3 Energy Exchange in

Turbomachines
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
v
Understand and master the concept of velocity v
Understand the mechanism of energy transfer
triangles as a powerful tool in the practice of tur- process and the fundamentals of the impulse
bomachines of all varieties (power-consuming, and reaction in turbomachines.
power-absorbing, radial flow, mixed flow, and v
Quantify the above reaction in terms of the
axial flow types). “degree of reaction,” and relate this degree of
v
Understand the most basic equation of energy reaction as an important parameter to other
transfers in turbomachines, that is, the Euler parameters such as the utilization factor, speed
turbine equation. ratio, etc.

3.1 Introduction
The process of energy transfer, taking place in a turbomachine, has been discussed in chapters 1 and 2,
through the steady-flow energy equation (SFEE) from thermodynamics. By knowing the states of a fluid
at the inlet and outlet, and by accounting for some losses, it is possible to find the power of the machine.
But these details are insufficient to design the hardware details of the machine. The most important details
that are the outcome of the design procedure are the details of the rotor vanes or blades, in the form of their
profiles, with the required angles at the inlet and outlet, as well as the radii at the inlet and outlet.
This chapter aims at understanding the basic details of the mechanism of energy transfer between the
flowing fluid and rotating vanes of a rotor of a turbomachine. One of the most fundamental equations for
energy transfer, that is, the Euler turbine equation is discussed in detail. The two types of the processes,
namely, impulse and reaction, are then studied. Some of the important parameters such as the degree of reac-
tion, utilization factor, and the speed ratio are discussed with respect to the implication of their values and
their mutual relationships or dependencies. The first step in this direction is the understanding of “velocity
triangles” with respect to a turbomachine.

3.2 Velocity Triangles

A velocity triangle with reference to a turbomachine is the representation of three important velocities as the
sides of a triangle. The three velocities are as follows:
1. The peripheral velocity of the rotor blade, U.
2. The relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the rotor blade Vr.
3. The absolute velocity of the fluid V.
86 Turbomachines

These above velocities are subscripted to indicate their positions with respect to the blades: Subscript “1” is
for the inlet position and subscript “2” is for the outlet position.
The three velocities form a triangle only when they satisfy the condition V  U Vr. This means that
the fluid smoothly glides over the blade surface without impact or separation. Therefore, the relative
velocity is tangential to the blade profile at the point considered. The “solution” of such a triangle is
nothing but finding the three sides of the triangle and its three angles, either graphically or by a simple
trigonometric analysis. Such velocity triangles can be drawn for any number of points on the profile of
the blade of a rotor, but in general, solutions at the two points, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet,
are sufficient at present.
The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:
1. All the velocities are vector quantities. Each velocity has a magnitude and a direction.
2. The blade velocity U is invariably tangential to the circular path of the blade, with positive direction
in the direction of rotation. The choice of the point of the tangent can be anywhere on the circular
path, but it is taken at the uppermost point to keep U horizontal, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

U2

U1

Figure 3.1 Blade velocities.

Stream lines

Figure 3.2 Vane-congruent flow.

 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 87

3. The instantaneous relative velocity of the fluid (Vr) with respect to the blades is always tangential
to the stream line of the flow of the fluid in the passage between the blades of the rotor. One
important assumption here is that the stream line is identical in shape with the vanes. This amounts
to saying that the flow is “vane-congruent.” Hence, Vr is tangential to the blade profile also. The
vane-congruent flow is schematically shown in Fig. 3.2, taking the radial flow rotor as an example.
Some blade profiles are shown in Fig. 3.3 along with the direction of relative velocity. The sense of
the direction of Vr (inward or outward) has to be prescribed clearly, depending on the flow of the
fluid.

Vr2
Vr2 Vr2

Vr1
Vr1 Vr1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.3 Relative velocities: (a) Blades are bent backwards. (b) Blades are radial at the outlet.
(c) Blades are bent forward.

4. The absolute velocity V of the fluid is the vectorial sum of U and Vr Thus, V  U Vr. With this
relationship, it can be understood that any two known quantities are sufficient to know the third
one.
5. The disposition or orientation of the imaginary plane, on which the velocity triangle is visualized,
is described in two separate ways: one for the radial flow rotor and the other for the axial flow
rotor.
6. For the radial flow rotor, the plane of velocity triangles is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
rotor (Fig. 3.4). The rotor blades look as if they are encased between the two circular arcs.

Figure 3.4 Radial flow rotor.

7. For the axial flow rotor, the velocity triangles are drawn on a plane that is tangential to the rotor. The
blade profiles are also projected on this plane. It is as if the periphery of the rotor drum is slit open
88 Turbomachines

and the surface of the drum is opened up. In other words, this plane is the “developed” surface of
the rotor drum along with the blades. The direction of rotation of the rotor drum is seen as parallel
to the two parallel lines encasing the row of blades. This is shown in Fig. 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Axial flow rotor.

8. The directions of fluid flow are radial, axial, or mixed at the entry or exit. Radial flows are seen on
planes perpendicular to the axis and axial flows on planes tangential to the rotor.
9. The fluid angles (inlet @1, outlet @2) and blade angles (inlet A1 and outlet A2) are specified with
respect to the blade velocity vector U.
10. Finally, perception of the situation is of utmost importance. The situation in radial flow machines
is very easy to perceive. For an axial flow machine, the “physics” of the situation can be further
explained as per the following thoughts:
t
“General flow” of fluid is from one parallel line to the other [Fig. 3.6(a)].
t
The flow direction is from the “nose” to the “tail” of the air-foil section of the blades [Fig.
3.6(b)].
t
If the fluid flow “strikes” on the concave side of the blades, the fluid “drives the blades,” forcing
the movement of the blades in that direction. Hence, this type of blade assembly is meant for
a turbine [Fig. 3.6(c)].
t
If the fluid flow “strikes” on the convex side of the blades, this type of blade assembly is meant
for a compressor [Fig. 3.6(d)]. In this case, the blades force the fluid and move to “scoop” the
fluid. (Imagine a shovel scooping sand or a spoon scooping food from a plate. How does the
shovel move? How does the spoon move?) This is illustrated in Fig. 3.6(e).
t
General flow is as in Fig. 3.6(a). But the “particular flow direction” (at some angle to the paral-
lel lines) must be decided to conform with the geometry of guide vanes, blade profiles, and the
velocity triangles.
The above steps are once again written down, in concise form, so that the step-wise procedure can be easily
followed and remembered. For the sake of clarity, the procedures for radial flow machines and axial flow
machines are shown in separate boxes.
The blades of the rotor in a turbomachine are of a shape of an ‘airfoil’. Air foil shapes provide a smooth
stream line flow of fluids. In addition, by the suitable design, the passages between the blades can be shaped
for any type of flow: expansion flow for turbines, compression flow for compressors, with sectional area
suitable for the required pressure ratio, and so on. Further, in axial flow machines, the individual blades are
assembled to make up a full rotor. The blades can have very smooth surface finish for the high-performance
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 89

rotors. Therefore, the air foil shapes of the blades make a meaningful design. In radial outward flow pumps,
the entry of fluids is at the inner radius; already the area of flow is restricted. Hence, for cast rotors, the losses
(with non-air foil blades) are tolerated, for the sake of low-cost machines.

