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Bashige Et Al - 2024-Wound Healing Plant-The Wolrd Scientific Journal

This research article investigates the ethnomedical knowledge of plants used in nonconventional medicine for wound healing in Lubumbashi, DR Congo, identifying 166 plant taxa utilized for this purpose. The study involved interviews with 2,906 individuals, revealing that Securidaca longepedunculata is the most cited plant, with a majority of the remedies involving leaves and poultices. The findings highlight the need for further validation of these traditional practices and the potential for discovering new medicinal plants specific to the region.

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Bashige Et Al - 2024-Wound Healing Plant-The Wolrd Scientific Journal

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Wiley

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2024, Article ID 4049263, 33 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/4049263

Research Article
Ethnomedical Knowledge of Plants Used in Nonconventional
Medicine for Wound Healing in Lubumbashi, Haut-Katanga
Province, DR Congo

Bashige Chiribagula Valentin ,1 Okusa Ndjolo Philippe ,1 Manya Mboni Henry ,1

Bakari Amuri Salvius,2 Masengu Kabeya Suzanne,1 Félicien Mushagalusa Kasali ,3
and Lumbu Simbi Jean Baptiste4
1
Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Terapeutic Chemistry and Analysis of Natural Substances,
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences (UNILU), 27, Av. Kato, Commune Kampemba, Lubumbashi,
Democratic Republic of the Congo
2
Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Lubumbashi (UNILU), 27, Av. Kato, Commune Kampemba, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo
3
Department of Pharmacy, College of Health Sciences, Université Ofcielle de Bukavu (UOB), PO. Box: 570, Bukavu,
Commune of Kadutu, Av. Karhale, Democratic Republic of the Congo
4
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lubumbashi (UNILU), 1 Maternity Av., Commune of Lubumbashi,
Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Correspondence should be addressed to Bashige Chiribagula Valentin; [email protected]

Received 24 May 2024; Accepted 16 July 2024

Academic Editor: Neeraj S. Takur

Copyright © 2024 Bashige Chiribagula Valentin et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Medicinal plants used for wound healing in Lubumbashi have yet to be discovered. Inventory or profle of their taxa has yet to be
established. Te present study was carried out to survey the plants used in traditional medicine in Lubumbashi to treat wounds
and to defne their ethnomedical characteristics. Te study was conducted between March 2021 and August 2022, using
semistructured interview surveys of households (n = 2730), herbalists (n = 48), and traditional practitioners: TPs (n = 128).Te
2,906 interviewed (sex ratio M/F = 0.9; mean age: 56 ± 3 years; and experience: 17 ± 4 years) provided information on 166 taxa, 130
used against chronic wounds, among which Securidaca longepedunculata was the top cited. Most of these taxa are shrubs (33%),
belonging to 48 botanical families dominated by the Fabaceae (16%). Tey are indicated in 70 other pathologies. From these 166
taxa, 198 healing recipes are obtained, 11 combining more than one plant. In all these recipes, the leaf (>36%) is the most used part,
and the poultice (>36%) is the most popular form of use. Twelve taxa are cited for the frst time as medicinal plants, of which
Agelanthus zizyphifolius has the highest consensus and Erigeron sumatrensis has the highest usual value. For the various plants
used to treat wounds, some of which are specifc to the region, further studies should focus on validating this traditional use.

1. Introduction wounds, abrasions, contusions, ulcers, and burns, can be

distinguished according to their origin, duration, and
A wound disrupts routine, typical standard anatomical healing process and grouped into acute and chronic wounds
tissue structure, resulting in loss of epithelial continuity with [1, 3]. In response to this structural damage, the body ini-
or without loss of underlying connective tissue and living tiates wound healing, a natural process of repair and re-
tissue’s anatomical and functional integrity [1, 2]. Diferent generation of tissue lesions that includes the phases of
types of wounds, including incised wounds, lacerated hemostasis (coagulation), infammation, proliferation
8086, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/4049263 by Bashige Chiribagula - EBMG ACCESS - CONGO, DEM REP , Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 Te Scientifc World Journal

(angiogenesis, granulation, and reepithelialization), and [21–23]. As medicinal plants constitute an essential re-
tissue remodeling [4, 5]. source of substances with benefcial therapeutic efects, in
Wounds that have not followed the normal healing various African countries, plants with wound-healing po-
process and remain open for more than a month or whose tential have been investigated from both the ethnobotanical
size has not contracted by more than 50% during this period and ethnopharmacological points of view [24–27].
are considered chronic wounds [6–8]. Based on etiology, the A link between ethnopharmacological activity and
Wound Healing Society classifes chronic wounds into four bioactive groups has justifed the traditional use of some
categories: pressure ulcers, diabetic ulcers, venous ulcers, medicinal taxa for wound treatment [28–31], and several
and arterial insufciency ulcers [9]. Chronic wounds cause phytomedicines have been developed, such as Cicaplast
®
severe emotional and physical trauma for not only the
patient but also their family [10, 11]. Chronic wounds can
used for the treatment of acute wounds [32] and Cicatryl
used for the treatment of superfcial wounds [33].
®
also lead to disability after all available therapeutic in- In DRC, to our best knowledge, a single ethnobotanical
terventions have been exhausted and amputation deemed survey was carried out on wound-healing medicinal plants.
necessary [10, 12]. Te worldwide prevalence of chronic It reported 53 taxa used as healing plants in Congolese
wounds is estimated at 1.51 and 2.21 per 1000 inhabitants pharmacopeias [34]. Examination of this study shows that
[13], and 1 to 2% of the population in developed countries the taxa described tend to come from the western part of the
has already been diagnosed with chronic wounds [14]. Tis DRC, which is not representative of the whole country due
rate is three times higher in DRC, where access to primary to the climatic variability that characterizes each region of
healthcare and hospital technical facilities sufers enormous the country. Tis is particularly true of Haut-Katanga
shortcomings. Incidence is set to rise as populations age Province, where the Miombo Forest is characterized by
worldwide [15], and the risk of developing a chronic wound other types of vegetation, and the population living there has
is 1.72 times higher in men than in women [16]. Chronic diferent cultural practices to those found in the west of the
wounds are, therefore, a signifcant health problem with country.
various consequences, afecting patients’ physical, social, Te present study aims to inventory the plants and
and mental health as well as the costs of healthcare systems. their healing recipes used in nonconventional medicine
Teir prolonged healing time, economic burden, reduced in Lubumbashi and to draw up their ethnomedicinal
quality of life, increased risk of infection, and impact on characteristics. Aware that the general population
patient mobility and functionality make them a signifcant practices this medicine, traditional healers and herbalists,
concern for healthcare professionals [17]. In Lubumbashi, we have focused the study on three population categories
there are many cases of chronic wounds, due to the high level (households, herbalists, and traditional healers) to gather
of mining activity and other physical activities, combined as much information as possible about wound care in the
with poor access to adequate care, which favors cases of region.
infected wounds [18].
Te current therapeutic arsenal ofered by conventional 2. Materials and Methods
medicine is varied, ranging from regenerative medicine and
stem cell therapies to biological dressings and scafolds, 2.1. Experimental Framework. Tis study was conducted in
negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), electrical stim- the seven communes of Lubumbashi City: Annexe, Kam-
ulation, topical growth factors and cytokines, hyperbaric pemba, Katuba, Kamalondo, Kenya, Lubumbashi, and
oxygen therapy (HBOT), advanced dressings, and artifcial Rwashi, in the province of Haut-Katanga in the Democratic
intelligence [9, 17]. Despite the existence of these treatment Republic of Congo.
methods, chronic wounds are among the pathologies for Lubumbashi is located between 11°26′–11°55′ north
which the people of Lubumbashi most often turn to non- latitude and 27°15′–27°40′ east longitude at an altitude of
conventional medicine as in many cases biomedical treat- 1,230 meters. Te climate is tropical, with an average annual
ment has resulted in therapeutic failure on the one hand, but temperature of 22.4°C and an average annual rainfall of
on the other, the population has more confdence in al- 512.7 mm3. It has two seasons, with a shorter rainy season
ternative medicine due to sociocultural habits [18, 19]. In (November to April). Te Miombo clear forest dominates
addition to the abovementioned reasons, it should be re- typical vegetation [35] (Figure 1).
membered that the DRC, particularly the city of Lubum-
bashi, sufers from poor health coverage. Te low rate of
access to primary health care could also justify the high 2.2. Ethnomedical Data Collection. Ethnobotanical data
demand for nonconventional medicine [18]. Tis non- were collected from households, herbalists, and tradi-
conventional medicine remains dominated mainly by me- tional practitioners (TPs) in Lubumbashi between March
dicinal plants and is poorly documented in 2021 and August 2022. Te sample size of household
Lubumbashi [20]. respondents was determined using two-stage sampling:
Te ethnomedical use of plants in wound treatment is a stratifed sample and a cluster sample. For each com-
not only cheap and accessible but also a reliable natural mune considered a stratum, the corresponding commune
resource of medicinal substances. Studies on medicinal ofce provided the population size. Te size of the rep-
plants have confrmed that herbal medicines have fewer side resentative sample at this level was determined by the
efects than chemical agents and are more cost-efective following formula [36]:
8086, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/4049263 by Bashige Chiribagula - EBMG ACCESS - CONGO, DEM REP , Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Te Scientifc World Journal 3

Annexe Kenya
Kamalondo Lubumbashi
Kampemba Ruashi
Katuba

Figure 1: Map of the city of Lubumbashi in Haut-Katanga, DRC.

