UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

2.0 INTRODUCTION

 Regulating wide-scale production facilities has become easier as technology has progressed. One way that these
facilities are changing is by using process control systems to regulate different aspects of their production
processes. Knowing what a process control system is and what it can do can help you gain a larger
understanding of wide-scale production and metrics used to ensure quality.
 Process control is the ability to monitor and adjust a process to give a desired output. It is used in industry to
maintain quality and improve performance.
 Process control systems are devices that perform quality testing throughout a production line. Also known as
industrial control systems.
 The main purpose of a process control system is to regulate production metrics, create and send data to the
manufacturer and ensure that the processing line completes each product with as few errors as possible.
Example 1
 An example of a simple process that is controlled is keeping the temperature of a room at a certain temperature
using a heater and a thermostat.
 When the temperature of the room is too low, the thermostat will turn on a heating source until the temperature
reaches the desired level at which point the heater is turned off. As the room cools, this process repeats itself to
keep the room at the desired set point.
 In this example, the set point is the temperature setting on the thermostat and the heater turns on and off to
maintain temperature.
 Hence, this simplest form of process control is called on/off or deadband control. This type of process has a
deadband which is the difference between the temperature where the heater is turned on and when it reaches the
set point. This deadband is what keeps the heater from being turned on and off too often.

Example 2
 An example of a more sophisticated process control scenario would be where 2 fluids are being mixed in a
particular ratio. As the flow of one fluid increases, the other has to increase proportionally. The flows for both
fluids would be controlled with actuated valves.
 A controller will calculate the amount of flow required from each valve based on the total flow required. Each
valve is then controlled with a PID type controller that will vary the valve position based on the difference
between the desired value (set point, as determined from the controller) and the measured flow rate (process
variable). In simple terms, when the flow measurement is too low, the controller will determine how much the
valve needs to open to increase the flow to the desired value.
 Most industrial processes are a combination of many smaller processes. It is important that each process is stable
as instability in one process will often cause other processes to become unstable. This instability is often called
variability.

 In most processes, the ability to control close to the desired set point and minimize variability has a significant
impact on costs. If the set point needs to be raised to insure that a minimum value is met due to variability, the
amount that the set point is raised over the desired value often result in wasted resources. For example, if a flow
rate needs to be 10 gallons per minute to achieve a desired process result and the variability is +/- 1 gpm, the set
point would need to be 11 gpm to ensure that the flow rate never fell below 10 gpm. This average of 1 gpm is
then wasted product. If the variability was reduced to 0.1 gpm, the set point could be readjusted to 10.1 gpm
which would result in a product savings for the operator.

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UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

2.1. NEED FOR PROCESSES CONTROL

The industrial business could benefit from a well-designed control system in many ways, including:
1. Efficiency
Energy savings - energy wastage is reduced when your plant and machinery are efficiently operated
2. Safety
Improved safety - control systems automatically warn you of any abnormalities which minimizes the risk of
accidents.
Safety of workers and the community around a plant is concern number one or should be for most engineers
as they begin to design their process.
Chemical plants have a great potential to do severe damage if something goes wrong and it is inherent the
setup of process control to set boundaries on specific unit so that they don’t injure or kill workers or
individuals in the community.
3. Quality production
Consistent product quality - variations in product quality are kept to a minimum and reduce your wastage
4. Economics
Lower manufacturing costs - detecting faults early means throughput, yield and quality are maintained
5. Environment
Improved environmental performance - systems can give you an early warning of a rise in emissions

The industrial business could achieve energy savings of up to 15 per cent with a well-designed and properly
maintained process control system.

2.3. THE PROCESS CONTYROL TERMS

1. Set-Point:
 The set-point is where you would like the process variable to be. For example, the room you are in now has a
setpoint of about 70 degrees Celsius . The desired temperature you set on the thermostat is the setpoint.

2. Dead Time:
 It is the amount of time that it takes for your process variable to start changing after your valve changes.
 If you were taking a shower, the dead time is the amount of time it would take for you (the controller) to feel a
change in temperature after you have adjusted the hot or cold water.