(a)

Tail
Nose

Nose Tail

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 3.6 Orientation of rotor blades in axial flow rotor, related with fluid flow: (a) General
flow of fluid; (b) Fluid flow from nose to tail of blades; (c) Turbine blade assembly:
fluid forces the blades; (d) Compressor blade assembly: blades force the fluid; (e)
Examples of shovel and spoon.

In an airfoil shape, the nose and tail ends are easily identified as shown in the Figs. 3.5 and 3.6 above. The
flow of fluid is from nose-end to the tail-end. Once the flow is configured, the mean line of the blade profile
is sufficient for the determination of blade angles.
90 Turbomachines

BOX 3.1 Velocity Triangles for Radial Flow Machines

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C D

A B

Figure 3.7 Radial flow rotor with rotation and blade velocities.

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 /HWWKHWLSVRIWKHEODGHVDWWKHLQOHWDQGRXWOHWEHDWWKHKLJKHVWSRLQWVRIWKHLUFLUFXODUSDWKVDW$
DQG&UHVSHFWLYHO\
 7KHWDQJHQWVWRWKHFLUFXODUSDWKVDW$DQG&DUH$%DQG&'%RWKDUHKRUL]RQWDO
 7KHVSHHGRIWKHVKDIWLV1USPFORFNZLVH
 7KHEODGHYHORFLWLHVDWWKHLQOHWDQGRXWOHW8DQG8UHVSHFWLYHO\DUHDORQJ$%DQG&'KDYLQJ
ULJKWZDUGVHQVH8O'$18O '&1 UHIHU)LJ 

A U1 B C U2 D

Figure 3.8 Blade velocities at inlet and outlet points.

 7KHWDQJHQWVWRWKHEODGHSURÀOHDWWKHWLSV$DQG&DUH//DQG007KHVHWDQJHQWVUHSUHVHQWWKH
GLUHFWLRQV RI 9U ,W LV DOULJKW WR VKRZ WKH WDQJHQWV RQ WZR VHSDUDWH EODGHV EHFDXVH HYHU\ EODGH
RFFXSLHVHYHU\SRVLWLRQGXULQJURWDWLRQ  UHIHU)LJ 

L M

Figure 3.9 Orientation of relative velocities.

 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 91

BOX 3.1 Velocity Triangles . . . . (Continued)

 ,QWKHSUHVHQWFDVHWKHÁRZLVRXWZDUG7KHVHQVHRI9UDQG9ULVUDGLDOO\RXWZDUG )RULQZDUGÁRZ

WKHVHQVHRIWKHVDPH9UDQG9UFDQEHUDGLDOO\LQZDUG
 $GGWKHEODGHYHORFLW\8DQGUHODWLYHYHORFLW\9U7KHDGGLWLRQLVYHFWRULDO7KHYHFWRU9UVWDUWVZKHUH
WKHYHFWRU8VWRSV98 9U&RPSOHWHWKHWULDQJOHWRUHDOL]H96RPHPRUHGDWDPD\EHUHTXLUHG
VXFKDV@AHWF UHIHU)LJ 

V1 Vr1 V2 Vr2

a1

A U1 B C U2 D

Figure 3.10 Addition of U and Vr to form velocity triangles.

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7KHUH LV DEVROXWHO\ QRWKLQJ ZURQJ LQ ZULWLQJ 9  9U  8 WKDW LV YHFWRU 8 VWDUWV ZKHUH 9U VWRSV $OVR
DQWLFORFNZLVHURWDWLRQLVDOULJKWIRUWKHURWRU%XWVXFKYDULHWLHVFDQEHWDNHQXSRQO\DIWHUJHWWLQJVRPH
SUDFWLFH

For axial flow machines, the blade velocities at the inlet and outlet, U1 and U2, are equal to each other
because both the tips of the blade are at the same diameter. It is quite usual, therefore, to draw the velocity
triangles on the same base of U  U1  U2. The advantage of having a common base will become clear in
the later sections.

BOX 3.2 Velocity Triangles for Axial Flow Machines

 7KHSODQHRIWKHYHORFLW\WULDQJOHVLVWDQJHQWLDOWRWKHURWRUDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHVKDIWD[LV7KLVSODQHLV
´GHYHORSPHQWµRIWKHURWRUVXUIDFH UHIHU)LJ 

Figure 3.11 Blades of axial flow rotor, as seen in developed view.

 7KHEODGHVORRNDVLIWKH\DUHDUUDQJHGLQDURZEHWZHHQWZRLPDJLQDU\SDUDOOHOOLQHV
 $VWKHVKDIWURWDWHVWKHEODGHVPRYHDORQJWKHSDUDOOHOOLQHVDVVKRZQ
 /HWWKHPRWLRQEHIURPOHIWWRULJKWWKHÁXLGÁRZLVXSZDUGLQWKHSUHVHQWFDVH
 %RWKWKHWLSVRIWKHEODGHVDUHRQWKHVDPHGLDPHWHUWKHUHIRUH88
92 Turbomachines

BOX 3.2 Velocity Triangles . . . . (Continued)

 &RQVLGHUDVLQJOHOLQHEODGHSURÀOH UHIHU)LJ 
M
M
M
M
L
L
L
L
a1

Figure 3.12 Relative velocities are tangential to the blade profiles (at inlet and outlet).

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 //DQG00DUHWKHGLUHFWLRQVRI9UDQG9U
 $GGWKHEODGHYHORFLW\8DQGUHODWLYHYHORFLW\9UWRREWDLQ998 9U9UVWDUWVZKHUH8VWRSV UHIHU
)LJ 

V1 V2 V1 V2
Vr1 Vr2 Vr1 Vr2

a1 a1 = 90°
U U U U

Figure 3.13 Addition of U and Vr to form velocity triangles, corresponding to Fig. 3.12.

 'LIIHUHQWFDVHVFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGIRUJHWWLQJVRPHSUDFWLFH

While explaining the addition of blade velocity (U) and relative velocity (Vr) to get the fluid velocity (V), it
is indicated that the rule is V  U Vr. But there is absolutely nothing wrong in writing V  Vr U, that is,
vector U starts where vector Vr stops. Also anticlockwise rotation is alright for rotor. But such varieties can
be considered only after getting some practice.
As per the descriptions given in the boxes and the steps (1–10) with reference to Figs. 3.1–3.6, velocity
triangles can be sketched if the minimum data are known. Velocity triangles can be graphically drawn to a
convenient scale, or can be analytically solved. In continuation, the absolute velocities of fluid, V1 and V2,
can also be resolved into the components parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the blade velocity
U. The information so obtained becomes the basis of the understanding of the forces exerted, the torques
generated or utilized, the power of the machine, and finally the design and performance of the blades.
Note: The purpose of the following examples is only to practice the drawing of velocity triangles. The utility
of velocity triangles is yet to be discussed. However, it can be said that the study of turbomachines becomes
very simple when velocity triangles are clearly understood.

EXAMPLE 3.1
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.14. The entry of fluid is radial and the flow is outward. The blades are radial at
the outlet. Draw representative velocity triangles.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 93

Solution: The velocity triangles are shown alongside.

M

U2 V2
L M Vr1
V1 Vr2
1. Outward flow
L U1 2. Radial entry
N (a1 = 90°) b1 b2
(b2 = 90°) a1 a2

U1 U2

Figure 3.14 Rotor of Example 3.1.

EXAMPLE 3.2
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.15. The entry of fluid is radial and the flow is outward. The blades are bent
forward at the outlet. Draw representative velocity triangles.

Solution: The velocity triangles are shown alongside.

M
M U2 V2
L Vr1
V1
1. Outward flow Vr2
L U1 2. Radial entry
N (a1 = 90°) b1 b2
a1
U1 U2

Figure 3.15 Rotor of Example 3.2.

EXAMPLE 3.3
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.16. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are radial
at the inner diameter. Draw representative velocity triangles.

Solution: The velocity triangles are shown alongside.

L
U1 U2
M L U1 a1

U2
N M L Inward flow
V1 Vr1
Vr2
V2

Figure 3.16 Rotor for Example 3.3.

94 Turbomachines

EXAMPLE 3.4
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.17. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are such
that at the outer diameter they are at 90o to blade velocity and the flow is radial at the inner diameter.
Draw representative velocity triangles.

Solution: The velocity triangles are shown alongside.

L
U1
U1 U2
a1 a2
L b1 b2
M
1. Inward flow
M U2
2. Radial exit V2
N Vr1
(a2 = 90°) V1

Figure 3.17 Rotor for Example 3.4.

EXAMPLE 3.5
A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.18. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow is inward. The blades are
inclined at the outer diameter as shown and the flow is radial at the inner diameter. Draw representative
velocity triangles

Solution: The velocity triangles are shown alongside.

L U1 U1 U2
L a1
M
U2 1. Inward flow
M 2. Radial exit
N Vr1 V2
(a2 = 90°)
Vr2
V1

Figure 3.18 Rotor for Example 3.5.

EXAMPLE 3.6
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.19. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 95

Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

Vr2 V1
V2 Vr1
M 1. Flow is upward
2. This is a turbine blade
L
3. The blades move
toward the right

Figure 3.19 Rotor for Example 3.6.

EXAMPLE 3.7
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.20. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.

Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

Vr1 V2
V1 Vr 2
1. Flow is upward
2. This is a compressor blade
M 3. The blades move
L toward the right

U
L

Figure 3.20 Rotor for Example 3.7.

EXAMPLE 3.8
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.21. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.
96 Turbomachines

Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

L U

1. Flow is downward
L 2. This is a turbine blade
3. The blades move
V r1 V2
toward the left

M V1 V r2

Figure 3.21 Rotor for Example 3.8.

EXAMPLE 3.9
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.22. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles

Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

M
V1
V2 Vr2
1. Flow is upward Vr1
M 2. This is a turbine blade
L 3. The blades move
toward the right

U

Figure 3.22 Rotor for Example 3.9.

EXAMPLE 3.10
An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 3.23. State the direction of the flow, whether this is turbine or com-
pressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the representative velocity triangles.

Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 97

Vr2
U
L 1. Flow is toward the V2
right
2. This is a compressor
blade
3. The blades move
upward
Vr1
L
M V1
M

Figure 3.23 Rotor for Example 3.10.

3.3 Basic Equations: Linear Momentum Equation, Impulse

Momentum Equation, Moment of Momentum Equation,
and Euler Turbine Equation
The Euler turbine equation is the basic equation on which the study of turbomachines is built up. The as-
sumptions made while deriving the SFEE hold good for the Euler turbine equation also. Thus, the constancy
of states of fluid separately at the inlet section and outlet section, non-accumulation of mass and steady invari-
able states over time intervals are also the assumptions in the case of the Euler turbine equation. Acceleration
during starting and deceleration during stopping are excluded from the application of this equation.
According to Newton’s second law, we have F  ma, which is now written as
dV d
F m or F  (mV )
dt dt
This form of equation is known as a linear momentum equation. Again, the same equation when written as
Fdt  d (mV )
is known as impulse momentum equation (Fdt is the impulse of the force F). In continuation of the above,
the equation applicable to turbomachines is
rmdV
Fr 
dt
Here, r is the radial distance of the force, Fr is the moment of the force and is known as the torque of the ma-
chine. rmdV/dt or rd(mV)/dt is the moment of the rate of change of momentum or “angular momentum.”
In words, the above equation means that “the applied torque is the rate of change of angular momentum.”
Thus, the equation
d (mr s V )
T
dt
98 Turbomachines

is known as the angular momentum equation.

Vax2
Vrad2

V1
V2 Vr2

Vax1
Vrad1 V1 Vu2
Vu2
U2

Vu1 V1 Vr1

Vu1
U1

Figure 3.24 Velocities in a generalized rotor.

In Fig. 3.24, a generalized rotor of a turbomachine is shown, with a typical flow of fluid, represented by the
absolute velocities of fluid: V1 at the inlet and V2 at the outlet. Also shown are all the components of the fluid
velocities:Vu1, Vu2, Vax1, Vax2, Vrad1 and Vrad2. Here, Vu is the component of the absolute velocity of fluid,
along U; this is the “whirl” component, contributing to the torque. Vax is the component of the absolute
velocity of fluid, along the axial direction; this causes the axial thrust. Vrad is the radial component of the
absolute velocity of fluid.
For a purely axial flow machine, the radial components Vrad1 and Vrad2 are reduced to zero. The axial com-
ponents Vax1 and Vax2 become the flow components Vf1 and Vf2. Similarly, for a purely radial flow machine,
Vrad1 and Vrad2 become the flow components Vf1 and Vf2. In this case, Vax1 and Vax2 are reduced to zero.
Now, r can be taken as the generalized radius vector and V as the generalized velocity vector, each having
components in axial, radial, and tangential directions. The cross product also gives the three components in
the axial, radial, and tangential directions. However, the torque and power developed in a turbomachine are
due to the tangential components only, while the axial thrust developed is due to the axial components. The
radial components have the effect of producing a couple or moment of forces on the bearings, without any
contribution to the torque. Thus
T  m (r s V )
and P  TW  m W (r s V )

where V is the angular velocity. Considering the net torque from the inlet to the outlet section, the above
equation is written as
P  m (W1rV
1 u 1 W 2 r2Vu 2 )
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 99

