prototypes or mock-ups in order to determine the optimum details of
a design.
• Production of working drawings
The selected design is then translated into working drawings, circuit diagrams,
etc., so that the item can be made.

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Traditional and Mechatronic designs
Traditional sequential design:
Mechanical Engineer (Design mechanical
elements) → Control Engineer

Mechatronic design:
Mechanical engineering + Electronics +
Computer Technology + Control
engineering

Modelling and simulation of the system is

needed

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Modelling Systems
What is the relation between the output(s) and input(s).
Examples: spring, motor, thermometer (a measurement system)
𝐹 𝑘𝑥

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System response
The time is also important.
How long does it take for the system to give an output for a certain input?
𝐹 𝑘𝑥

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 System response
Another example; a thermal system

The relationship between input and output of a system is often described by a differential
equation.
We will discuss this in the System modelling chapter later.

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Measurement systems
There are three main elements in measurement systems

Example: a digital thermometer

Note how we normally represent the systems. It is generally a series of

interconnected blocks that each has a specific function.
Note that the lines connecting the boxes indicate the flow of information and not
always have physical appearance.

The main three elements of a measurement system are:

• A sensor responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a

signal which is related to the quantity. For example, a thermocouple is a
temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a temperature and the output
is an e.m.f., which is related to the temperature value.

• A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into
a condition which is suitable either for display or, in the case of a control
system, for use to exercise control. Thus, for example, the output from a
thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f. and might be fed through an amplifier to
obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is the signal conditioner.

• A display system displays the output from the signal conditioner. This might,
for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.

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Control Systems
The mission of a control system is to do one of the following:
Control some variable to some particular value.
a central heating system where the temperature is controlled to a particular value
Control the sequence of events.
a washing machine with the dials set to certain wash procedure
Control whether an event occurs or not.
a safety interlock like a press with a safety guard

Control some variable to some particular value, e.g. a central heating system
where the temperature is controlled to a particular value;

Control the sequence of events, e.g. a washing machine where when the dials
are set to, say, ‘white’ and the machine is then controlled to a particular washing
cycle, i.e. sequence of events, appropriate to that type of clothing;

Control whether an event occurs or not, e.g. a safety lock on a machine where it
cannot be operated until a guard is in position.

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Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems

Example: electric fireplace

Use of on-off power switch (Open-loop)
Closed-loop control: Set on-off power according to the temperature (feedback)

Consider an electric fire which has a selection switch that allows selection of a 1
kW or a 2 kW heating element.

Open-loop control: If a person just switches on the 1 kW element, the room will
heat up and reach a temperature which is only determined by the fact that the 1
kW element is switched on and not the 2 kW element. If there are changes in the
conditions, like someone opens a window, there is no way the heat output is
adjusted to compensate. In open-loop control, there is no information fed back to
the element to adjust it and maintain a constant temperature.

Closed-loop control: The person has a thermometer and switches the 1 kW and 2
kW elements on or off, according to the difference between the actual
temperature and the required temperature, to maintain the temperature of the
room constant. In this situation there is feedback, the input to the system being
adjusted according to whether its output is the required temperature. This means
that the input to the switch depends on the deviation of the actual temperature
from the required temperature, the difference between them being determined by
a comparison element – the person in this case.

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Feedback
Feedback control examples:
(a) human body temperature
(b) room temperature with central
heating
(c) picking up a pencil
Generally, it is the information that in
feedback control returns back to
control unit for comparison.

Feedback control is exercised by the control system comparing the fed-back

actual output of the system with what is required and adjusting its output
accordingly.

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Closed-loop System Structure
Basic elements of a closed-loop system

Comparison element compares the controlled variable and produces an error signal.
Control element takes an action based on error signal. For example, a signal to open an on-off
or proportional valve.
Correction element produces a change in the process to correct or change the controlled
condition.
Process element. The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room that its
temperature is being controlled or a tank that its level is being controlled.
Measurement element produces a signal related to the controlled variable. For example, a
thermocouple which gives an emf related to the temperature.