3. Lag Time:
 Lag time is the amount of time after the dead time that the process variable takes to move 63.3% of its final
value after a step change in valve position.
 Lag time is also called a capacity element or a first order process. Very few real processes are pure lag. Almost
all real processes contain some dead time.

4. Reference Variable
 In closed-loop control the task is to keep the controlled variable at the desired value or to follow the desired-
value curve. This desired value is known as the reference variable.

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UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

5. Process Variable
 A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing process
in some way. In the example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was temperature. In the example of
the filling tank, the process variable is level. Common process variables include:
 Pressure (Pressure in a pneumatic accumulator; Pressure of a hydraulic press;)
 Flow (Flow-rate of coolant in a heat exchanger)
 Level
 Temperature (Temperature in a galvanizing bath; Temperature of air, water.)
 Density
 Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
 Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel)
 Mass
 Conductivity
 Speed (Feed speed of a machine tool with electrical drive)
 The variable that is subject to control is also called the controlled variable. So, the process variable and the
controlled variable are two terms referring to one same thing.

6. Setpoint
 The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained.
 For example, if a process temperature needs to kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A
temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint.
 The sensor is inserted into the process, and a controller compares the temperature reading from the sensor to the
setpoint. If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the process is above setpoint
and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly until the process cools to 100 °C. Set points can also be
maximum or minimum values.
 For example, level in tank cannot exceed 20 feet.

7. Manipulated Variable
 The controlled variable in any system can be influenced. This influence allows the controlled variable to be
changed to match the reference variable (desired value).
 The variable influenced in this way is called the manipulated variable. Examples of manipulated variable are:

 Position of the venting control valve of an air reservoir

 Position of a pneumatic pressure-control valve
 Voltage applied to the electrical heater of a galvanizing bath
 Position of the control valve in the coolant feed line
 Position of a valve in a chemical feed line
 Voltage on the armature of a DC motor

8. Measured variable
 In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is temperature, which must be held close to the
desired value. In this example and in most instances, the measured variable is also the process variable. The
measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the designated setpoint.

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UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

 Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may
measure flow into and out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the measured
variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable. The factor that is changed to keep the measured
variable at setpoint is called the manipulated variable. In the example described, the manipulated variable would
also be flow.

9. Error
 Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either positive or negative.
 In the temperature control loop example, for instance, the error is the difference between the 110 °C measured
variable and the 100 °C setpoint—that is, the error is +10 °C.
 The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be
well understood. Any error can be seen as having three major components. These three components are shown
on the figurer 1.

Figure 1: Components of Error

10. Magnitude
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values of the setpoint and the process variable.
The magnitude of error at any point in time compared to the previous error provides the basis for determining
the change in error. The change in error is also an important value.

11. Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has existed.

12. Rate Of Change

The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot (Picture 1).

13. Offset
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the temperature control loop example,
if the control system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an
offset of 0.5 °C exists.

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UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

2.4. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROCESS CONTROL (BASIC)

The figure 2 shows the block diagram of close loop system or process control system. The process control system
consists of process or plant, feedback elements, error detector, automatic controller, actuator or control element.

Figure 2: Block diagram – process control system

1. Plant or Process:
Plant or process is an important element of process control system in which variable of process is to be
controlled. The Process means some manufacturing sequence. It has one variable or multivariable output.
2. Feedback element or Sensor:
The feedback element or sensor is the device which converts the output variable into another suitable
variable which can acceptable by error detector.
3. Error detector:
The error detector compares between actual signal and reference input i.e., set point. The error detector is
subtracted summing points whose output is an error signal to controller for comparison and for the
corrective action.
E(t)= r(t) b(t)
4. Automatic controller:
The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a very low power level, and amplifies it
to a sufficiently high level i.e., means automatic controller comprises an error detector and amplifier.
5. Actuator or control element:
The actuator is nothing but pneumatic or valve, a hydraulic motor or an electric motor, which produces an
input to the plant according to the control signal getting from controller.

Feedback Control System Block Diagram

Figure 3 shows basic elements of a feedback control system as represented by a block diagram. The functional
relationships between these elements are easily seen. An important factor to remember is that the block diagram
represents flow paths of control signals, but does not represent flow of energy through the system or process.