P
or  W  U1Vu 1 U 2Vu 21 (3.1)
m
where W is the specific work, and U1  V1r1; U2  V2r2. Equation (3.1) for the specific work is the Euler
turbine equation. From this point onward, the presence or absence of gc should not be a problem anymore
(m2/s2 is the same as J/kg.).
Just as the tangential components of fluid velocities give rise to the tangential force (and then the torque,
as above), the axial components of fluid velocities give rise to the axial thrust to be taken up by the bearings.
Designating the thrust as T, we have
d
T  (mVf )  m (Vf1 Vf2 ) (3.2)
dt
kg m
 s s N
s

In Eq. (3.1) for W, the specific work W when obtained as a positive value represents the work output of a
turbine. When the value of W obtained is negative, W is the input to the machine. This machine may be a
fan, a blower, a compressor, or a pump. When the thrust T obtained is positive, that thrust on the bearings
is in the direction of the inlet stream (irrespective of whether the machine is a pump or a turbine) and a
negative value of T represents the thrust in the opposite direction of the inlet stream.
As seen above, the complete details of the absolute fluid velocities V1 and V2 along with the fluid angles
@1 and @2 are sufficient to determine the torque of the shaft, the axial thrust, and the specific work. However,
the outlet velocity V2 depends on the inlet velocity V1, the flow characteristics of the fluid from the inlet to
outlet through the passage between the blades, the cross-sectional area of the passage and its variation, the
losses taking place in the passage, etc. One convenient method to find V2 is to calculate the relative velocity
at the inlet, Vr1, and to find its variation (or otherwise) to Vr2 along with the blade angle A2 at the outlet,
and then to solve for V2. As will be seen later, there are different methods to determine V2, but in general, all
the methods have to be toward only one aim, that is, completing the velocity triangles at both the inlet and
outlet, with the available or assumed data. In fact, the flow passage between the blades is to be designed so
as to arrive at the required value of Vr2 and consequent V2.

3.4 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation

One more form of the Euler turbine equation in terms of the six velocities (three from each velocity triangle)
can be derived. Consider a general velocity triangle ABC, with V  U Vr, as shown in Fig. 3.25, without
subscripts “1” and “2” for the velocities. From triangle ACM

CM2  AC 2 AM2
 Vf 2  V 2 Vu2

Also, from triangle BCM

CM2  BC 2 BM2
 Vf2  Vr2 (U Vu )2  Vr2 U2 Vu2 2UVu
100 Turbomachines

C
V Vr

Vf

a M b
A B
Vu U

Figure 3.25 General velocity triangle.

From the above two equations, for Vf2 , one can write

V 2 Vu2  Vr2 U 2 Vu2 2UVu

 2UVu  V 2 U 2 Vr2
(V 2 U 2 Vr2 )
 UVu 
2
Hence
(V12 U12 Vr12 )
U1Vu1  at the inlet velocity triangle
2
(V22 U 22 Vr22 )
and U 2Vu2  at the outlet velocity triangle
2
Substituting these values into the Euler turbine Eq. (3.1), we get
W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
¥ V 2 U12 Vr12 ´ ¥ V22 U 22 Vr22 ´
¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ µ¶
§ 2 2

¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ U12 U 22 ´ ¥ Vr12 Vr22 ´

¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ µ¶ ¦§ µ¶ (3.3)
§ 2 2 2

The specific work, as given by Eqs. (3.1) and (3.3), is sometimes denoted by WE, subscript E signifying the
name Euler.
Equation (3.3) is the second form of Euler turbine equation. This expression for the specific work, along
with the equation obtained as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics (and SFEE), gives a lot of
information regarding the design of the blade profiles.
The expressions for the specific work, in the form of Euler turbine equations, have been obtained starting
from the “vane-congruent” flow. The vane-congruent flow is the ideal flow. The actual flow differs from the
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 101

ideal flow due to various factors such as fluid viscosity, skin friction, eddies, turbulence, etc., as studied in
fluid mechanics. All the variables can be accounted for, but this will be done later.

3.4.1 Components of Energy Transfer

The energy transfer between a fluid and a rotor has been expressed in different ways. As seen earlier, the
application of the first law of thermodynamics has given rise to two equations [Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3) in
Chapter 1] for the specific work. The alternate form of the Euler turbine Eq. (3.1) has again given one
more equation Eq. (3.3) for the specific work.
One common component in all the equations is the quantity (V12 – V22)/2, which is the kinetic compo-
nent of the energy transfer. The other components are as follows:
1. The elevation component, (z1 – z2)g.
2. The pressure-drop component, (p1 – p2)/Q.
3. The enthalpy-drop component, (h1 – h2).
4. The centrifugal energy component, (U12 U 22 ) / 2.
5. The relative velocity component, (Vr22 Vr12 ) / 2.
The kinetic component is considered as the major component. All other components as grouped in Eqs.
(1.2), (1.3), (1.4) in Chapter 1 and Eqs. (3.1) and (3.3) in this chapter can be considered as another com-
bined component. The kinetic component can directly interact between the fluid and rotor; whereas the
other components, in suitably formed groups, (that is, different groups in different equations) can have the
interaction somewhat in an indirect way.
The indirect way stated in simple terms is that the components have to simultaneously “transform and
transfer.” This process is elaborated in Section 3.5.

3.4.2 Energy Equation of Relative Velocities

The relative velocities at the inlet and outlet of the blades form a group, (Vr22 Vr12 )/ 2, as seen in Eq. (3.3).
This group can be identified in an interesting way.
Suppose that it is possible to consider the reference frame (i.e., the flow channel in the rotor) in isolation,
or alternately, the observer also moves along with the frame. It can be realized that the variation of the rela-
tive velocity is directly connected to the area of flow by the equation
R1 A1Vr1  R2 A2Vr2
where A1 and A2 are the areas at the inlet and outlet of the blade passage, respectively. If further the density
remains constant, as it is in a large number of cases, then
A1Vr1  A2Vr2
Vr 2 A1
 
Vr1 A2

Hence, Vr1 and Vr2 can be designed to be in a definite required proportion by designing the area ratio
accordingly. As a result, the flow can now be like the conduit flow, where Bernoulli’s equation can be
applied (as a first approximation), the flow channel acting as a diffuser or nozzle, with the pressure being
developed or consumed.
102 Turbomachines

However, the development of pressure is not totally due to this variation of Vr1 and Vr2 because the cen-
trifugal component (U 22 U12 ) / 2 also participates in the mechanism by acting like the external force on
the fluid. The effects have to be overlapped, as readily seen in the grouping of this component in the energy
equation.