Table 1: Household sample size.

t2p ∗ p(1 − p) ∗ N
n� , (1) Commune N nc ne Diference (%)
t2p ∗ p(1 − p) +(N − 1) ∗ y2
Annexe 749142 384.0 391 1.8
where n is the sample size, N is the actual population size, p Kamalondo 27911 379.0 389 2.6
is the expected proportion of respondents (we estimated p at Kampemba 526 926 383.9 390 1.6
0.5), tp is the sampling confdence interval (tp �1.96 given Katuba 469228 383.8 390 1.6
Kenya 480974 383.9 390 1.6
that we set a 95% confdence interval), and y is the margin of
Lubumbashi 481563 383.9 390 1.6
sampling error: we put it at 0.05. Rwashi 410 034 383.8 390 1.6
For this study, given that for a population of over 20,000 Total 3 145 778 2 682 2 730 1.8
households, the sample size varies little for margins of error
N: target population; nc : calculated representative sample; and ne : pop-
greater than 5%, and we adjusted the minimum size with an ulation surveyed in the feld.
excess of over 1.5% (Table 1).
Te sample determined by commune was divided by
avenue, considered clusters by counting every three
agreed to participate in the study and 4 of whom were on the
households. In each household, we included any adult
initial list. Te TP survey was thus carried out on 128
(≥18 years old) who had ever used plants to treat wounds,
respondents.
provided they were too unfamiliar with the interviewers.
Due to a lack of reliable data on the size of the herbalist
population in Lubumbashi, we aimed to interview as many 2.3. Data Processing and Analysis. During the surveys, the
herbalists as possible, accessible through markets and other plants were identifed in the local languages. Te specimens
public spaces. Tis stage enabled us to meet 48 herbalists were collected in the company of the informants, and
who agreed to participate in the study. herbaria were compiled and deposited at the Kipopo Her-
Respondents in the traditional practitioner category barium for the attribution of scientifc names. Subsequently,
were determined from a list of 50 TPs drawn up during these records were updated through comparison with the
a recent survey in the study region [35]. Tis stage resulted in following databases: the African Plant Database (https://
45 TPs, all of whom agreed to participate. From them, africanplantdatabase.ch/) Plants of the World Online
snowball sampling was carried out to increase the sample (https://powo.science.kew.org/) and the World Flora Online
size, which enabled us to reach a further 85 TPs, 83 of whom (http://www.worldforaonline.org/).
8086, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/4049263 by Bashige Chiribagula - EBMG ACCESS - CONGO, DEM REP , Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 Te Scientifc World Journal

Tree ethnomedicinal indexes were determined to assess curcas, and Tetradenia riparia occupy the top fve
signifcant species (data): the therapeutic consensus index positions according to their TCI: therapeutic
(TCI), the medicinal usage index (MUI), and the medicinal consensus index (0.306–0.689)
capability index (MCI). Te plant therapeutic consensus (ii) Class w, comprising 68 taxa from traditional
index (TCI) was calculated using the formula: practitioners alone, where Sterculia quinqueloba,
Np Ziziphus abyssinica, and Triumfetta rhomboidea
TCI � , (2)
N occupy the top 3 positions in terms of TCI
(0.027–0.043)
where Np is the number of people who mentioned the plant
and N is the number of people surveyed during the study. (iii) Class v, comprising 38 taxa from herbalists alone,
Te medicinal use index (MUI) was calculated using the with Annona senegalensis, Dysphania ambrosioides,
formula: Albizia antunesiana, Chenopodium opulifolium, and
Crossopteryx febrifuga in the top 5, with MCIs
NUi (medicinal capability indexes) ranging from 0.014
MUI � , (3)
􏽐 Up to 0.017
where NUi is the number of uses of plant i and 􏽐 up is the set (iv) Class x, comprising 24 taxa from both traditional
of uses of all plants inventoried during this study. Te practitioners and herbalists, where Sterculia quin-
medicinal capability index (MCI) was calculated by the queloba, Ziziphus abyssinica, Triumfetta rhomboi-
formula: dea, Uapaca sansibarica, and Terminalia mollis
occupy the top 5 positions (TCI: 0.013–0.024)
nt
MCI � , (4) (v) Class z, comprising 9 taxa from both traditional
Nt
practitioners and households, where the top 5 po-
where nt is the number of taxa cited in the management of sitions are occupied by Acalypha cupricola, Acaly-
a given pathology and Nt is the total number of taxa in- pha homblei, Acalypha ornata, Acalypha chirindica,
ventoried during the study. and Vachellia karroo, with a TCI varying between
In addition to the three ethnomedicinal indexes men- 0.046 and 0.081
tioned above, the relative citation frequency (RCF) was also (vi) Class y, comprising 13 taxa common to all 3 sources,
determined. It was calculated using the formula: of which the top 5 according to their MCI values
n (0.048–0.087) include Allium sativum, Bobgunnia
RCF � × 100, (5)
N madagascariensis, Ficus sur, Euphorbia hirta, and
Cassia abbreviata (Table 2)
where n is the number of occurrences of the factor examined
and N is the total number of the population concerned. Tis Tese taxa belong to 48 families (Table 2), only 13 of
parameter was used to quantify various factors analyzed in which contain at least 3 taxa among those inventoried during
this study, except for those for which ethnobotanical indexes this study. Tese families are dominated by the Fabaceae (27
were applied. taxa), followed by the Phyllanthaceae and Euphorbiaceae
In this study, the MUI highlights the level of medicinal use with 20 taxa each. Te Asteraceae family ranks fourth with
of a plant among the population studied; TCI enables us to 15 taxa, followed by the Rubiaceae with 7 (Figure 3(a)). Each
identify the level of consensus among the population on the of these inventoried plants is named in one of the languages
healing use of a given species and, hence, its importance in of the 26 Congolese ethnic groups, of which Bemba (31%),
managing wounds in the region. As this is a targeted ethno- Shi (14%), Luba-Kat (12%), Swahili, and Kikongo, with an
botanical study, the medicinal consensus index corresponds to RCF of over 8% each, occupy the top fve places
citation frequency. MCI enables us to measure the potential of (Figure 3(b)).
a given community to manage a well-defned pathology. Nine plants are the most widely used in the study area,
with the medicinal usual index: MUI >0.090. Tese are, in
order of precedence, Lantana camara (0.194), Gardenia
3. Results ternifolia (0.181), Tetradenia riparia (0.139), Xylopia
aethiopica (0.139), Euphorbia hirta (0.125), Garcinia huil-
3.1. General Characteristics of Inventoried Plants. Tis study
lensis (0.111), Cucumis melo (0.111), Curcuma longa (0.097),
identifed one hundred and sixty-six plant species used as
and Nauclea latifolia (0.097) (Table 2).
healing plants in Lubumbashi, 130 of which are used to treat
Tese plant taxa comprise 7 morphological types,
chronic wounds. Tese plants were collected from house-
dominated by the shrub type (33%), followed by the tree
holds, traditional practitioners, and herbalists. Depending
type, which represents 27% of taxa (Figure 3), and also
on the origin of the information obtained for each taxon
include 15 geographical types, dominated by the in-
during the surveys, we can group the plants inventoried
tertropical African type, which shall consist of 32% of taxa
during this study into 6 classes: u, w, v, x, z, and y (Figure 2).
(Figure 4).
(i) Class u, made up of 15 taxa from households Of the 166 taxa listed, Securidaca longepedunculata
alone, where Securidaca longepedunculata, (0.689), Musa × paradisiaca (0.642), Manihot esculenta
Musa × paradisiaca, Manihot esculenta, Jatropha (0.353), Jatropha curcas (0.314), and Tetradenia riparia
8086, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/4049263 by Bashige Chiribagula - EBMG ACCESS - CONGO, DEM REP , Wiley Online Library on [12/08/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Te Scientifc World Journal 5

Class u

Households
n= 2730

Class t 15 taxa

Class z

0 taxon 9 taxa
13 taxa
Class y
38 taxa
Class v 68 taxa Class w
24 taxa
Traditional
Herbalists healers
n=25 n=59

Class x
Figure 2: Distribution of taxa by informant source.