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Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 5
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 3: Feedback Control System Block Diagram

Below are several terms associated with the closed-loop block diagram.
1. The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is controlled. This is also
called the controlled system.
2. The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
These elements are also called the “controller.”
3. The feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship between the feedback
signal and the controlled output.
4. The reference point is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control system to cause the
plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired value of a controlled variable and is also
called the “setpoint.”
5. The controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled. This signal represents the
controlled variable.
6. The feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point and algebraically added
to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.
7. The actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is equal to the algebraic sum of the
reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also called the “error signal.”
8. The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the plant output (controlled
variable) at the desired value.
9. The disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the value of the controlled output of the plant.

Process Control Block Diagram:

 The primary objective of industrial process control is to control physical parameters such as temperature, pressure,
flow rate, level, force, light intensity, and so on.
 The Process Control Block Diagram is designed to maintain these parameters near some desired specific value.
 As these parameters can change either spontaneously or because of external influences, we must constantly
provide corrective action to keep these parameters constant or within the specified range.

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Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 6
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 4: Process control loop Block diagram

Fig. 4 shows the Process Control Block Diagram elements are:
1. Process
2. Measurement
3. Controller
4. Control Element
 To control process parameter, we must know the value of that parameter and hence it is necessary to measure
that parameter. In general, a measurement refers to the transduction of the process parameter into some
corresponding Analog Interfacing of the parameter, such as a pneumatic pressure, an electric voltage, or current.
A transducer is a device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a process parameter into
analogous electrical or pneumatic information. Many times, further transformation or signal conditioning may be
required to complete the measurement function.

 The Fig. 4 shows parameter P and its measured value PM. The measured value is compared with the set value
(desired value). According to the result of the comparison the control action is determined and the control signal
is generated. The controller does this work. Finally, the control signal is used to provide necessary changes in
the process parameter with the help of control element.

 In most of the process control applications, the electronic instruments and controllers are used to measure and
evaluate the process parameter. Thus, the control signal generated by the electronic controller is either Analog
Interfacing or digital, which is not directly useful to change the process parameter as desired. For example,
Analog Interfacing or digital signal from the electronic controller cannot do the opening and closing of the valve.
For operation of valve, the device called actuator is used.

 An actuator is a device which converts the control, signal into physical action like action of opening or closing
the valve. The actuator like DC motor is necessary to operate the control valve. To operate DC motor, it is
necessary to convert control signal from the electronic controller into signal which can operate the DC motor.
The step involved in the corrective action are shown in Fig. 15.28, with the help of block diagram.

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Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 7
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

THE CONTROL MODES ON/OFF

 The goal of a closed-loop controller is to retain the controlled variable in a preset value. All controllers are
designed to send their decision in the form of an output signal to the device that they are controlling. The signal is
a function of the error value which is calculated as the difference between the setpoint and the control point. The
way a controller behaves in calculating this signal is called “control logic” or “control mode”.

Figure 5: Element of Final Control Operation

 The signal converter converts the control signal in proper form such that it can drive actuator. In this case control
signal is converted into proportional DC signal which can drive the DC motor, actuator. The actuator then
translates the control signal into action and operates final control elements valve to change the process parameter
to the desired value.
 In this section, we see the interfacing circuits for some transducers and sensors which are used to sense and convert
the physical parameters into their corresponding electrical equivalent parameters such as voltage or current. We
also discuss the applications such as microcomputer-based scale and temperature control system.

Microprocessor Based Scale:

 In this section, we see the entire process of reading a physical parameter and displaying it on the digital display.
For this, we discuss a commonly used microprocessor-based scale.
 The Fig. 5 shows a block diagram of microprocessor-based scale. It consists of load cell, suitable signal
conditioner, Analog Interfacing to digital converter and output indicator in the form of 7-segment display.

Figure 5: Block diagram of Microprocessor based scale

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Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 8
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Microprocessor Based Scale

 The load cells (which may be up to 4 or 8 cells) convert the weight data into electrical signal which is amplified
to give an output of 0 to 5V. This signal is converted into digital form using- A/D converter. Microprocessor
system accepts this digital data through input port. Using calibration procedure microprocessor system convert
this digital data into actual weight data. It finds the 7-segment codes to display the actual weight on the display.
 Microprocessor system also gets the item code from the keyboard. It refers lookup table to get the item-price and
calculate the net price from the actual Weight and item-price. After determining the net price, the processor
displays the actual weight and net price to be paid on the 7-segment display.

