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College Board AP® Calculus AB Your notes

Differentiation of Composite & Inverse Functions

Contents
The Chain Rule
The Inverse Function Theorem
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Higher-Order Derivatives

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The Chain Rule

Your notes
Derivatives of composite functions
How do I differentiate composite functions?
Composite functions, of the form f (g (x ) ) can be differentiated using the chain rule

The chain rule states that, if y = f (u ) and u = g (x ) (i.e. y is a function of u , and u is a function of x ),
then

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
Or in function notation, if h (x ) = f (g (x ) )

h ' (x ) = f '(g (x ) ) · g ' (x )

It is called the chain rule as this idea can be extended in a longer 'chain'

dy dy du dt dr
E.g. = × × ×
dx du dt dr dx
The terms are not really fractions (they are derivatives), but we can treat them in a similar way in this
context

dy
You should be able to spot how the terms on the right cancel to get
dx

How do I use the chain rule?

This is easiest to demonstrate through an example

dy dy du
Using the chain rule in the form = × to differentiate y = (2x 3 + 4x ) 6
dx du dx
Substitute the "inside" function for u

u = 2x 3 + 4x
So now y = u 6

Differentiate u with respect to x

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du
= 6x 2 + 4
dx Your notes
Differentiate y with respect to u

dy
= 6u 5
du
dy dy du
Apply the chain rule which states = ×
dx du dx
dy
= 6u 5 × (6x 2 + 4)
dx
Substitute for u using the same substitution that was made at the start

dy
= 6(2x 3 + 4x ) 5 (6x 2 + 4)
dx
After plenty of practice you may be able to skip several of these steps

E.g. To differentiate y = (2x 3 + 4x ) 6 ,

Use the power as a coefficient, and reduce the power by 1 (as you would for powers of x )

Then multiply by the derivative of the inside function

dy
= 6(2x 3 + 4x ) 5 (6x 2 + 4)
dx

Worked Example
Differentiate the following functions.

(a) f (x ) = sin(3x 4 + 5x )

Answer:
Substitute the inside function for u

u = 3x 4 + 5x
y = sin u

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Differentiate u with respect to x and differentiate y with respect to u

du Your notes
= 12x 3 + 5
dx
dy
= cos u
du
dy dy du
Apply the chain rule which states = ×
dx du dx
dy
= cos u · ( 12x 3 + 5)
dx
Substitute for u using the same substitution that was made at the start

dy
= cos(3x 4 + 5x ) · ( 12x 3 + 5)
dx
f '(x ) = ( 12x 3 + 5) cos(3x 4 + 5x )
(b) g (x ) = e tan x

Answer:

Substitute the inside function for u (note here that tan x is 'inside' the exponential function)

u = tan x
y = eu
Differentiate u with respect to x and differentiate y with respect to u

du
= sec2 x
dx
dy
= eu
du
dy dy du
Apply the chain rule which states = ×
dx du dx

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dy
= e u · sec2 x
dx Your notes
Substitute for u using the same substitution that was made at the start

dy
= e tan x · sec2 x
dx
f '(x ) = e tan x sec2 x

How might chain rule questions be made more difficult?

The chain rule may be combined with other skills in more complex problems
When applying the quotient rule or product rule, one or both of the expressions may require the
chain rule
Alternatively, when applying the chain rule, you may need to use the product or quotient rule
You may also encounter a function within a function, within another function

E.g. sin (e 3 x
2 +2
) or ln (sin(2x 3 + 3x ) )
In this scenario you would have to apply the chain rule twice

dy dy du dv
This is the same as making two substitutions, for u and v , and using = × ×
dx du dv dx

Worked Example
Differentiate the following functions.
3 + 3x 2 + 2
(a) f (x ) = cos x · e 4 x

Answer:
Applying the product rule
3 + 3x 2 + 2
Let u = cos x and v = e 4 x

Differentiate u

u ' = − sin x
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To differentiate v , use the chain rule