3.5 Impulse and Reaction

The process of energy transfer in a turbomachine is by the dynamic action. The “dynamic action” is named
so because the transfer process is during the flowing of the fluid. In fact, the transfer of energy, whether from
or to the fluid, is possible only if that energy is in the kinetic form. What happens when the energy of the
fluid is of some other form (like pressure or enthalpy)?
1. In the case of turbines, the transformation of other forms of energy into kinetic form must take place
before the transfer process, as in nozzles, as shown in the schematic view in Fig. 3.26.
Turbomachine

Fluid Fluid

inlet outlet

Nozzle Rotor

Figure 3.26 Schematic view of a turbine.

2. In the case of pumps or compressors, the transformation must take place after the transfer process,
as in diffusers, as shown in the schematic view in Fig. 3.27.
Turbomachine

Fluid Fluid

inlet outlet

Rotor Diffuser

Figure 3.27 Schematic view of a pump or compressor.

The above two cases are presented as if

1. The two processes, transfer of energy and transformation of energy, are totally decoupled.
2. The two processes are one after the other.
3. The two processes take place separately in different parts.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 103

In actual practice, any design is one of the following three possible designs. It is possible to design a turbo-
machine in three different categories in such a way that:
1. The two processes, transformation or conversion of energy (of the fluid) and transfer of energy
(between the rotor and the fluid), are really decoupled, that is, they occur separately in different
parts, as depicted in Figs. 3.26 and 3.27.
2. The two processes, the conversion and the transfer, occur together, simultaneously, in the flow
passages between the blades of the rotor.
3. The process of transformation of energy or conversion of energy from one form to another form
takes place “partly separately” and “partly simultaneously” with the transfer of energy, that is, the
process of expansion or compression occurs partly in nozzles or diffusers and partly in the flow
passages of the rotor. The process is shared between the parts.
The above three cases are distinctly different from one another. In the light of the above, the equations for
the specific work W are recalled for further discussion (completely dropping gc):
V12 V22 p1 p2
W  ( z1 z2 ) g
2 R
V12 V22
W  (h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g
2
V12 V22 U12 U 22 Vr12 Vr22
W 
2 2 2

In all the expressions for W, the first component (V12 V22 ) / 2 is the change in the kinetic energy of the
fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor, and this component gets transferred between the fluid and
rotor directly, without requiring the presence of either nozzles or diffusers.
The remaining components
( p1 p2 ) ( z1 z2 )
R g
or (h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
or
2 2
(all are equal to one another) are the components that require the transformation in the rotor itself, simulta-
neously with the process of transfer of energy. These components are termed as “reaction components.”
The ratio of the components of energy transferred, due to the change in the pressure of fluid between the
inlet and outlet of the rotor, to the total energy transferred is known as the degree of reaction, R. Thus

¨ ( p1 p2 ) ·
© R ¸ ( z1 z2 ) g
R ª ¹ [3.4(a)]
W
(h h ) ( z1 z2 ) g
 1 2 [3.4(b)]
W
104 Turbomachines

(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )

 2 2 [3.4(c)]
W
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
 [3.4(d)]
(V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )

It is possible to visualize the reaction in different ways. Imagine a skating board in which the wheels are
locked, “braked,” or restrained by stoppers. Unless the brakes are released, the skating board cannot move.
Let there be a person on the board. If this person tries to jump from the board, he/she can jump over a long
distance, the board remaining firmly where it is [Fig. 3.28(a)].

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.28 Reaction in linear motion: (a) Board remains firm and (b) board moved backward.

Suppose the brakes on the wheels are released. The board is now free to move. The person on the board
is ready to jump. He/she bends and his/her powerful thigh muscles and calf muscles, having their stored
energy, suddenly unwind, releasing the energy. What happens? The person jumps, but now his/her forward
movement is much less. Instead, the skating board moves backward [Fig. 3.28(b)]. This backward move-
ment is due to the reaction. The stored energy of the person on the board is released and the muscles expand,
but, the effect is to push the board backward in the opposite direction.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 105

Figure 3.29 Reaction in rotation.

Again, imagine a cylindrical drum, having nozzles in some tangential direction. The drum is supported in
bearings. It is now charged with high-pressure air (Fig. 3.29). If the drum is restrained by brakes and air is
released through the nozzles, the velocity of air can be very high. But if the drum is not restrained (the brakes
are released), for the same velocity of air from the nozzles (with reference to the nozzle), the drum moves
backward. This is by the reaction.
A water sprinkler in a garden is yet another example of the movement by reaction. All the movements,
seen above, can be precisely quantified and related to the energy spent.

3.6 Utilization Factor of Turbines

The utilization factor of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the ideal work output of the turbine to the energy
available for conversion into work at the inlet stream of the fluid:

W
 (3.5)
Wa
Here, W is the ideal specific work, as defined by the Euler turbine equation. The energy available in the fluid
at the inlet, Wa, has two parts: its kinetic energy, V12/2, and the energy that is possible to be obtained due to
the pressure drop (known as the reaction component). Thus
V12 p1 p2
Wa  ( with z1  z2 )
2 R
Also
V12 (U12 U 2 2 ) ( Vr12 Vr22 ) V2 2
Wa  W
2 2 2 2
Hence

(V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )

 (3.6)
V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
106 Turbomachines

Also
U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
 (3.7)
[ V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )]/2

The utilization factor is defined only for turbines, which may be of any type, either axial flow or radial flow
or mixed flow type. The fluids can be either compressible or incompressible. The utilization factor of a tur-
bine is a performance parameter: It indicates how well the turbine performs. This factor can be maximized,
or conditions for the maximum utilization factor can be laid down, while designing the blades. The utiliza-
tion factor is not defined for work-absorbing type of turbomachines.
Now, from Eq. [3.4(d)] we have

(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )

R
(V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )

So

1 V12 V22
 1
R (U1 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
2

V12 V22 1 1 R
  1
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) R R
(V12 V22 )R
 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )  (3.8)
1 R

Substituting Eq. (3.8) into the expression for the utilization factor [Eq. (3.6)], the utilization factor is
obtained as

V12 V22
 (3.9)
V12 RV22
Clearly, the equation does not hold good for the condition R  1, but otherwise, for any value 0 b R  1,
it is applicable for any turbine in general. Thus, the utilization factor can be seen as a function of the fluid
velocities V1, V2 and the degree of reaction R. As mentioned earlier, the degree of reaction can be taken as
a design parameter and therefore can have a prescribed value. The inlet velocity V1 is also a part of the pre-
scribed data. Hence, the utilization factor can be varied by varying the exit velocity V2. By the very definition
of the utilization factor, the least value of V2 gives rise to the maximum possible utilization factor, m. The
minimum value of V2 occurs when the exit angle @2 is 90o, with V2 being perpendicular to U2.
Now, for axial flow machines (U1  U2  U) and for Vf1  Vf2  V2  V1 sin@1, the expression for m
readily reduces to
V12 V22 V12 V12 sin 2 A1 1 sin 2 A1
m   
V12 RV22 V12 RV12 sin 2 A1 1 R sin 2 A1
cos2 A1
 m  (3.10)
1 R sin 2 A1
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 107