(0.306), with a therapeutic consensus index: TCI >0.3, are guillen (root bark) with a TCI of 0.33 was the most widely
the most consensual and most cited as healing plants for this cited. Te taxa, Ageratum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta,
study. Tey all come from class w, a class dedicated to plants Garcinia huillensis, and Moringa oleifera, are each used in 2
sourced solely from resource persons encountered in diferent recipes for plants used in mixtures (Table 3).
households (Table 2). Te taxa inventoried in this study are involved in the
Te literature consulted in relation to the 166 taxa in- management of 70 other pathologies, of which fever,
ventoried during the surveys shows that one hundred and malaria, DTIs (digestive tract infections), diabetes, and
eighteen taxa (71%) have never been studied from the point STIs (sexually transmitted infectious diseases), with a RCF
of view of assessing their healing activity. Of these, 70 are ≥40% of subjects consulted, are the most cited. However,
reported for the frst time as plants used in wound care, diabetes, DTI, malaria, STIs, diarrhea, fever, and dysen-
including 12 taxa reported for the frst time as medicinal tery are the conditions with the highest potential for
plants, of which Agelanthus zizyphifolius (MCI � 0.042) has medicinal treatment in the study region, MCI:
the highest consensus factor and Erigeron sumatrensis (5 0.102–0.259 (Table S1).
uses) has the highest usual value. Tese taxa are used in the
management of chronic wounds (Table 2).
3.3. Sociodemographic Profle of Interviewed Subjects. Te
persons consulted in this study were either household
3.2. Ethnomedical Profle of Inventoried Plants. Te 166 contacts (93.9%), herbalists (1.7%), or practitioners of tra-
plants identifed in this study during the surveys are used in ditional medicine (4.4%), primarily women (56.4%), most of
198 healing recipes, of which 187 use a single plant (Table 2) whom were between 50 and 60 years old (extremes: 18 and
and 11 combine two plants (Table 3). In these essentially 71). Te majority had a secondary education (39.0%). Tese
topical recipes, the leaf is the organ most frequently used persons were found in the 44 districts that make up the seven
(36.9% in monophytotherapy and 75% in biphytotherapy). communes of the city of Lubumbashi in similar proportions
Root barks follow it in monophytotherapy and roots in (13.9–15.1%). Tey were engaged in 6 occupation types, the
biphytotherapy. Cataplasm is the most frequently used form most representative of which was housework (52.6%). In
of administration (36.4% for monophytotherapy and 50% most cases, they have more than 11 years of experience using
for biphytotherapy), followed by ointment (Figure 5). medicinal plants (Table 4).
In monophytotherapy, recipes based on Securidaca
longepedunculata (root bark), Musa × paradisiaca (leaves), 4. Discussion
Manihot esculenta (leaves), Jatropha curcas (leaves), and
Tetradenia riparia (leaves) are the most widely accepted, Katangese fora is rich in plant taxa, the ethnomedical
with TCI >0.3 (Table 2). In the polyherbal recipe, the recipe knowledge of which needs to be better reported. Trough
based on a mixture of Moringa oleifera (leaves) and Garcinia this study, we propose to report on ethnomedical
6

Table 2: General informations on plants inventoried during the survey and their previous knowledge.
TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI
TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Abelmoschus In vivo-rat-AW: Intestinal worms,
esculentus (L.) KIP000001019 Mulenda (Swahili) 0.042 NEA Gro Cataplasml Turkey: Fr- [37] 400 mm2-WCR: dysentery, gastritis, 0.069
Moenchz (Malvaceae) Fr-12 D [38] hepatitis, wounds
Acalypha chirindica
Wounds, jaundice,
S.Moorez KIP000001020 Kahenya (Tabwa) 0.047 CA Rbn Powderl NR NR 0.042
diabetes
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acalypha cupricola
Kabambasheshe
Robyns ex G.A. Levinz KIP000001021 0.081 CA Lvo Powderl NR NR Wound, diabetes 0.028
(Bemba)
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acalypha homblei De
Wild.z KIP000001022 Lwenyi (Luba) 0.074 CA Lvq Linimentl DRC: Lv [39] NR Wound 0.014
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acalypha ornata
Lusungisungi Wounds,
Hochst. ex A. Rich.z KIP000001023 0.070 TA Rbn Ointmentl Kenya-Lv- [40] NR 0.014
(Luba-Kat) hemorrhoids
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acalypha paniculata
KIP000001024 Kabobo (Bemba) 0.007 TA Sbq Powderl NR NR Wound, bronchitis 0.028
Miq.z (Euphorbiaceae)
q l
Acalypha petiolaris R Liniment NR NR Wound, bronchitis 0.028
Hochsty KIP000001432 Kaboko (Bemba) 0.005 TA-SA q l
Lv Powder NR NR Wound, asthma 0.042
(Euphorbiaceae)
Acalypha psilostachya
Hochst. ex A. Rich.z KIP000001026 Lwenyi (Bemba) 0.006 TA Sbq Ointmentl NR NR Wound, pneumonia 0.028
(Euphorbiaceae)
In vivo-rat-AW:
Acmella caulirhiza Mozambique
KIP000001398 Chenda (Shi) 0.007 TA-SA Lvo Linimentl 625 mm2-WCR: 16 D Wound, gingivitis 0.028
Delilex (Asteraceae) -Sb: [41]
[42]
Wounds,
Aframomum
Rq Cataplasml NR NR headaches,
alboviolaceum (Ridley)
KIP000001433 Tondolo (Tabwa) 0.010 TA hemorrhoids 0.056
K. Schum.y
q l Wound, headache,
(Zingiberaceae) Lv Ointment NR NR
measles
Aframomum
Wound,
angustifolium (Sonn)
KIP000001028 Ntondolo (Mpama) 0.007 TA PEq Compressl DRC: Lv [34] constipation, 0.042
K. Schum.z
osteoarthritis
(Zingiberaceae)
Aframomum In vivo-rat-AW:
Wound, gastritis,
melegueta K.u Schum. KIP000001341 Masusu (Bemba) 0.070 TA LVq Compressl Ghana: Lv [43] 900 mm2-WCR: 0.042
diarrhea
(Zingiberaceae) Se-19 D [44]
Te Scientifc World Journal

Albertisia villosa
Wounds, cataracts,
(Exell) Formanv KIP000001030 Bandegbe (Ngwaka) 0.003 CA Lvr Powderl NR NR 0.042
epilepsy
(Menispermaceae)
Wound, diabetes,
Albizia adianthifolia syphilis, diarrhea,
(Schumach.) KIP000001031 Musase (Luba) 0.004 TA-MA Lvm Ointmentl Cameroun: Sb NR [46] gonorrhea, and 0.083
W. Wightv (Fabaceae) gastrointestinal
disorders (GIDs)
Albizia antunesiana Wound, diarrhea,
KIP462025883 Musebeya (Shi) 0.015 CA-SA Sbn Linimentl NR NR 0.042
Harmsv (Fabaceae) gonorrhea
Albizia gummifera (J.F. Wounds, jaundice,
Gmel.) C.A. Sm.v KIP000001032 Ibange (Rega) 0.001 TA-MA Lvm Powderl DRC: Lv [34] NR diabetes, headaches, 0.069
(Fabaceae) diarrhea
In vivo-rat-AW:
Allium sativum L.y Egypt: Blb [47] Wounds, hepatitis,
KIP000001430 Ehayi (Nande) 0.087 NEA Blbq Ointmentl 300 mm2-WCR: 0.042
(Amaryllidaceae) DRC: Lv [34] hypertension
Se-16 D [48]
Aloe buettneri
Burns, vitiligo,
A. Bergerv KIP000001033 Kizime (Tabwa) 0.001 TA Lvq Linimentl NR NR 0.042
malaria
(Asphodelaceae)
DRC-Lv-: [49] In vivo-rat-AW:
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.u Diabetes, cancer,
KIP452120002 Bariba (Tabwa) 0.069 NEA Lvq Cataplasml Zimbabwe: Lv 100 mm2-WCR: Lv 0.042
(Asphodelaceae) burns
[50] >28 D [51]
Anisophyllea boehmii Wounds, urinary
Engl.u KIP000001025 Lufunga (Tabwa) 0.004 CA RB Ointmentl NR NR tract infections, 0.042
(Anisophylleaceae) helminthiasis
DRC: Lv [52] Wounds, jaundice,
Annona senegalensis R,
KIP452120003 Mulolo (Luba-Kat) 0.017 TA-MA Cataplasml Burkina-Faso: NR diabetes, sickle cell 0.042
Pers.v (Annonaceae) Lvn
Rb [53] anemia
Anonidium mannii
Wounds,
(Oliv.) Engl. & Dielsv KIP000001034 Mundenge (Kongo) 0.001 CA Rbm Powderl NR NR 0.028
rheumatism
(Annonaceae)
Antidesma
membranaceum Müll. KIP000001035 Kiftidi (Kongo) 0.001 TA Sbn Ointmentl NR NR Wound, diabetes 0.028
Arg.v (Phyllanthaceae)
7