It is a good idea to use a different letter for the substitution if you have already used u
Your notes
Let w = 4x 3 + 3x 2 + 2 , so v = ew

dw dv
= 12x 2 + 6x and = ew
dx dw
dv dv dw
= ×
dx dw dx
dv
= ew · ( 12x 2 + 6x )
dx
3 + 3x 2 + 2
v ' = ( 12x 2 + 6x ) e 4x
This might be a chain rule application that you do not need to work out formally
The exponential term is simply multiplied by the derivative of the power

Apply the product rule, u 'v + uv '

3 + 3x 2 + 2 3 + 3x 2 + 2
f '(x ) = − sin x · e 4x + cos x · ( 12x 2 + 6x ) e 4 x
This could be factorized
3 + 3x 2 + 2
f '(x ) = e 4x ( ( 12x 2 + 6x ) cos x − sin x )
(b) g (x ) = sin ( (3x 4 + 5x 2) 5)

Answer:
Make a substitution for the function inside the sin function

u = (3x 4 + 5x 2) 5 so y = sin u
The function u requires the chain rule to be differentiate it
This might be a chain rule application that you do not need to work out formally, but we will show the
full working for this example

Make another substitution, with a different letter, for the function inside u

v = 3x 4 + 5x 2 so u = v 5
Find the derivatives of the expressions which no longer require the chain rule

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dy
= cos u
du Your notes
du
= 5v 4
dv
dv
= 12x 3 + 10x
dx
dy
Find an expression for involving these three derivatives
dx
dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
Fill in the derivatives

dy
= cos u · 5v 4 · ( 12x 3 + 10x )
dx
Substitute in u and v

dy
= cos( (3x 4 + 5x 2) 5) · 5(3x 4 + 5x 2) 4 · ( 12x 3 + 10x )
dx
g ' (x ) = 5(3x 4 + 5x 2) 4 ( 12x 3 + 10x ) cos( (3x 4 + 5x 2) 5)

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The Inverse Function Theorem

Your notes
The reciprocal of a derivative
What is the reciprocal of a derivative?
Derivatives are not fractions, but they behave in the same way as fractions when finding reciprocals

dy
The reciprocal of is
dx
1 dx
=
⎛⎜ dy ⎞⎟ dy
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
dy
This is only true if ≠0
dx
dx
Likewise, the reciprocal of is
dy
1 dy
=
⎛⎜ dx ⎞⎟ dx
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠
dx
This is only true if ≠0
dy
This property is useful when:
Finding the derivative of the inverse of a function
Relating rates of change to one another using the chain rule

Derivatives of inverse functions

How are the derivatives of a function and its inverse related?
Provided that a function f is:

Differentiable

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A one-to-one function (so that it has an inverse, f −1 )

Its inverse, f −1 at the point a will be differentiable and the derivative of the inverse at this point will be Your notes
equal to:

1
( f −1) ' ( a ) =
f '( f −1 ( a ) )
This is provided that f '( f −1 ( a ) ) ≠ 0

You may also see this written as:

1
g '(a) =
f '(g ( a ) )
Where g ( a ) = f −1 ( a )

This is provided that f '(g ( a ) ) ≠ 0

This is known as the inverse function theorem

To explain why this is true, consider the diagram below

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The diagram shows that because the graphs of f (x ) and f −1 (x ) are reflections in the line y = x :

q Your notes
If the slope of f (x ) at ( f −1 ( a ) , a ) is ,
p
p
then the slope of f −1 (x ) at ( a , f −1 ( a ) ) will be
q
This also means that the theorem does not hold if f '( f −1 ( a ) ) = 0

The derivates of these functions at these points are reciprocals of one another,

1
this helps explain why the equation ( f −1) ' ( a ) = is true
f '( f −1 ( a ) )
If y = f −1 (x ) so that x = f (y ) ,

dy 1
then the inverse function theorem can be written as =
dx ⎛⎜ dx ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠
This form can be more useful for finding an expression for the derivative of the inverse, but it will be
in terms of y rather than x

The form stated earlier is more useful for finding the derivative of the inverse at a point

How is the inverse function theorem derived?