3.7 Speed Ratio

The speed ratio (E) is the ratio of the blade peripheral velocity U1 to the absolute fluid velocity V1 at the inlet.
In the context of the design of a turbomachine, these two velocities U1 and V1 are two important parameters.
V1, the fluid inlet velocity, is guided by the available head of fluid or available pressure drop or enthalpy drop
that is accepted as the basic data. U1, the blade velocity, is a function of the diameter and speed of the rotor
(U1  ODN/60). The speed, N (rpm), is an assumed value that is selected from the synchronous speeds for
turbines or “slip speeds” for pumps or compressors. Any logical conclusion to arrive at a particular value of
speed ratio (E), therefore, leads to the determination of a suitable value of the diameter of the rotor and the
speed of the machine. The speed ratio E  U1/V1, therefore, is a representation of all the basic and assumed
data. In fact, along with the maximization of the utilization factor , the speed ratio is also to be “suitably”
arrived at. From Eq. (3.8), we have
(V12 V22 )R
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) 
1 R
Hence
¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ V12 V22 ´ ¥ R ´
W ¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ µ¶ ¦§ 1 R µ¶
§ 2 2
V12 V22 ¥ R ´
 ¦§1 µ
2 1 R¶
Therefore
¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ 1 ´
W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu 2  ¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ 1 R µ¶ (3.11)
§ 2
Now, for maximization of the utilization factor,   m, @2  90o, Vu2  0, and V2  Vf1  V1 sin@1.
Therefore

¥ V2´
V12 ¦1 22 µ
U 1 § V1 ¶ 1
F 1  s s
V1 V1 2(1 R ) Vu 1
1 sin 2 A1 ¥ Vu1 ´
F  ¦ V  cos A1 µ
2(1 R )cos A1 § 1 ¶
cos A1
F  (3.12)
2(1 R )
cos2 A1
Thus, it is seen that when F  cos A1 / 2(1 R ) , we have m  as seen by Eq. (3.10). Also, in
1 R sin 2 A1
continuation, the maximum possible W is given by
W  Wa s m (3.13)
In Eq. (3.12), the values of E obtained may be taken as if it is a specified condition, and the corresponding
value of m may be taken as the derived result. Table 3.1 gives some representative values of such results.
108 Turbomachines

Table 3.1 Representative values of derived results

cos A cos2 A1
General expressions F m  W  Wa s m
2(1 R ) 1 R sin 2 A1
Impulse turbine U cos A1 m  cos2 A1 ¥V 2 ´
R0 F  W  ¦ 1 µ 4F 2
V1 2  4F 2 § 2 ¶
Reaction turbine U m z cos2 A1
F  cos A1 ¥ V2´
R  0.5
V1 W  ¦ 2 s 1 µ F2
z F2 § 2 ¶
(for @ b about 25o) U2

The equations for m and E [Eqs. (3.10) and (3.12)] indicate that for a given inlet fluid velocity V1 and inlet
fluid angle @1, the blade speed U for the impulse turbine (R  0) is half that of the 50% reaction turbine (R 
0.5). Hence, if both types of the turbines were to run under the same values of V1 and @1, at the same speed,
the diameter of the impulse-type machine would be half that of the 50% reaction-type machine. Alternately,
if the diameters were to be the same, the speed (rpm) of the impulse-type machine would be half that of the
50% reaction-type machine.
To understand the further significance of the above results, first, a representative value of the fluid inlet
velocity, V1, is assumed to be 100 m/s. This is taken as the field data. Two cases of the degree of reaction (R
 0 and R  0.5) are worked out for various values of the fluid inlet angle (@1  10 − 30o). The results are
shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.

Table 3.2 Result when V1 = 100 m/s and R = 0

@ E U m Wm
10o 0.492 49.2 0.97 4850
15o 0.483 48.3 0.933 4665
20o 0.47 47.0 0.883 4415
25o 0.453 45.3 0.821 4105
30o 0.433 43.3 0.75 3750

Table 3.3 Result when V1 = 100 m/s and R = 0.5

@ E U m Wm
10o 0.985 98.5 0.98 4900
15o 0.966 96.6 0.965 4825
20o 0.94 94.0 0.938 4690
25o 0.906 90.6 0.902 4510
30o 0.866 86.6 0.857 4285
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 109

The results obtained further indicate that the 50% reaction-type machines give rise to better values of
utilization factors than those given by impulse machines. These results are without taking into account the
losses, friction, etc. If the effects of such losses are also to be considered, the reaction machines score still
better. This is because the fluid velocities in the reaction machines are generally lower than those in the im-
pulse machines. Consequently, the losses in the reaction machines are less.
The results also suggest that the fluid inlet angles @1 are to be as low as possible for better utilization.

EXAMPLE 3.11
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.30. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.

Vr1 V2 Vr2
V1
=Vf1 = Vf2
Vf1 = Vf2

b1 = 70°
90° 90°

U1 = 4 m/s U2 = 8 m/s

Figure 3.30 Velocity triangles for Example 3.11.

Solution:
(a) Because U2  U1, this is a radial outward flow machine.
(b) Because V2  V1, this is a work-absorbing-type machine, pump or compressor.
(c) We know that
V1
 tan B1  tan70o
U1
Hence
V1  U1tan B1  4tan70o  11 m /s  Vf1  Vf2  Vr2
Now
V2  U 22 Vr22  82 112  13.6 m/s and Vu2  U 2  8 m / s
So
W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu2  0 8 s 8  64 J/ kg
This is the work input.
110 Turbomachines

(d) We have P  64 J/s per unit mass flow rate  64 W/(kg/s).

(e) Kinetic component of specific work is given by
V22 V12 13.62 112
  31.98 m 2 /s2
2 2
Therefore, the reaction component of the specific work is
64 31.98  32.02
Therefore, the degree of reaction is
32.02
R  0.5
64
(f ) Axial thrust: This is a radial flow machine; therefore, there is no axial thrust due to the flow in the
rotor. However, the fluid moves initially in the axial direction, because of which an axial thrust is cre-
ated. So
Axial thrust  U1 s m
¥m k ´
 4 s1  4¦ s s µ  N
§ s s¶
(g) Utilization factor is applicable only to turbines; hence it is not applicable here.

EXAMPLE 3.12
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.31. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.

V2 Vr2 V1
Vr1
= Vf1 = Vf2

b2 = 50°
a1 = 30° b1 = 90°

U1 = U2 = 15 m/s

Figure 3.31 Velocity triangles for Example 3.12.