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8
Table 2: Continued.
TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI
TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Antidesma venosum Wound, cough,
E. Mey. ex Tul.v KIP293612638 Kifubia (Luba-Kat) 0.001 TA-SA Lvm Cataplasmm NR hypertension, 0.056
(Phyllanthaceae) gastritis
Baphia capparidifolia Tshikamba
KIP000001036 0.002 TA-MA Sbn Cataplasmm Lv, Sb: [54] NR Wound, malaria 0.028
Bakerv (Fabaceae) (Tshokwe)
Bidens grantii Sherfv Kinukamwilungu
KIP000001037 0.003 CA Lvo Ointmentm NR NR Wound 0.014
(Asteraceae) (Bemba)
Wound,
u In vivo-rat-AW: hypertension,
Bidens pilosa L.
KIP490924302 Kashisha (Shi) 0.071 NEA PEo Cataplasml DRC: Lv [34] 706.5 mm2-WCR: cough, malaria, 0.083
(Asteraceae)
Lv-17 D [55] diabetes, typhoid
fever
Bobgunnia Wounds, dysentery,
madagascariensis Sbm Cataplasml NR NR schistosomiasis, 0.069
KIP002120005 Pampi (Luba-Kat) 0.068 TA
(Desv.) J.H. Kirkbr. & malaria
y
Wiersema (Fabaceae) Frm Linimentl NR NR Wound, hepatitis NA
u In vivo-rat-AW: Wound, diabetes,
Brassica oleracea L. Romania: Lv
KIP000001342 Kabichi (Swahili) 0.071 NEA Lvp Cataplasml 300 mm2-WCR: cancer, obesity, 0.069
(Brassicaceae) [56]
Lv-18 D [57] hypertension
Bridelia atroviridis
DRC: Lv [39] Wound, urethritis,
Müll. Arg.v KIP000001038 Kankuku (Luba) 0.008 TA Rbm Ointmentl NR 0.069
Nigeria: Lv [45] GID, cancer
(Phyllanthaceae)
Bridelia duvigneaudii
Kalambabwato
J. Léonardv KIP000001039 0.012 CA Rbn Powderl DRC: Lv [39] NR Wound, diabetes 0.028
(Bemba)
(Phyllanthaceae)
Bridelia ferruginea In vivo-rat-AW: Wound, arthritis,
Inkuka-i-nsii
Benth.v KIP000001040 0.011 TA Sbm Linimentl Nigeria: Rb [58] 500 mm2-WCR: dysentery, 0.069
(Yanzi)
(Phyllanthaceae) Sb-17 D [59] constipation, GID
Bridelia micrantha DRC: Lv [39] In vivo-rat-AW:
Mumwenameshi Wound, STI,
(Hochst.) Baill.v KIP000001041 0.010 TA-SA Lvm Compressl RSA: Lv, Rb 314 mm2-WCR: Lv 0.056
(Bemba) diarrhea, gingivitis
(Phyllanthaceae) [60] >15 D [61]
Bridelia scleroneura
Wound, arthritis,
Müll. Arg.v KIP000001042 Enjeku (Mbuti) 0.007 TA Rbn Linimentm NR NR 0.042
GID
(Phyllanthaceae)
Cajanus cajan (L.) Wound, GID,
KIP223105500 Ngoliolio (Tabwa) 0.012 NEA RBq Compressl NR NR 0.056
Huthv (Fabaceae) gingivitis, malaria
Wound,
Caladium bicolor
Tokombati constipation
(Aiton) Vent.v KIP000001043 0.004 NEA Tbq Ointmentl DRC: Lv [34] NR 0.056
(Ngwaka) convulsion, facial
(Araceae)
paralysis
Te Scientifc World Journal

(Asteraceae)
In vivo-rat-AW:
Lxm Linimentm 78.5 mm2-WCR: Wound 0.042
Carica papaya L.u DRC: -R- [34]; Lx-20 D [65]
KIP041463406 Kipapayi (Swahili) 0.174 NEA
(Caricaceae) Nigeria: Lv [63] In vivo-rat-AW:
Wounds, cancer,
Lvm Ointmentl 314 mm2-WCR: NA
malaria
Lv-13 D [66]
Cassia abbreviata Musonkasonka Wound, gingivitis,
KIP452120010 0.048 TA Rn Ointmentl Tanzania: R [67] NR 0.056
Oliv.y (Fabaceae) (Bemba) HIV, diabetes
Wounds, intestinal
Ro Linimentm NR 0.056
Celosia trigyna L.y worms, diarrhea
KIP052120011 Limbila (Lokele) 0.027 TA-SA Nigeria: Lv [68]
(Amaranthaceae) Wound, mouth
LV Cataplasml NR 0,028
ulcer
In vivo-rat-AW:
Centella asiatica (L.) Kurhwirikuguma Wounds, leprosy,
KIP000001343 0.070 TA-SA-MA LVq Linimentl Egypt: Wp [69] 10 mm-WCR: Lv-12 0.042
Urb.u (Apiaceae) (Shi) and psoriasis
D [70]
Wound, fever,
In vivo-rat-AW:
Chamaemelum nobile Mugundun Zimu p l dysmenorrhea,
KIP000001047 0.006 NA Lv Ointment Egypt: Fw [71] 225 mm2-WCR: Fw-5 0.083
(L.) All.v (Asteraceae) (Shi) insomnia, GID,
D [72]
hemorrhoids
Chenopodium
opulifolium Schrad ex. Wound, asthenias,
KIP000001048 Gombe Gombe (Shi) 0.014 NA-TA Lvo Ashl NR NR 0.042
W.D.J. Koch & Ziz.v GID
(Chenopodiaceae)
Chromolaena odorata In vivo-rat-AW:
Nigeria: Lv- Pl wound, asthenias,
(L.) R.M. King & KIP000001049 Elengi eye (Lingala) 0.007 NEA Lvq Ointmentm 400 mm2-WCR: 0.042
[73] GID
H. Rob.v (Asteraceae) Lv-15 D [66]
Cleistanthus
polystachyus Hook. f. Lv, Wounds, jaundice,
KIP000001050 Mukonde (Bemba) 0.004 CA Powderl NR NR 0.042
ex. Planchv Sbn diabetes
(Phyllanthaceae)
Coleus esculentus Wound,
(N. E. Br) G. Taylorw KIP000001347 Matembele (Swahili) 0.009 TA Rq Linimentl NR NR hypertension, 0.042
(Convolvulaceae) diabetes
9

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Wound,
Combretum molle
constipation,
R. Br. ex G. Donv KIP000001051 Mukonde (Bemba) 0.003 TA Rn Ointmentm Mali: [74] NR 0.083
headache, gastritis,
(Combretaceae)
dysentery, malaria
Combretum Wounds, genital
racemosum P. Beauvv KIP000001052 Mutsumbi (Yombe) 0.004 TA Lvn Ointmentm DRC: Lv [34] NR urinary infections, 0.042
(Combretaceae) helminthes
Wounds, urinary
tract infections,
Commelina difusa Lvo Linimentm Ghana: Lv [75] NR 0.069
Kalambalamba respiratory
Burm f.y KIP000001053 0.004 TA-SA-MA
(Luba-Kas) infections
(Commelinaceae)
Wounds, diarrhea,
Fwo Compressm NR NR 0.042
GID
Crassocephalum In vivo-rat-AW:
Wound, tumor,
crepidioides (Benth.) KIP000001054 Ebolo (Lingala) 0.005 TA-SA-MA Lvo Cataplasmm Nigeria: Lv [63] 144 mm2-WCR: Wp 0.042
GID
S. Moorev (Asteraceae) 16 D [76]
Crassocephalum
montuosum (S. Moore)
KIP000001055 Cifula (Shi) 0.006 TA-MA Lvo Ointmentm NR NR Wound, malaria 0.028
Milne-Redh.v
(Asteraceae)
Crossopteryx febrifuga Wound, sickle cell
DRC: Lv [77]
(Afzel ex. G. Don) KIP000001056 Mutoshi (Luba-Kas) 0.014 TA Lvn Linimentl NR disease, fever, 0.069
Benin: [78]
Benth.v (Rubiaceae) malaria, diarrhea
Wound,
Croton mubango Müll.
KIP000001057 Onganga (Tetela) 0.007 CA Rbm Powderl RSA: Rb [79] NR emaciation, 0.056
Arg.v (Euphorbiaceae)
dysentery, diabetes
Wound, kidney
In vivo-rat-AW: stones, fatulence,
Cucumis melo L.w Kikendambaya Latin America:
KIP000001348 0.004 EA Frq Linimentm 500 mm2-WCR: Fr leprosy, ascites, 0.111
(Cucurbitaceae) (Luba-Kat) Fr, Lx [80]
28 D [81] anemia,
constipation, GID
Cucumis sativus L.u Wound, intestinal
KIP000001344 Liboga (Swahili) 0.106 NEA Sbo Ointmentm NR NR 0.028
(Cucurbitaceae) worms
Wound, anorexia,
In vivo-rat-AW:
Curcuma longa L.v cough, sinusitis,
KIP000001058 Dimputu (Kongo) 0.012 NEA Seq Ointmentl Africa: [27] 25 mm2-WCR: Fr 0.097
(Zingiberaceae) diabetes, hepatitis,
18 D [82]
rheumatism
Cyanthillium cinereum
Wounds,
(L.) H. Rob.x KIP000001399 Kisobo (Bemba) 0.009 TA-MA Fo Ointmentm NR NR 0.028
rheumatism
(Asteraceae)
Te Scientifc World Journal