The inverse function theorem can be derived using the definition of an inverse, and the chain rule

Let g (x ) = f −1 (x )

As g (x ) and f (x ) are inverses of each other,

f (g (x ) ) = x
Differentiate both sides with respect to x

d d
( f (g (x ) ) ) = (x )
dx dx
Apply the chain rule to the left hand side, the right hand side differentiates easily

f '(g (x ) ) · g ' (x ) = 1

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Rearrange

1 Your notes
g ' (x ) =
f '(g (x ) )
Recall that g (x ) = f −1 (x )

1
( f −1) ' (x ) =
f '( f −1 (x ) )

Worked Example
Let f (x ) = (3x + 4) 4 and let g be the inverse function of f .

Given that f (0) = 256 , what is the value of g ' (256) ?

Answer:

Write the inverse function theorem using f (x ) and f −1 (x ) = g (x )

1
g ' (x ) =
f '(g (x ) )
We are trying to find g ' (256) , so fill this in

1
g ' (256) =
f '(g (256) )
We need to find f '(x ) and g (256) to be able to calculate the value

Find f '(x ) by differentiating f (x ) using the chain rule

f '(x ) = 4 · (3x + 4) 3 · 3 = 12(3x + 4) 3

Using the statement f (0) = 256 , find the inverse of this

f (0) = 256
f −1 (256) = 0
g (x ) is the inverse of f (x )
g (256) = 0
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We now have all the information we need, so substitute these in

1 1 1 1 1 Your notes
g ' (256) = = = = =
f '(g (256) ) f '(0) 12(3(0) + 4) 3 12(4) 3 768
1
g ' (256) =
768

Worked Example
The function f is defined by f (x ) = x 3 + 2x − 10 .

Show that the inverse of f (x ) exists, and then find the derivative of the inverse of f (x ) at the point
where x = 125 .

Answer:
First check that the inverse exists

f '(x ) = 3x 2 + 2 , which is always positive

So f (x ) is always increasing, which means it is a one-to-one function

Therefore f −1 (x ) exists

Use the inverse function theorem

1
( f −1) ' ( a ) =
f '( f −1 ( a ) )
We are trying to find the derivative of the inverse at x = 125 , or ( f −1) ' (125)

Fill this in

1
( f −1) ' (125) =
f '( f −1 (125) )
We already know from the first step that f '(x ) = 3x 2 + 2

So we just need to find f −1 (125) ; this is the inverse of f , when x = 125

To find an equation for the inverse of f , simply switch x and y

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f (x ) = y = x 3 + 2x − 10
Inverse: x = y 3 + 2y − 10 Your notes

Find the inverse when x = 125

125 = y 3 + 2y − 10
0 = y 3 + 2y − 135
5=y
Fill this in

1 1 1 1
( f −1) '(125) = = = =
f '( f −1 (125) ) f '(5) 3(5) 2 + 2 77
1
( f −1) ' (125) =
77

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Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Your notes
Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
How do I differentiate inverse trig functions?
The inverse trigonometric functions (sin −1x etc) can be differentiated using:

The inverse function theorem, written as either

dy 1
=
dx ⎛⎜ dx ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠
1
or g ' (x ) = where g (x ) = f −1 (x )
f '(g (x ) )
The chain rule
Trigonometric identities
Note that you may also see inverse trig functions referred to with "arc" notation

E.g. sin −1x = arcsin x

How do I differentiate inverse sine?