The Control Modes

Feedback control is the most popular control system in use today in industrial control systems. The basic function of
feedback control is to compute the error as the difference between the controlled variable and the set point; calculate
and then output the signal to a control valve actuator based on the error.
Most industrial processes require that certain variables such as flow, pressure, temperature and level should remain
at or near some reference value, called a set point. the device serves to maintain a process variable at the set point is
called controller.
To perform this function, feedback control or controller can be operated in the following modes;
1. Two position or On-Off mode
2. Proportional (P) or Gain mode.
3. Integral (I) or Reset mode
4. Differential (D) / Derivative or Reset mode
5. Proportional Integral (PI)
6. Proportional Integral Differential (PID)

1. Two position controller (ON-OFF Control)

In an on-off control action, the output has only two states, fully on or fully off. An on-off controller operates on
the manipulated variable only when the measured variable crosses the setpoint. It is a two-position control,
merely a switch arranged to be off (or on as required) when the error is positive and on (or off as required) when
the error is negative. Ex… Oven & Alarm control. It is a Two-position control used when the controlled process
variables need not be maintained at precise values. It is the cheapest type of controller which works best where
the system is such that the rates of change of the measured variable with changes of the manipulated variable are
slow.

Figure 6

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TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

 On-off control
It will switch the output only when the temperature crosses the set point. For heating control, the output is
ON when the temperature is below the set point, and OFF above set point.
 Multi step action
A controller action that may initiate more than two positioning of the control with respect to the respective
predetermined input values.

Figure 7

2. Proportional control action

A proportional controller continuously adjusts the manipulated variables so that the input to the process is
approximately in balanced with the process demand. In proportional control, the output of the controller is
proportional to the error.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑝𝑂
 Pout: Output of the proportional controller
 e(t): Instantaneous process error at time t.
 p0: Controller output with zero error.
 Kp: Proportional gain

Figure 8

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TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 9
 The value of the change in the controller output for a given change in actuating error signal depends upon the
proportional band of the instrument which is the range of the controlled variable that corresponds to the full
operating range of the final control element the proportional is also called as correspondence control, droop
control, and modulating control.

3. Integral (I) or Reset control action

As long as the measurement remains at the set point, there is no change in the output due to the integral mode in
the controller. The output of the controller changes at a rate proportional to the offset. The integral time gives
indication of the strength of this action. It is the time taken for integral action to remove the ‘offset’ induced by
Proportional Action alone.

Figure 10
 In a closed loop, the integral action can be viewed as an extension or amplification of the proportional action;
i.e., the controller output continues to respond to error as long as an error is present. In pure integral mode, error
can oscillate about zero and can be cyclic. Hence in integral mode is never used alone but combined with the
proportional mode, to enjoy the advantages of both modes.
 For many processes, the combination of the proportional and the integral actions provides very good control in
terms of speed and stability. However, the integral action makes controller tuning a bit more difficult; if set to a
value that is too high (too fast), the integral action can cause system instability.
 Integral Tuning – To avoid instability, the I Gain value is often initially set fairly low. Through trial and error
or other tuning methods, the value of I Gain may be increased to achieve an acceptable balance of
responsiveness and stability. In general, a fast process requires a faster integral setting and a slow process
requires a slower integral setting.

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TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Derivative controller or rate control action

 As the PV changes, the controller resists the change. The controller’s output is proportional to the rate at which
the difference between the measured and desired value changes. The output of the signal of the controller is a
function of the rate at which the error is changing. Derivative control action provides the means of obtaining a
controller with high sensitivity. An advantage of using derivative control action is that it responds to the rate of
change of the actuating error and can produce a significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error
becomes too large.
𝑑𝑒
𝑚 = 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
 The proportional mode considers the present states of the process error, and the integral mode looks at its past
history, while the derivative mode anticipates its future state and acts on that prediction. Derivative control
predicts actuating errors before they have evolved and takes corrective action in advance of that occurrence and
tends to increase the stability of the system.