Dichrostachys cinerea
n l rheumatism,
(L.) Wight & Arnv KIP000001060 Kisanda (Rega) 0.014 TA-SA Sb Ointment RSA: Lv, Sb [83] NR 0.056
diabetes,
(Fabaceae)
tuberculosis
Diospyros In vivo-rat-AW: Wounds, jaundice,
Burkina-Faso:
mespiliformis Hochst KIP000001349 Mugombe (Shi) 0.019 TA Rbm Ointmentl 225 mm2-WCR: diabetes, intestinal 0.056
Rb [53]
ex A DCw (Ebenaceae) Rb-11 D [84] worms
Diplorhynchus
condylocarpon (Müll. Wound, GID, fever,
KIP361753009 Mburi (Bemba) 0.027 CA-SA Sbn Ointmentl NR NR 0.056
Arg.) Pichonw snakebite
(Apocynaceae)
Distephanus biafrae
(Oliv. & Hiern) KIP000001000 Kande (Tshokwe) 0.008 TA Rbn Cataplasml NR NR Wound 0.014
H. Rob.x (Asteraceae)
Droogmansia
Mununganunga
munamensis De KIP000001350 0.026 CA Rq Cataplasml NR NR Wound, diabetes 0.028
(Bemba)
Wild.w (Fabaceae)
Dysphania
ambrosioides (L.) Wound, malaria,
KIP231226246 Lufanyoka (Bemba) 0.015 NEA Lvq Cataplasml DRC: Lv [34] NR 0.056
Mosyakin & Clemantsv hepatitis, gastritis
(Amaranthaceae)
Wound, gastritis,
Ekebergia benguelensis dysentery, epilepsy,
Welw. ex C. DC.w KIP000001351 Mutuzya (Shi) 0.008 CA Rm Cataplasml NR NR STI: sexually 0.069
(Meliaceae) transmitted
infections
In vivo-rat-AW:
Elaeis guineensis Jacq.u Mti Ya Ngazi West Africa: Lv
KIP355972071 0.270 TA Rm Cataplasml 225 mm2-WCR: Wp Wound, STI, GID 0.042
(Aracaceae) (Swahili) [85]
20 D [86]
Eleusine indica (L.) Wound, HTA,
KIP000001352 Mutuzya (Shi) 0.007 TA-SA-MA FWo Cataplasml Benin: Lv [78] NR 0.042
Gaertnw (Poaceae) constipation
Entada abyssinica
Steud. ex A. Richw KIP000001353 Cishangishangi (Shi) 0.018 TA-MA Rbm Linimentm NR NR Wound, meningitis 0.028
(Fabaceae)
11

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Wound, cataract,
Entada africana Guill.
KIP000001061 Lalulalu (Bemba) 0.007 TA Rbm Ointmentl Benin: Lv [78] NR gastritis, fever, 0.069
& Perr.v (Fabaceae)
hepatitis
Wounds,
Erigeron sumatrensis rheumatism, gout,
KIP000001354 Dolodola (Ngwaka) 0.008 NEA Lvn Powderl NR NR 0.069
Retz.w (Asteraceae) headaches,
dysmenorrhea
Eriosema glomeratum
(Guill. & Perr.) Hook. KIP000001355 Zila Wando (Kongo) 0.007 TA Lvq Ointmentl NR NR Wound 0.014
f.w (Fabaceae)
Erythrina abyssinica In vivo-rat-AW: Wound, HIV,
Zimbabwe: Lv,
Lam. ex DC.w KIP182210666 Kisungwa (Bemba) 0.004 CA-EA Rm Compressl 225 mm2-WCR: Wp diabetes, malaria, 0.083
R [87]
(Fabaceae) 16 D [86] GID, diarrhea
In vivo-rat-AW:
Euphorbia heterophylla DRC: [39] Wound,
KIP000001356 Butonvi (Bemba) 0.004 NEA Lvo Cataplasml 49 mm2-WCR: Wp 0.042
L.w (Euphorbiaceae) Nigeria: Lv [88] constipation, GID
24 D [88]
Wound, cough,
bronchitis, asthma,
In vivo-rat-AW: amoeba, intestinal
Euphorbia hirta L.y Butonvitonvi
KIP501400542 0.060 NEA PEo Ointmentl Nigeria: Lv [89] 490 mm2-WCR: Lv worms, GID, 0.125
(Euphorbiaceae) (Bemba)
16 D[90] gastritis, dysentery,
jaundice, STI,
tumors, pneumonia
Wound, STI,
Euphorbia hypericifolia
KIP000001357 Hivumba (Hemba) 0.014 NEA Wpo Powderl DRC: [39] NR pneumonia, 0.056
L.w (Euphorbiaceae)
bronchitis
Euphorbia
Wound, eye
inaequilatera Sond.w KIP000001358 Kalong (Rund) 0.001 NA-TA-SA Lvo Powderl DRC: [39] NR 0.042
infections, STI
(Euphorbiaceae)
Euphorbia terracina Wound, respiratory
KIP000001359 Umafa (Bemba) 0.003 NA Lvq Cataplasml NR NR 0.042
L.w (Euphorbiaceae) infections, STI
Euphorbia tirucalli L.w Wounds,
KIP000001360 Karhoza (Shi) 0.004 TA-SA-MA Lvo Ointmentl DRC: [39] NR 0.042
(Euphorbiaceae) hemorrhoids, STI
Ficus ampelos Burm.
KIP000001361 Hiakasi (Kongo) 0.005 NEA Svm Powderl NR NR Wound, GID 0.028
f.w (Moraceae)
In vivo-rat-AW: Wound, peptic
Ficus sur Forssk.y
KIP539378804 Kikuyu (Luba) 0.063 TA-SA Wpm Cataplasml Nigeria: Lv [91] 200 mm2-WCR: Lv ulcer, diabetes, GID, 0.083
(Moraceae)
18 D [91] STI, tuberculosis
In vivo-rat-AW:
Ficus thonningii Benin Lv, Rb: Wound, dysentery,
KIP000001362 Musambi (Bemba) 0.004 TA-SA RBm Cataplasmm 500 mm2-WCR: Lv 0.042
Blumew (Moraceae) [78] constipation
14 D [92]
Te Scientifc World Journal

pneumonia
Gardenia imperialis
K. Schum.w KIP000001365 Munamba (Bemba) 0.008 TA Sbm Linimentm NR NR Wound, anxiety 0.028
(Rubiaceae)
Wounds, malaria,
hypertension,
diabetes, coughs,
asthma,
Gardenia ternifolia In vivo-rat-AW:
Benin: Lv, Rb rheumatism,
Schumach. & Tonn.w KIP000001366 Kidia (Kongo) 0.009 TA Sbn Powderl 250 mm2-WCR: 0.181
[78] diarrhea, tooth
(Rubiaceae) Sb-18 D [93]
decay, leprosy,
hepatitis,
hemorrhoids, and
cancer
Gymnanthemum Wound, fever,
Kilolokonjo DRC: Lv [34]
amygdalinum (Delile) KIP312286606 0.004 TA Lvn Compressl NR cough, constipation, 0.069
(Swahili) Nigeria: [45]
Sch. Bip.x (Asteraceae) TSI
Harungana
In vivo-rat-AW:
madagascariensis Lam. Wound, anemia,
KIP139657408 Mukuta (Tabwa) 0.009 TA-MA Sbn Cataplasml Nigeria: [94] 490 mm2-WCR: 0.056
ex Poir.w malaria, GID
Rb-NR [94]
(Hypericaceae)
Wound, sexual
Heinsia crinita Lvn Ointmentm NR NR dysfunction, fever, 0.056
(Wennberg) KIP000001367 Kinkete (Kongo) 0.010 TA malaria
G. Taylorw (Rubiaceae) Wound, fever,
Rn Ointmentl NR NR 0.042
malaria
Hibiscus surattensis L.w Dongodongo Wound, urethritis,
0.004 TA Lvo Ointmentm NR NR 0.042
(Malvaceae) (Lingala) STI
Hymenocardia acida Wound, diarrhea,
KIP464414491 Kapempe (Bemba) 0.038 TA Rn Ointmentl DRC: Rb [34] NR 0.056
Tul.w (Phyllanthaceae) dysentery, GID
Hypoestes trifora
Wound, anemia,
(Forssk.) Roem. & KIP000001368 Mageru (Shi) 0.014 TA Lvq Ointmentl NR NR 0.042
HIV
Schult.w (Acanthaceae)
13