1
Using the inverse function theorem, g ' (x ) = where g (x ) = f −1 (x )
'
f (g (x ) )
Let g (x ) = sin −1x and f (x ) = sin x

So f '(x ) = cos x

1 1
g ' (x ) = =
f '(g (x ) ) cos(sin−1x )
Recall the identity sin2x + cos2x ≡ 1

This rearranges to cos x = 1 − sin2x

Use this identity for the denominator

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1
g ' (x ) =
1 − sin2 (sin−1x ) Your notes
sin2 (sin−1x ) is the same as (sin(sin−1x ) ) 2 = (x ) 2
1
g ' (x ) =
1 − x2
d 1
(sin−1x ) =
dx 1 − x2
This result is only true for when sin x has an inverse

For purposes of defining the 'official' inverse of sin x , the domain of sin x is restricted to
π π
− ≤x ≤
2 2
The range of sin x is ⎢⎣ −1, 1 ⎥⎦ , so the domain for sin −1x must be −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 or x  ≤ 1
⎡ ⎤  

However the derivative of sin −1x is only defined for −1 < x < 1 or x  < 1
 

This can be seen by inspecting the denominator of g ' (x )

The derivative becomes unbounded for x = 1 or x = − 1

How do I differentiate inverse cosine?
1
Using the inverse function theorem, g ' (x ) = where g (x ) = f −1 (x )
f '(g (x ) )
Let g (x ) = cos−1x and f (x ) = cos x

So f '(x ) = − sin x

1 1
g ' (x ) = =
f '(g (x ) ) −sin( cos−1x )
Recall the identity sin2x + cos2x ≡ 1

This rearranges to sin x = 1 − cos2x

Use this identity for the denominator

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1
g ' (x ) =
− 1 − cos2 ( cos−1x ) Your notes
cos2 ( cos−1 (x ) ) is the same as ( cos( cos−1x ) ) 2 = (x ) 2
1
g ' (x ) =
− 1 − x2
d 1
( cos−1x ) = −
dx 1 − x2
This result is only true for when cos x has an inverse

For purposes of defining the 'official' inverse of cos x , the domain of cos x is restricted to
0 ≤x ≤π
The range of cos x is ⎢⎣ −1, 1 ⎥⎦ , so the domain for cos−1x must be −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 or x  ≤ 1
⎡ ⎤  

However the derivative of cos−1x is only defined for −1 < x < 1 or x  < 1
 

This can be seen by inspecting the denominator of g ' (x )

The derivative becomes unbounded for x = 1 or x = − 1

How do I differentiate inverse tangent?
1
Using the inverse function theorem, g ' (x ) = where g (x ) = f −1 (x )
f '(g (x ) )
Let g (x ) = tan−1x and f (x ) = tan x

So f '(x ) = sec2x

1 1
g ' (x ) = =
f '(g (x ) ) sec ( tan−1x )
2

Recall the identity tan2x + 1 ≡ sec2x

This can be derived from sin2x + cos2x ≡ 1 by dividing by cos2x

Use this identity for the denominator

1
g ' (x ) =
tan2 ( tan−1x ) +1
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tan2 ( tan−1 (x ) ) is the same as ( tan( tan−1x ) ) 2 = (x ) 2

1 Your notes
g ' (x ) =
x2 + 1
d 1
( tan−1x ) =
dx 1 + x2
This result is only true for when tan x has an inverse

For purposes of defining the 'official' inverse of tan x , the domain of tan x is restricted to
π π
− <x <
2 2
The range of tan x is (− ∞ , ∞ ) , i.e. all real numbers, so the domain for tan−1x is all real
numbers

The derivative of tan x is also defined for all real numbers x

The derivative goes to zero as x goes to ±∞

Summary of derivatives of inverse trig functions
The methods above show how to find the derivatives of the three most common inverse trig functions
The derivatives of the inverses of the reciprocal trig functions can be found in a similar way
The table below summarizes the derivatives of all six inverse trig functions

Table of derivatives of inverse trig functions

f (x ) f '(x )

sin−1x 1
, −1 <x <1
1 − x2

cos−1x 1
− , −1 <x <1
1 − x2

tan−1x 1
1 + x2

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csc−1x 1
−  , x < − 1 or x > 1
x  x2 − 1 Your notes

sec−1x 1
x  x 2 − 1 , x < − 1 or x > 1
 

cot−1x 1
−
1 + x2

Worked Example
Find the derivative of f (x ) = arcsin(2x 3 + e 2 x ) .