Solution:
(a) Because U1  U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2  V1, this is a work-producing machine, that is, turbine.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 111

(c) To calculate Specific work:

U
 cos A1
V1
Therefore
U 15
V1    17.32 m /s
cos A1 cos 30o
and Vr1  U tan30o  15 tan30o  8.66 m/ s  Vf2  Vf1
Outlet velocity triangle is shown in Fig. 3.32.
V2 Vr2

V f2

b2 = 50°

V u2 x

U2 = 15

Figure 3.32 Outlet velocity triangle for Example 3.12.

Let x  U – Vu2. Now

Vf2
 tan50o
x
Therefore
Vf2 8.66
x   7.27 m /s
tan 50o tan 50o
Therefore
Vu2  U 2 x  7.73 m /s
Also
W  U (Vu1 Vu2 )  15 (15 7.73)  109.05 m 2 /s 2 or J/kg
(d) Power  P  109.05 W per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R: We have
x
 cos50o
Vr2
Therefore
x 7.27
Vr 2    11.31 m /s
cos 50o cos 50o
112 Turbomachines

Because U1  U2, we have

V12 V22 Vr22 Vr12
W 
2 2
Therefore,
¨ (Vr22 Vr12 ) · ¨ (11.312 8.662 ) ·
© ¸ © ¸
R© 2 ¸© 2
¸  0.243
© W ¸ © 109.05 ¸
©ª ¸¹ ©ª ¹¸
(f ) Utilization factor :
W 109.05
   0.62
V22 11.62
W 109.05
2 2

Comment: Problems 3.11 and 3.12 have been worked out using basic trigonometric relations. Graphically,
by using triangles drawn accurately to scale, various velocities or components can also be measured on the
diagrams. By practice, however, the analytical procedures like the above may look easier.

EXAMPLE 3.13
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.33. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.

V1 = 210 m/s
Vr2
V2
Vr1

90°
22°
U1 = U2 = 100 m/s
Vf1 = Vf2

Figure 3.33 Velocity triangles for Example 3.13.

Solution:
(a) Because U1  U2, this is an axial flow machine.
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 113

(b) Because V2  V1, this is a work-producing machine (i.e., turbine).

(c) We have
Vu1  V1cosA1  210 cos 22o  194.7 m /s
Vf1  V1sinA1  210 sin 22o  78.67 m /s  Vf2  V2
So
W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu2 (Vu2  0)
 100 s 194.7  19470 J/kg

Specific work is W  19.47 kJ/kg.

(d) Power  W· m ( m  1 kg/s)
 19.47 kW per unit mass flow rate
(e) Kinetic component is given by
V12 V22 2102 78.67 2
  18955 J/kg
2 2
Therefore degree of reaction is
19470 18955
R  2.67%
19470

(f ) Axial thrust is zero because Vf1  Vf2.

(g) Utilization factor is given by

W 19470
   0.863
V22 78.67 2
W 19470
2 2

Comment: The reaction is only 2.67% or 0.0267. This is almost like zero. The machine may be termed
an impulse machine.

EXAMPLE 3.14
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.34. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.
114 Turbomachines

Vr2 V1

V2 Vr1
Vf2 Vf1

30° 35°
20°
U1 = U2 = 85 m/s

Figure 3.34 Velocity triangles for Example 3.14 (Vr2 = 0.98 Vr1)

Solution:
(a) Because U1  U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2  V1, this is a work-producing machine (i.e., turbine).
(c) From the inlet velocity triangle,
Vf1
tan 35o 
x
Therefore
x tan 35o  Vf1
That is,
(V1cos20o 85) tan 35o  V1sin20o
 (0.9397V1 85) 0.7  V1 s 0.342
Hence
V1  188.4 m /s
Therefore
Vu1  V1cos20o  177 m /s
Vf1  V1sin20o  64.44 m /s
Now
Vr1  [(Vu1 U )2 Vf12 ]0.5
 [(177 85)2 64.442 ]0.5  112.32 m/s
Vr2  0.98 s Vr1  110 m / s
So
Vu2  U Vr2 cos30o  85 110 cos30o  10.26 m /s
Therefore
Vu1 Vu2  177 ( 10.26)  187.26 m/s
So specific work is
W  U (Vu1 Vu2 )  85 s 187.26  15917 J/kg
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 115

(d) Power  P  15917 W per unit flow rate.

(e) Reaction component is
Vr22 Vr12 1102 112.322
  258 m 2 /s2
2 2
Therefore, the degree of reaction is
Reaction component
R
Specific work
258
  0.0162% or 1.62%
15917
(f ) Axial thrust: We have
Vf2  Vr2 sin30o  55 m /s
So
Axial thrust  (Vf1 Vf2 )m  (64.44 55)1
 9.44 N in the direction of Vf1

(g) Utilization factor : We have

V2  (10.262 552 )0.5  55.95 m /s

Therefore
W 15917
 2
  0.836
(55.95) (55.95)2
W 15917
2 2
Comments:
1. The negative reaction is alright.
2. Very small value of R (0.0162). This machine can be said to be an impulse machine.
3. There is an axial thrust.

EXAMPLE 3.15
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.35. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.
116 Turbomachines

U1 = U2 = 30 m/s

a1 = 60°

V1 = 40 m/s
a1 = 60° V2 at 90° to U
Vf1 = Vf1 = V2

Vr1 V1 Vr2 V2

Figure 3.35 Velocity triangles for Example 3.15.

Solution:
(a) Since U1  U2  U, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Since V2  V1, this is a turbine.
(c) We have
Vu2  0; Vu1  40 cos60o  20 m /s
So specific work is
W  UVu1  30 s 20  600 J/kg
(d) Power  P  W m  600 W per unit flow rate.
(e) We have
V2  Vf2  Vf1  40 sin60o  34.64 m /s
The kinetic component of W is
V12 V22 402 34.642
  200 J/kg
2 2
Therefore
Reaction component  W Kinetic component
 600 200  400 J/kg
Therefore, the degree of reaction is
400
R  0.67
600
(f ) Utilization factor is
W 600
 2
  0.5
¥ V2 ´ 600 600
W ¦
§ 2 µ¶
Comment: This problem is yet another one for practice. However, the utilization factor  is too low and
is to be improved. How can it be improved?
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 117

Suppose it is not possible to change the magnitude and direction of the inlet fluid velocity V1. The other
option is to increase the velocity of blades U, that is, to increase the speed of the machine. The increased
values of U can be tried, and it is easy to trace the steps in calculations (Table 3.4). (The kinetic component
200 J/kg is not altered.)