Table 2: Continued.
TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI
TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Imperata cylindrica Wound, peptic
(L.) Raeusch.w KIP000001369 Lubamba (Swahili) 0.017 NA-TA-SA-MA Wpq Linimentl DRC: Lv [34] NR ulcer, diabetes, HIV, 0.069
(Poaceae) hepatitis
Jacobaea maritima (L.)
Pelser & Meijdenx KIP000001001 Esenesha (Shi) 0.005 NA Rq Linimentl NR NR Wound, fever 0.028
(Asteraceae)
In vivo-rat-AW:
Jatropha curcas L.u Ntondondimba DRC: Lv [95] Wound, fever,
KIP000001437 0.314 NEA Ln Ointmentl 177 mm2-WCR: 0.014
(Euphorbiaceae) (Bemba) Nigeria: Lv [63] diabetes
Lv-18D [96]
In vitro
Julbernardia
Angola: Lv, Rb (NHDF)-AW:
paniculata (Benth.) KIP452120019 Cigebu (Shi) 0.018 CA RBm Linimentm Wound, malaria 0.028
[97] NA-WCR Rb, Lv-NA
Troupinw (Fabaceae)
[97]
Justicia insularis
Wound, malaria,
T. Andersonw KIP000001370 Luhe (Luba-Kat) 0.027 WE-CA SBo Cataplasml NR NR 0.042
diabetes
(Acanthaceae)
Kalaharia uncinata
(Schinz) Moldenkev KIP000001062 Ntagalala (Bemba) 0.008 CA-SA Lvn Cataplasmm NR NR Wound, malaria 0.028
(Lamiaceae)
Khaya anthotheca Wound,
Kasembe Sembe
(Welw.) C. DC.w KIP000001371 0.008 TA Lvm Cataplasmm NR NR pneumonia, GID, 0.056
(Luba-Kat)
(Meliacea) sexual dysfunction
Khaya nyasica Stapf ex Wounds, jaundice,
KIP000001372 Mbamba (Luba-Kat) 0.015 EA Sbm Cataplasml DRC: Sb- [54] NR 0.042
Baker f.w (Meliaceae) diabetes
Kigelia africana (Lam.) In vivo-rat-AW:
Ghana: Lv, Rb
Benth.w KIP227674231 Kivungwila (Tabwa) 0.021 TA Rm Cataplasml 1256 mm2-WCR: Rb Wound, impetigo 0.028
[98]
(Bignoniaceae) 19 D [98]
Landolphia congolensis
(Stapf ) Pichonw KIP000001373 Musange (Rega) 0.027 CA Rbq Cataplasml NR NR Wound 0.014
(Apocynaceae)
Landolphia kirkii Dyer
Wound, malaria,
ex Hook. f.w KIP000001027 Mabungo (Bemba) 0.046 CA-EA-SA Rbn Linimentm NR NR 0.042
diarrhea
(Apocynaceae)
Te Scientifc World Journal

dysmenorrhea,
rheumatism
Lufa aegyptiaca Mill.w
KIP247475402 Cyangwe (Shi) 0.005 NEA Frq Ointmentl NR NR Wound, sinusitis 0.028
(Cucurbitaceae)
Manihot esculenta In vivo-rat-AW: Wound,
Crantzu KIP000005804 Lulundu (Luba-Kat) 0.353 NEA Lvn Cataplasmm DRC: R [39] 400 mm2-WCR: LV hypertension, 0.042
(Euphorbiaceae) >21 D [100] headaches
Maprounea africana
Kafulumume Lv, Wound, headache,
Müll. Arg.w KIP000001374 0.001 TA Cataplasml DRC: Sev [39] NR 0.056
(Hemba) Frn GID, cough
(Euphorbiaceae)
Markhamia lutea
Wound, headache,
(Benth.) K. Schum.w KIP000001375 Musabo (Shi) 0.002 TA Rbm Powderm NR NR 0.056
convulsion, cough
(Bignoniaceae)
Memecylon favovirens
Rb,
Bakerw KIP000001376 Mifsha (Bemba) 0.012 CA Linimentl DRC: Fr [54] NR Wound, herpes 0.028
Sbn
(Melastomataceae)
Mitragyna stipulosa
Lv,
(DC.) Kuntzew KIP000001377 Mumpa (Bemba) 0.004 TA Cataplasml NR NR Wound 0.014
Sbm
(Rubiaceae)
Monotes africanus
A. DC.w KIP000001378 Kipampa (Bemba) 0.003 TA Sbm Cataplasml NR NR Wound, HIV, fever 0.042
(Dipterocarpaceae)
Monotes katangensis
Wound, typhoid
(De Wild) De Wild.w KIP452120022 Kimpampa (Bemba) 0.034 CA-EA Rbm Cataplasml NR NR 0.042
fever, diarrhea
(Dipterocarpaceae)
In vivo-rat-AW:
Moringa oleifera Lamw Wound, sexual
KIP318101663 Amba (Luba-Kat) 0.043 NEA Lvm Linimentl DRC: Lv [34] 30 mm2-WCR: Lv-12 0.028
(Fabaceae) dysfunction
D [101]
Mucuna poggei Taub.w Wound,
KIP000001379 Kudikudi (Bemba) 0.004 TA Lvr Linimentm NR NR 0.042
(Fabaceae) schistosomiasis, STI
In vivo-rat-AW:
Musa × paradisiaca L.u Lv, Wounds, dysentery,
KIP000000342 Mugomba (Swahili) 0.642 NEA Ointmentl DRC: Lv [77] 12.56 mm2-UP: Lv 0.056
(Musaceae) Tq bronchitis, diarrhea
WCR: 16 D [102]
15

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Wounds, fever,
In vivo-rat-AW:
tooth decay,
Nauclea latifolia Sm.w n l 300 mm2-WCR: Rb
KIP000001380 Kienga (Kongo) 0.004 TA Lv Powder NR malaria, dysentery, 0.097
(Rubiaceae) 24 D [103]
diarrhea, and
Lv 21 D [100]
epilepsy
Nicandra physalodes
Wound, helminth,
(L.) Gaertn.w KIP000001381 Songua (Lamba) 0.004 NEA Lvo Cataplasml NR NR 0.042
fever
(Solanaceae)
Ochna
schweinfurthiana
KIP000001382 Jihoni (Bemba) 0.005 TA Rm Linimentl Benin: Rb [78] NR Wound, malaria 0.028
F. Hofm.w
(Ochnaceae)
In vivo-rat-AW: Wound, diarrhea,
Ocimum gratissimum
KIP000001383 Lwenyi (Bemba) 0.006 TA-MA Lq Powderl Ghana: Lv [43] 120 mm2-WCR: Lv anemia, diabetes, 0.069
L.w (Lamiaceae)
16 D [104] cancer
Oldfeldia
dactylophylla (Welw. Wounds, jaundice,
KIP000001384 Muonga (Swahili) 0.006 CA-EA Sbm Cataplasml NR NR 0.042
ex Oliv.) J Léonardw diabetes
(Picrodendraceae)
Parinari curatellifolia
Wound, cancer,
Planch. ex Benth.w KIP000001385 Mpundu (Bemba) 0.012 TA-MA Sbm Cataplasml Togo: Lv [105] NR 0.056
pneumonia, fever
(Chrysobalanaceae)
In vivo-rat-AW:
Paullinia pinnata L.w Tongbisisa Lv, Benin: Lv, Rb
KIP000001386 0.023 TA-MA Ointmentl 225 mm2-WCR-AP Wound, arthritis 0.028
(Sapindaceae) (Ngbandi) Rbn [78]
21 D [106]
Penianthus longifolius
Wounds, jaundice,
Miersw KIP000001387 Songbolo (Ngwaka) 0.007 CA Rbn Ointmentl DRC: Rb [34] NR 0.042
diabetes
(Menispermaceae)
Phyllanthus Lv, In vivo-rat-AW: Wound,
Mulembalemba DRC: Lv, R Fr
muellerianus (Kuntze) KIP277202454 0.031 TA Rb, Ointmentl 400 mm2 WCR-AP constipation, 0.042
y (Hemba) [39]
Exell (Phyllanthaceae) Fwm 14 D [107] dysentery
In vivo-rat-AW: Wound,
Phyllanthus niruri L.w
KIP000001388 Kapondo (Songe) 0.004 NEA Rq Ointmentl DRC: Lv [34] 400 mm2 WCR-AP constipation, 0.056
(Phyllanthaceae)
12 D[108] dysentery
Phyllanthus ovalifolius Peptic ulcer,
Luheyamafumu PE,
Forssk.w KIP000001389 0.003 TA Cataplasml NR NR wound, peptic ulcer, 0.042
(Luba-Kas) RBn
(Phyllanthaceae) wound
Phyllanthus parvulus
Mushindanga R,
Sond.w KIP000001390 0.004 CA-SA Cataplasml NR NR Wound, HTA 0.028
(Bemba) LVq
(Phyllanthaceae)
Te Scientifc World Journal