Answer:

Recall that arcsinx is the same as sin −1x , you can use whichever notation you prefer

Differentiating this function will require the chain rule, as it is a function within a function

y = sin−1 (2x 3 + e 2x )
Let u = 2x 3 + e 2 x , so that y = sin −1u

Differentiate both functions

du
= 6x 2 + 2 e 2 x
dx
dy 1
=
du 1 − u2
Apply the chain rule

dy dy du 1
= × = · (6x 2 + 2 e 2 x )
dx du dx 1 − u2
Substitute u back in

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dy 1
= · (6x 2 + 2 e 2 x )
dx 1 − ( 2x 3 + e 2 x ) 2 Your notes
6x 2 + 2e 2x
f '(x ) =
1 − (2x 3 + e 2x ) 2

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Higher-Order Derivatives
Your notes
Second derivatives
What is a second derivative?
The second derivative of a function is the derivative, differentiated
I.e. it is the derivative of the derivative
It may also be referred to as the second differential
The second derivative may be written as:

f ''(x )
d 2y
dx 2
y ''
The second derivative is the rate of change of the rate of change
E.g. If a function is increasing (first derivative),
the second derivative describes how rapidly its rate of increase is increasing (or decreasing)
Second derivatives are useful when investigating the shapes of the graphs of functions
See the study guide on 'Concavity of Functions' for more about this
To find a second derivative, simply differentiate the function, and then differentiate it again
The function and its first derivative must be differentiable in order to do this

Worked Example
A function f is defined by f (x ) = 3x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x + 2 .

Find the second derivative of f (x ) .

Answer:

Differentiate f (x ) to find the first derivative

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f '(x ) = 9x 2 − 4x − 3
Differentiate f '(x ) to find the second derivative Your notes

f ''(x ) = 18x − 4

Higher-order derivatives
What are higher-order derivatives?
Extending the idea of second derivatives, the function can continue to be differentiated multiple
times
This applies as long as the derivatives continue to be differentiable
The first, second, third and fourth derivatives may be written as

f '(x ) , f ''(x ) , f (3) (x ) , f (4) (x )

dy d 2y d 3y d 4y
, , ,
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4
y ', y '', y (3) , y (4)
You may occasionally see f '''(x ) or y ''' for the third derivative

But beyond the third derivative, the 'tick mark' notation is almost never used
The third derivative is the:
rate of change, of the rate of change, of the rate of change of a function
This can be extended for higher derivatives if needed
A common use of higher order derivatives is when describing motion
If a function describes the displacement of an object,
the first derivative describes its velocity
the second derivative describes its acceleration
the third derivative describes the rate of change of acceleration (sometimes referred to as
'jerk')
Another common use is when applying L'Hospital's Rule

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f (x ) f '(x ) f ''(x )
lim = lim ' = lim '' = ...
x → a g (x ) x → a g (x ) x → a g (x ) Your notes
As long as the limits continue giving indeterminate forms you can continue applying L’Hospital’s
rule with higher order derivatives
This can make limits far simpler to evaluate

Worked Example
(a) Find the third derivative of f (x ) = 4x 3 − 3x 2 + 9x − 8 .

Answer:
Find the first derivative

f '(x ) = 12x 2 − 6x + 9
Find the second derivative

f ''(x ) = 24x − 6
Find the third derivative

f (3) (x ) = 24
d 4y
(b) Given that y = sin x , find .
dx 4
Answer:

This is asking for the fourth derivative of sin x

You might be able to write this answer down straight away if you are familiar with derivatives of trig
functions!
Find the first derivative

dy
= cos x
dx
Find the second derivative

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d 2y
= − sin x
dx 2 Your notes
Find the third derivative

d 3y
= − cos x
dx 3
Find the fourth derivative

d 4y
= sin x
dx 4

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