Figure 11
 The derivative controller output comes to be zero, when the error is zero. Hence it is never used alone since
faster rate of change of error can cause very large sudden change of controller output this is the reason its gain
should be small. it is always used in combination with proportional or proportional plus integral control action.

4. Proportional –integral Controller

In proportional-integral controller, the output is proportional to a linear combination of the input error and time
integral of the input error the mathematical expression for such a composite control is,

Characteristics of PI controllers
 It improves the steady state accuracy.
 It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.
 It filters out the high frequency noise.
 It decreases bandwidth of the system.

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 It makes the response more oscillatory.

Application of PI controllers: -
 The combination of PI mode removes the offset problems of the proportional mode. Such a mode can be used in
the system with frequent or large load changes. But the process must have relatively slow change in the load, to
prevent the oscillations

5. Proportional derivative (PD) Controller

The combination of proportional and derivative controller modes gives proportional plus derivative controller.
The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is

Where Kd = Derivative time

Kp = Proportional gain
M = controller output

Characteristics of PI controllers
1. Makes the response fast by reducing the rise time
2. For lightly damped system the PD controllers are not very effective
3. While implementing a circuit, it may require a relatively large capacitor.
4. It reduces overshoot and improves the damping.
5. It makes the response stable very fast
6. At high frequencies the noise may become dominant.
7. It cannot eliminate offset error.
8. It improves the bandwidth of the system.

Applications of PD Controllers
1. The offset error of proportional mode cannot be eliminated. But if the offset error is tolerable, it can be used
to handle. It is used in many industrial process control systems.

6. Proportional –Integral-Derivative controller

The combination of Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control, also called three mode controllers.

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A PID controller produces an output signal consisting of three terms –one proportional to error, another one
proportional to integral of error signal and third one proportional to derivative of error signal.

The proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces a steady state error. The integral controller
reduces or eliminates the steady state error. The derivative controller reduces the rate of change of error.
 PID controller has higher stability.
 It has no offset.
 It has reduced overshoot.
With the PID control action; there is no offset, no oscillations with least setting time. So there is
improvement in both transient as well as steady state response.

Cascade control
Consist of one controller (primary, or master) controlling the variable that is to be kept at a constant value, and a
second controller (secondary, or slave) controlling another variable that can cause fluctuations in the first variable.
The primary controller positions the set point of the secondary, and it, in turn, manipulates the control valve.

Figure 12

Feedback controllers are used but only one process variable (m) is manipulated. The primary controller maintains the
primary variable (c1) at its set point (r1) by automatically adjusting (r2) the set point of the secondary controller. The
secondary controller controls the secondary loop responding to both its set point (r2) and the secondary measurement
(c2).

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TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Example of cascade control: -

The temperature of the liquid in the vessel is controlled by regulating the steam pressure in the jacket around the
vessel.

Figure 13: Cascade control loop

 Controller provides a set point for steam valve or steam-pressure controller.

 Such a process involves a long time-constant and a 3-mode controller with long integral time is required.
(Single-loop control). This will provide satisfactory control as long as the supply of steam is constant, that is
the upstream pressure does not change.
 However, if the supply steam is subject to upsets, a different control scheme is needed. The temperature
controller will not know the change in heat input (steam pressure) until the temperature of the liquid in the
vessel starts to change. Since the time constant of the temperature loop is long, the temperature controller
will take a long time to return the process to equilibrium. Therefore, it is desirable to correct for the change
in heat input before it affects the temperature of the liquid.
 Cascade control system will both control the temperature in the vessel and correct for changes in the supply
steam pressure. The steam pressure controller (slave) monitors the jacket inlet steam pressure. Any changes
in supply pressure will be quickly corrected by re-adjusting the valve because this secondary loop has a fast
time constant (short integral time).

Feed forward control

Applies to a system in which a balance between supply and demand is achieved by measuring both demand potential
and demand load and using this data to govern supply. It gives a smoother and stable control than feedback control.
 Mathematical Model. The process engineers that are responsible for system design must construct a
mathematical model that describes the relationships between the cold-water flow rate, the process variable, and
the steam flow rate that is required to keep the PV at set point.
 Hardware. A feed forward controller and a summing junction must be included in the system.
 Feedback Loop. In order to ensure good control, a feedback loop, also known as “feedback trim” is typically
included in a feed forward system.