Pseudolachnostylis
n l [39] Wound, cancer,
maprouneifolia Paxw KIP000001391 Musalya (Bemba) 0.005 TA RB Cataplasm NR 0.042
Mozambique: schistosomiasis
(Fabaceae)
Rb [110]
In vivo-mice-AW:
Psidium guajava L.w Nigeria: Lv Wound, diarrhea,
KIP000301861 Mapera (Swahili) 0.006 NEA LVm Cataplasmm 7.065 mm2 WCR-AP 0.056
(Myrtaceae) [111] dysentery, GID
14 D [112]
Psorospermum
corymbiferum Spach.w KIP000001392 Mukuta (Luba-Kat) 0.006 WE-CA Lvn Powderm NR NR Wound, malaria 0.028
(Hypericaceae)
Psorospermum
Mulemba Zimbabwe: Rb Wound, fever,
febrifugum Spach.w KIP510193316 0.004 TA Rbn Cataplasmm NR 0.042
(Luba-Kat) [50] diarrhea
(Hypericaceae)
DRC: Rb [113] Ex vivo NHDF-AW:
Pterocarpus angolensis Wound, sexual
KIP000001393 Mulombwa (Bemba) 0.005 TA RBn Powderm Angola: Lv, Rb NA-WCR-NA-UP: 0.042
DC.w (Fabaceae) dysfunction, fever
[97] Rb, Lv [97]
In vitro-MDCK
Ricinus communis L.w DRC: Lv [39] Wound, insomnia,
KIP396088433 Lundondo (Hemba) 0.006 EA Lvm Ointmentl cell-AW: NA-WCR: 0.042
(Euphorbiaceae) Nigeria: Se [45] rheumatism
Lv-NA [114]
Wound,
In vivo-mice-AW:
Salvia ofcinalis L.w q l rheumatism, gout,
KIP000001394 Salmiya (Bemba) 0.012 NEA Lv Cataplasm NR 314 mm2 WCR-15 D 0.083
(Lamiaceae) diabetes, tumor,
[115]
diarrhea
Securidaca
In vivo-mice-AW:
longepedunculata Wound, headache,
KIP000001438 Muyeye (Bemba) 0.689 TA-SA RBn Cataplasmm DRC: Lv [34] 400 mm2 WCR-21D 0.042
Fresenu constipation
[116]
(Polygonaceae)
Wound,
In vivo-mice-AW:
Senna occidentalis (L.) Mushingemanjoka Tanzania: Lv, R constipation,
KIP231974463 0.192 NEA Rq Powderl 1962.5 mm2 0.069
Linku (Fabaceae) (Mashi) [117] diabetes, malaria,
WCR-17D [118]
GID
Senna petersiana
Kundekunde Wound, diabetes,
(Bolle) Lockx KIP000001002 0.004 TA-SA-MA Rn Powderl NR NR 0.042
(Fulero) GID
(Fabaceae)
17

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TaxonSource (Family) NH Name (ethnicity) GT MT UFBT PRHU PHA
(n � 2906) (n � 70) (n � 70)
Senna siamea. (Lam.) Wound, GID,
H. S. Irwin & Barnebyx KIP000001003 Mutarabanyi (Shi) 0.004 NEA Rm Ointmentm NR NR jaundice, fever, 0.069
(Fabaceae) typhoid fever
Senna singueana Wounds, jaundice,
Munungalino
(Delile) Lockx KIP000001004 0.007 TA-SA Rn Ointmentl NR NR diabetes, 0.069
(Sanga)
(Fabaceae) rheumatism, STI
Lv, Wounds, jaundice,
Shirakiopsis elliptica Loniangu (Kongo) Linimentl NR NR 0.056
RBm diabetes, ascites
(Hochst.) Esserw KIP000001396 Mukondokondo 0.001 TA-SA
Wound, ascites,
(Euphorbiaceae) (Bemba) Lvm Ointmentm DRC: Lv [39] NR 0.042
constipation
x
Smilax anceps Willd. Kikalala, baka Lv, Wounds, arthritis,
KIP000001005 0.011 TA-SA-MA Cataplasmm,l NR NR 0.042
(Smilacaceae) (Kongo) Rzq rheumatism
Steganotaenia Wound,
araliacea Hochst.x KIP000001006 Kulandosi (Kongo) 0.009 TA-SA RBn Cataplasml NR NR constipation, 0.042
(Apiaceae) diabetes
Stephania abyssinica
In vivo-mice-AW: Wound,
(Quart.-Dill. & Tumbatumba Ethiopia: R
KIP000001007 0.012 TA-SA Rn Cataplasml 300 mm2 WCR: hypertension, 0.042
A. Rich.) Walpx (Hemba) [119]
R-16D [119] diabetes
(Menispermaceae)
Sterculia quinqueloba
(Garcke) K. Schum.x KIP000001008 Mwabi (Luba-Kat) 0.024 CA Bm Ointmentl NR NR Wound, gastritis 0.028
(Sterculiaceae)
Syzygium guineense
Wound, cough,
(Willd.) DC.x KIP000001009 Mugote (Swahili) 0.007 TA-SA SBm Powderl Mali: Lv [120] NR 0.042
asthma
(Myrtaceae)
Terminalia mollis M.A.
Wound, diarrhea,
Lawsonx KIP452120033 Kibobo (Bemba) 0.013 TA Lvm Cataplasml NR NR 0.056
dysentery, GID
(Chrysobalanaceae)
Wound, respiratory
infections,
Tetradenia riparia In vitro-APPA-AW:
headache, malaria,
(Hochst.) Codd.u KIP370001297 Mutuzo (Bemba) 0.306 TA-SA Lvn Compressl RSA: Lv [121] NA; WCR: Lv-%7 0.139
gastritis, cough,
(Lamiaceae) [121]
fever, angina,
diarrhea, gingivitis
Diarrhea,
Triumfetta rhomboidea Mulangalanga
KIP000001010 0.019 TA-SA Rbq Ointmentl NR NR gastrointestinal 0.042
Jacq.x (Malvaceae) (Swahili)
ulcer, tumor
Uapaca acuminata
(Hutch.) Pax &
KIP000001011 Musela (Rega) 0.008 CA Sbm Ointmentl NR NR Wound, tumor 0.028
K. Hofm.x
(Phyllanthaceae)
Te Scientifc World Journal

Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Wound, diabetes,

KIP000001439 Masuku (Bemba) 0.234 CA Sbn Ointmentl DRC: Rb [39] NR 0.056
Arg.u (Phyllanthaceae) GID, dysentery