Comparison element
This compares the required or reference value of the variable condition being
controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved and produces an
error signal. It can be regarded as adding the reference signal, which is positive,
to the measured value signal, which is negative. In this case:
error signal = reference value signal − measured value signal
The symbol used, in general, for an element at which signals are summed is a
segmented circle, inputs going into segments. The inputs are all Thus, hence the
feedback input is marked as negative and the reference signal positive so that
the sum gives the difference between the signals. A feedback loop is a means
whereby a signal related to the actual condition being achieved is fed back to
modify the input signal to a process. The feedback is said to be negative
feedback when the signal which is fed back subtracts from the input value. It is
negative feedback that is required to control a system. Positive feedback occurs
when the signal fed back adds to the input signal.

Control element
This decides what action to take when it receives an error signal. It may be, for
example, a signal to operate a switch or open a valve. The control plan being
used by the element may be just to supply a signal which switches on or off when
there is an error, as in a room thermostat, or perhaps a signal which
proportionally opens or closes a valve according to the size of the error. Control

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plans may be hard-wired systems in which the control plan is permanently fixed by
the way the elements are connected together or programmable systems where
the control plan is stored within a memory unit and may be altered by
reprogramming it.

Correction element
The correction element produces a change in the process to correct or change the
controlled condition. Thus, it might be a switch which switches on a heater and so
increases the temperature of the process or a valve which opens and allows more
liquid to enter the process. The term actuator is used for the element of a
correction unit that provides the power to carry out the control action.

Process element
The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a house with its
temperature being controlled or a tank of water with its level being controlled.

Measurement element
The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable condition of
the process that is being controlled. It might be, for example, a switch which is
switched on when a particular position is reached or a thermocouple which gives
an e.m.f. related to the temperature.

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 Example of closed-loop elements for the human controlled electric fire

What about an automatic

control with thermostat?

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Example of closed-loop elements for automatic control of water level

How would an electronic control system work?

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General closed-loop system

Human controlled
electric fire

Thermostat
controlled heater

Water level
control

For the water level control, this is a schematic with mechanical elements. We
could, however, have controlled the liquid level by means of an electronic control
system. We thus might have had a level sensor supplying an electrical signal
which is used, after suitable signal conditioning, as an input to a computer where
it is compared with a set value signal and the difference between them, the error
signal, then used to give an appropriate response from the computer output. This
is then, after suitable signal conditioning, used to control the movement of an
actuator in a flow control valve and so determine the amount of water fed into the
tank.

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Closed-loop System Structure
Shaft speed control

Controlled
speed of rotation of shaft
variable
Reference setting of slider on
value potentiometer
Comparison
differential amplifier
element
the difference between
the output from the
Error signal potentiometer and that
from the tachogenerator
system
Control unit the differential amplifier
Correction unit the motor
Process the rotating shaft
Measuring
the tachogenerator
device

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Analogue and Digital Control
Analogue: continuous signal
Digital: sequences of on/off signals (pulses)
Most of the real-world situations are
analogue
Digital systems are easier to program,
design and data storage, better
accuracy and less affected by noise.
Needs Digital to Analogue Converters
(DAC) and Analogue to Digital
Converters (DAC).

The examples so far discussed are analogue systems where all signals are
continuous functions of time. Digital signals can be considered to be a sequence
of on/off signals, the value of the variable being represented by the sequence of
on/off pulses.

To communicate between different parts of a digital control system, the

analogue inputs from the real-world to the digital system and the digital
outputs from the digital system to the real-world would require the use of
A/D and D/A converters (ADC and DAC).

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Digital Control
Systems Advantages of the digital control
systems:
• Control operation can be programmed
Compare the digital closed-loop • Easier information storage
control with the analogue system. • Greater accuracy
• Less sensitive to noise
• Easier to design

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Digital Control
Systems

• The digital controller can be a

computer performing the Control
Algorithm.