Table 3.4 Effect of increasing speed (U) in Example 3.15

U W  UVu1 Reaction Component R Š  W/(W V22/2)

40 40 s 20  800 600 0.75 800/(800 600)  0.57
50 50 s 20  1000 800 0.80 1000/(1000 600)  0.625
60 60 s 20  1200 1000 0.83 1200/(1200 600)  0.67

It may be observed that such variations can improve the utilization factor. Further, it follows that Vr1 and Vr2
also change their angles (A1 and A2). The blades of the rotor have to be at different angles. Hence, the blade
shape and orientation have to be different.

K eywords
Absolute fluid velocity Linear momentum equation
Alternate form of Euler turbine equation Radial flow machines
Angular momentum equation Reaction machines
Axial flow machines Relative velocity
Blade velocity Speed ratio
Degree of reaction Utilization factor
Euler turbine equation Vane-congruent flow
Impulse machines Velocity triangles

S ummary
The focus of study in this chapter is on the mechanism work is also derived in terms of the velocity com-
of the transfer of energy and momentum between the ponents of the fluid, that is,
flowing fluid and the blades of the rotor.
W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
t
The velocity triangles are studied in detail, with
t
The two different components of the energy
respect to both radial flow machines and axial
transferred are identified: The kinetic compo-
flow machines.
nent and the reaction component. Consequent-
t
V  U Vr
ly, a distinction is drawn between the two types
t
The Euler turbine equation is the most basic
of energy transfer processes: The impulse type
principle of working of any type of turboma-
and the reaction type.
chine. This equation, for specific work, is derived
t
Kinetic component  (V12 – V22)/2
from Newton’s law of motion and its corollary,
t
Reaction component  (U12 – U22)/2 (Vr22 –
the impulse momentum equation. The second
Vr12)/2
alternate form of the equation for the specific
118 Turbomachines

t
With respect to the machine, the degree of reac- that facilitate the design of the blades as also the
tion R, the utilization factor , and the speed evaluation of the performance of the turboma-
ratio E are identified as important parameters chine.

I mportant E quations
1. Specific work Hence
P (V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
 W  U1Vu 1 U 2Vu2 
m V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
2. Specific work Also
¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ U12 U 22 ´ ¥ Vr12 Vr22 ´ U1Vu1 U 2Vu2
W ¦ 1 
§ 2 µ¶ ¦§ 2 µ¶ ¦§ 2 µ¶ [ V12 (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )]
2
3. Degree of reaction
5. Utilization factor
( p1 p2 ) ( z1 z2 )
V12 V22
R g 
R V12 RV22
W
(h1 h2 ) ( z1 z2 ) g 6. Maximum utilization factor

W cos2 A1
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr222 ) m 
1 R sin 2 A1
 2 2
W 7. Specific work
(U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 )
 ¥ V 2 V22 ´ ¥ 1 ´
(V12 V22 ) (U12 U 22 ) (Vr12 Vr22 ) W  U1Vu1 U 2Vu 2  ¦ 1 µ¶ ¦§ 1 R µ¶
§ 2
4. Utilization factor
8. Speed ratio
W
 cos A1
Wa F
2(1 R )

M ultiple- C hoice Q uestions

(Note: In all the following questions, U is the blade (c) the rotor wheel
velocity, V is the absolute fluid velocity, and Vr is the (d) the rotor axis
relative velocity of the fluid with reference to the blade. 2. Vr is always tangential to the
Subscript 1 is for the inlet and 2 is for the outlet.) (a) stream line of fluid
1. U is always tangential to (b) rotor axis
(a) the blade profile (c) guide vanes
(b) the stream line of the fluid (d) none of these
 Energy Exchange in Turbomachines 119

3. V is the vectorial sum of U and Vr 12. If in an axial flow machine, the absolute fluid
(a) only at the inlet velocities at the inlet and outlet are equal, then
(b) only at the outlet (a) R  0 (b) R  0
(c) only in the turbines (c) R  0 (d) R  1
(d) everywhere Use Fig. 3.36 to answer the next three Multiple-
4. In a radial flow rotor, the velocity triangle is Choice Questions (13–15).
visualized on a plane that is
(a) parallel to the axis
(b) perpendicular to the axis
(c) tangential to the blade profile
(d) none of these
5. In an axial flow rotor, the velocity triangle is
visualized on a plane that is
(a) parallel to the axis
(b) perpendicular to the axis
(c) tangential to the blade profile
(d) none of these
6. Choose the wrong equation in the following:
(a) V  U Vr (b) U  V Vr
Figure 3.36 Blade assembly for Multiple-Choice
(c) Vr  U V (d) V  Vr U Questions 13, 14, and 15.
7. Velocity triangles are drawn for
(a) stator vanes (b) rotor vanes 13. In the blade assembly shown, the fluid flow is
(c) guide vanes (d) none of these (a) top to bottom (b) bottom to top
8. For a centrifugal pump, (c) left to right (d) right to left
(a) U1  U 2 (b) U1  2U 2 14. In the blade assembly shown, the rotation is
(c) U1  U 2 (d) U1  U 2 (a) left to right (b) right to left
(c) top to bottom (d) bottom to top
9. For an axial flow turbine, the fluid strikes
15. The assembly shown is of
(a) on the convex side of the blade
(a) a turbine (b) a compressor
(b) on the concave side of the blade
(c) a pump (d) none of these
(c) tangential to the blade.
16. The speed ratio is
(d) perpendicular to the blade
(a) V1 /V2 (b) U1 /U 2
10. For a radial flow machine, the fluid enters at
(a) the outer rim (c) U1 /V1 (d) U 2 /V2
(b) the inner rim 17. The utilization factor is
(c) perpendicular to the rim (a) (W V12 / 2) / W
(d) any of (a), (b), and (c). (b) W / (W V12 / 2)
11. If there is no change in the fluid pressure between (c) W / (W V2 2 / 2)
the inlet and outlet of the rotor of an axial flow
(d) W / (W V2 2 / 2)
machine, then
(a) R x 0 (b) R  0 18. The Euler turbine equation is an expression for
(c) R  0 (d) R  0 (a) power (b) axial thrust
(c) torque (d) specific work
120 Turbomachines

R eview Q uestions
1. What is a vane-congruent flow? By means of 4. Distinguish between impulse and reaction
neat sketches, show the vane-congruent flow for processes in turbomachines. Give examples.
at least two types of radial flow blades and one (Refer Section 3.5)
type of axial flow blades. 5. Explain the term utilization factor.
(Refer Section 3.2.3) (Refer Section 3.6)
2. What is the purpose of air foil shapes for blades? V 2 V22
(Refer Section 3.2) 6. Prove that  12 (Refer Section 3.6)
V1 RV22
3. Derive the Euler turbine equations. Do the
equations hold good for pumps/compressors? cos A1
7. Prove that F  (Refer Section 3.7)
(Refer Section 3.3) 2(1 R )
8. Compare the impulse and reaction (R  0.5)
machines. (Refer Section 3.7)