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Figure 14

Feed forward control is an open loop control. It consists of measurement sensors to measure of disturbances and they
feed forward controller in some time in called the load compensator. The sense of the output from feed forward
compensator should be in opposition to the disturbance. Practically, there is forward flow of information in the
auxiliary open loops without involving the control variable. Hence the disturbance signal which may upset the
process is measured and transmitted it the feed forward controller which generates a new manipulated variable and
sent to the actuator and the disturbance is taken care of.

Figure 15

Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand – 0712747442

Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 16
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROLLERS

A controller is a comparative device that receives an input signal from a measured process variable, compares this
value with that of a predetermined control point value (set point), and determines the appropriate amount of output
signal required by the final control element to provide corrective action within a control loop.

The following are some of common controllers in process control

1. Pneumatic on/off controllers
2. Electrical controllers
3. Pneumatic PID controllers
4. Electronic PID controllers
5. Computer or PLC controllers

Pneumatic on/off controllers

A Pneumatic Controller is a mechanical device designed to measure temperature or pressure and transmit a
corrective air signal to the final control element.

Working of Pneumatic Systems Controls

Pneumatic systems use the air around their designated space, compress it to create pressure, and funnel through tubes
to generate force. This force makes an actuator operate via rotation, and forces valves to open and close. Cylinders
also assist with the rotation, while valves opening and closing regulate pressure.

Controls, in this case, refer to sensors that help you measure how the machine is doing, as well as switches to adjust
various factors. These factors are not just limited to air pressure; they also measure humidity and air temperature.
Knowing if you have an excess of the latter two elements can help you stop a problem ahead of time.

If you have excess water vapor, then your machine cannot function. Water molecules will condensate and will clog
your valves, cylinders, and tubing. Such clogging will force the machine to work harder and potentially damage it.
Knowing that you have excess humidity means that you need to get rid of the vapor ahead of time and possibly
replace your filtration system.

Thermostats are especially important for monitoring your pneumatic temperature levels. All machines can overheat,
even ones that do not use electricity as a source. The heat comes from overworking and strain. What’s more, heat
causes air molecules to expand, which in turn can affect the pressure in a bad way. That’s why you need to check on
the temperature.

Excessive cooling is also a problem. When you have freezing temperatures, they can freeze the tubes and pipes that
you need and stop the necessary air flow. Thus, if you work in an area with intense winters or cool environments,
such as freezer warehouses, keep an eye on the thermostat.

Consider, for example, that air conditioners run on pneumatic systems. They have filters for sediment and water
particles while making air travel through various spaces of the house. Your air compressor could overheat and break,
which means that your air conditioner cannot work. This, in turn, generates more heat around the house and makes
you very uncomfortable.

Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand – 0712747442

Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 17
UNIT: MICRONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
TOPIC 2: PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Pneumatic Basics

Unlike electronic controls, pneumatic ones use air as a control medium when they want to stop or change the flow.
You can find an alternative compressed air-driven control to use in any circumstance where you might have
otherwise used an electronic one. Consider all of the following options:
Pressure controls either raise or lower the level of pressure in an airline, so operators can respond to changing
conditions. If you need to generate more force, you increase the pressure and reduce the space between air
molecules. If you need to reduce the force, you decrease the pressure and increase such space.
Pneumatic thermostats perform much the same function as traditional ones do, albeit with compressed air instead of
electrical wiring. They measure if you are reaching a heat threshold or an overly cool one.
Sensing probes can determine air pressure in a system. They can detect leaks and where you need to make necessary
seals or replacements.
Pneumatic damper actuators offer proportional control of any dampers they’re connected to in either sequenced
operation or independently of one another.
Pneumatic switches and valves can turn parts of an air circuit on or off as conditions dictate, much in the same way
that electronic switches are used to power devices on or off.

Prepared by Omondi Ferdinand – 0712747442

Electrical Trainer – Seme TVC - Kisumu 18