• In most cases, it is a microcontroller

(a microprocessor with additional
integrated elements like memory, ADC
and DAC …)

The control algorithm might be as below:

• Read the reference value, i.e. the desired value.
• Read the actual plant output to its ADC input port.
• Calculate the error signal.
• Calculate the required controller output.
• Send the controller output to its DAC output port.
• Wait for the next sampling interval.

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Digital Control Systems
Digital control system for the shaft speed control (Compare with the analogue system)

The software used with a digital controller must be able to:

• Read data from its input ports.

• Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
• Send data to its output ports.

In addition, it will have “Facilities to determine at what times the control

program will be implemented”.

The term polling is used for such a situation, the program repeatedly
checking the input ports for such sampling events. So, we might have:

Check the input ports for input signals.

No signals so do nothing.

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Check the input ports for input signals.
No signals so do nothing.
Check the input ports for input signals.
Signal so read data from its input ports.
Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
Send data to its output ports.
Check the input ports for input signals.
No signals so do nothing.
And so on.

An alternative to polling is to use interrupt control. The program does not

keep checking its input ports but receives a signal when an input is due.
This signal may come from an external clock which gives a signal every
time the ADC takes a sample.

No signal from external clock.

Do nothing.
Signal from external clock that an input is due.
Read data from its input ports.
Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
Send data to its output ports.
Wait for next signal from external clock.

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Polling & Interrupt control
For the digital control system, the program should be able to read the input at the time of
release.

Polling:
The program repeatedly checks the input ports and as soon as gets an input, carries out the
internal data transfer, performs the mathematical operations and sends out the data to output
ports.
Interrupt control:
The program doesn’t check continuously. Instead, it receives a signal when an input is due.
That signal comes from an external clock which generates the signal when ADC receives a
sample.

The software used with a digital controller must be able to:

• Read data from its input ports.

• Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
• Send data to its output ports.

In addition, it will have “Facilities to determine at what times the control

program will be implemented”.

The term polling is used for such a situation, the program repeatedly
checking the input ports for such sampling events. So, we might have:

Check the input ports for input signals.

No signals so do nothing.

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Check the input ports for input signals.
No signals so do nothing.
Check the input ports for input signals.
Signal so read data from its input ports.
Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
Send data to its output ports.
Check the input ports for input signals.
No signals so do nothing.
And so on.

An alternative to polling is to use interrupt control. The program does not

keep checking its input ports but receives a signal when an input is due.
This signal may come from an external clock which gives a signal every
time the ADC takes a sample.

No signal from external clock.

Do nothing.
Signal from external clock that an input is due.
Read data from its input ports.
Carry out internal data transfer and mathematical operations.
Send data to its output ports.
Wait for next signal from external clock.

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Sequential Control
System to perform certain actions in a time- or event-driven sequence.
Fluid power control systems
Washing machine
The sequence is called Program.
Can use relays and cams or can be
microcontroller based

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Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Microcontrollers are normally on one integrated chip
and being programmed to do a specific task.
A PLC is a more flexible, microprocessor-based
controller with programmable memory that can be
1 Switch on pump.
reprogrammed.
Switch off pump when a level detector gives
PLCs: 2
the on signal.
• More flexible, capable of receiving larger numbers 3 Switch on heater.
of I/O (ports), more robust against noise. Switch off heater when a temperature sensor
4
Microcontrollers: gives the on signal.
Switch on pump to empty the liquid from the
• Cheaper, easier to program particularly for 5
container.
varying control logic. Switch off pump when a level detector gives an
6
on signal.
Process control for a liquid heater tank

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Notes:
The images and examples used in theses slides are taken from the following book.
You are advised to refer to the book for further study.

Bolton, W. “Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical

Engineering”, 7th Edition, Pearson Education, 2019.

The book is available online from the library services here.

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School of Science & Technology
City St George’s University of London
Northampton Square
London
EC1V 0HB
United Kingdom

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