(Phyllanthaceae) diabetes
Uapaca sansibarica
Mutankola (Bemba) 0.018 TA Rbm Cataplasml DRC: Rb [39] NR Wound, diarrhea 0.028
Paxx (Phyllanthaceae)
Wound, sexual
Vachellia karroo
Munganushi m l dysfunction,
(Hayne) Banf & KIP000001029 0.046 SA Sb Ointment RSA: Lv [122] NR 0.083
(Bemba) diarrhea, dysentery,
Galassoz (Fabaceae)
diabetes
Vernonia excelsa
KIP000001014 Ruhombo (Shi) 0.003 CA Lvr Cataplasml NR NR Wound, diabetes 0.028
Jongkindx (Asteraceae)
Wounds, coughs,
hemorrhoids,
uterine fbroids,
Xylopia aethiopica
malaria, syphilis,
(Dunal) A. Rich.x KIP000001015 Nsombo (Kongo) 0.004 TA Frm Ointmentl Benin: Se [78] NR 0.139
amenorrhea,
(Annonaceae)
diabetes and
dysentery, sickle cell
anemia
Zanha africana Wound, headache,
(Radlk.) Exellw KIP000001397 Kalayi (Tabwa) 0.001 CA Rbn Ointmentm NR NR pneumonia, fever, 0.069
(Sapindaceae) rheumatism
Zanthoxylum Wound, malaria,
chalybeum Engl.x KIP000001016 Pupwe (Bemba) 0.003 CA-EA Rn Powderl DRC: R [54] NR sickle cell disease, 0.056
(Rubiaceae) cough
Ziziphus abyssinica In vivo-mice-AW:
Mukobakoba Wound, fever,
Hochst ex A. Rich.x KIP000001017 0.022 TA Rn Cataplasml 300 mm2 WCR: 0.042
(Luba-Kas) tuberculosis
(Rhamnaceae) R-13D [123]
Mozambique:
Wound, gingivitis,
Ziziphus mucronata Lv, Lv [124]
KIP000001018 Nkakona (Bemba) 0.004 TA-SA-MA Cataplasml NR tuberculosis, STI, 0.069
Willd.x (Rhamnaceae) Rbn Zimbabwe: Lv,
sexual dysfunction
R [50]
NH: Herbarium number; TCI: therapeutic consensus index; GT: geographical type; UP: used part; MT: morphological type; FU: form of use; PRHU: previously reported healing use; PHA: proven healing activity:
experimental model, wound surface, wound contraction rate of the part used; IUM: medicinal use index; AW: area of the wound; WCR: wound contraction rate; STI: sexually transmitted infection; GID:
gastrointestinal disorders; traditional healers and herbalists (u); traditional healers (v); households (w); herbalists (x); traditional healers and herbalist & households (y); traditional healers and households (z); tree
(m); shrub (n); annual herb (o); biennial herb (p); perennial herb (q); liana (r); k: acute wound; l: chronic wound; Lv: leaves; R: roots; Rb: root bark; Sb: stem bark; St: stem; AP: aerial parts; Se: seeds; Fw: fowers; Nx:
nuts; Fr: fruit; Lx: latex; Blb: bulb; Wp: whole plant; NHDF: normal human dermal fbroblasts; APPA: assay/protein precipitating activity. Te pharmacological studies reported on the taxa in this study are in vivo
19

ethnopharmacological studies in which the extract is applied locally to the wound as a 10% ointment. Where no in vivo study is reported, but there is another study carried out on the taxon concerned, this is also
reported, giving the experimental model used.

Hypericaceae 3 Sanga 2
Moraceae 3 Tshokwe 3
Menispermaceae Lingala 3
3
Cucurbitaceae Luba-Kas 4
3
Ngwaka 4
Malvaceae 3
Luba 4
Annonaceae 3
Rega 4
Lamiaceae 4
Hemba 5
Zingiberaceae 4
Tabwa 8
Rubiaceae 7
Kongo 12
Asteraceae 15 Swahili 15
Euphorbiaceae 20 Luba-Kat 16
Phyllanthaceae 20 Shi 24
Fabaceae 27 Bemba 50
0 10 20 30 0 20 40 60
Number of taxa (n=166) Number of taxa (n=166)
(a) (b)

Figure 3: Families with n ≥ 3 taxa (a) and plant naming languages with n ≥ 2 taxa (b).

NA-TA-SA-MA 1 Perennial Annual

herb herb
Liana
NA-TA-SA 1 19% 15%
2%
SA 1
NA-TA 1
WE-CA 2
NA 3 Tree other
30% 3%
EA 3
CA-SA 4
CA-EA 6
Biennial
TA-SA-MA 9 herb
Shrub
TA-MA 11 1%
33%
TA-SA 18
CA 22
NEA 32
TA 52

0 20 40 60
Number of taxa (n=166)
(a) (b)

Figure 4: Geographical (a) and morphological (b) types. TA: intertropical Africa; NEA: Northeast Africa; CA: Central Africa; SA: southern
Africa; MA: Madagascar; EA: East Africa; NA: North Africa; WE: West Africa.

knowledge of plants used in wound care within house- 4.1. General Characteristics of Inventoried Plants. Tis study
holds and among herbalists and traditional practitioners reports on 166 taxa used in nonconventional medicine in
in the region. Lubumbashi City to treat wounds, both directly by the
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Te Scientifc World Journal 21

Table 3: Characteristics of herbal healing recipes used in blends.

No. Taxa 1 Taxa 2 UP (ratio) Formulation TCI (n � 2906)
1 Acalypha homblei Euphorbia hirta Lv-Lv (1 ÷ 2) Ointment 0.0282
2 Albizia antunesiana Baphia capparidifolia R-R (1 ÷ 1) Cataplasm 0.0193
3 Cassia abbreviata Phyllanthus muellerianus R-Rb (1 ÷ 2) Liniment 0.0083
4 Entada abyssinica Ageratum conyzoides Lv-R (2 ÷ 1) Cataplasm 0.0124
5 Euphorbia hirta Ageratum conyzoides Lv-Lv (2 ÷ 1) Cataplasm 0.0447
6 Flueggea virosa Garcinia huillensis Rb-Rb (2 ÷ 1) Cataplasm 0.0083
7 Gymnanthemum amygdalinum Senna singueana Lv-R (1 ÷ 1) Ointment 0.0041
8 Khaya nyasica Ekebergia benguelensis R-Sb (1 ÷ 1) Liniment 0.0224
9 Moringa oleifera Nauclea latifolia Lv-Lv (2 ÷ 1) Cataplasm 0.3248
10 Moringa oleifera Garcinia huillensis Lv-Rb (1 ÷ 1) Ointment 0.3365
11 Paullinia pinnata Heinsia crinita Rb-R (2 ÷ 1) Ointment 0.0034
MCI: medicinal consensus index; UP: part used; Rb: root bark; Lv: leaves; R: roots; Sb: stem bark.

0
Bulb 0.5 0
Ash
0 0.5
Sap 0.5
0
Tuber 0.5 0
Powder
0 1.1
Rhizome 0.5
0
Stem 1.1 0
Compress
Seed
0 4.8
1.6
0
Latex 1.1 0
Powder
0 12.8
Flower 1.6

Fruit 0
3.2 12.5
Liniment
Whole plant 0 16.6
3.7
12.5
stem bark
13.4 37.5
Ointment
75
Root 31.0
15.0

root bark 50
20.9 50
Cataplasm
75
Leaves 33.2
36.4

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0

Relative citation frequency Relative citation frequency
Two-plant healing recipes (n=8) Two-plant recipes (n=8)
Single-plant healing recipes (n=187) One-plant recipes (n=187)
(a) (b)

Figure 5: Parts used to treat wounds (a) and types of use for healing recipes (b). Tese data are expressed in terms of relative citation
frequency.

general population (n � 37 taxa) and via traditional medical kirkiana and Cucumis sativus have no scientifc proof of
practitioners (n � 114 taxa) and herbalists (n � 75). Of the their healing properties. Te fact that over 80% (13 taxa) of
166 taxa inventoried, 15 (i.e., 9% of all taxa) are known only these plants have pharmacological evidence of healing ac-
to the household population. Of these 15 taxa, only Uapaca tivity (Table 2) shows that the general population has
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22 Te Scientifc World Journal

Table 4: Sociodemographic characteristics of people consulted.

Traditional
Household Herbalists
healers
Class Category (n � 2730) (n � 48) Total% (n � 2906)
(n � 128)
E % E % E %
20–30 68 2.5 2 4.2 7 5.5 2.6
30–40 458 16.8 3 6.3 19 14.8 16.5
Age 40–50 215 7.9 8 16.7 29 22.7 8.7
50–60 1230 45.1 30 62.5 64 50.0 45.6
>60 759 27.8 5 10.4 9 7.0 26.6
0–5 218 8.0 8 16.7 11 8.6 8.2
6–10 328 12.0 4 8.3 62 48.4 13.6
Experience (year range) 11–15 410 15.0 24 50.0 28 21.9 15.9
16–20 1638 60.0 5 10.4 21 16.4 57.3
21–25 136 5.0 7 14.6 6 4.7 5.1
Retailer 50 1.8 0 0.0 25 19.5 2.6
Civil servant 993 36.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 34.2
Liberal 157 5.8 0 0.0 3 2.3 5.5
Profession
Housekeeper 1530 56.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 52.6
Traditional practitioner 0 0.0 0 0.0 100 78.1 3.4
Herbalist 0 0.0 48 100.0 0 0.0 1.7
Female 1557 57.0 39 81.3 44 34.4 56.4
Type
Male 1173 43.0 9 18.8 84 65.6 43.6
Annex 391 14.3 16 33.3 32 25.0 15.1
Kamalondo 389 14.2 4 8.3 14 10.9 14.0
Kampemba 390 14.3 4 8.3 10 7.8 13.9
Residence Katuba 390 14.3 4 8.3 26 20.3 14.5
Kenya 390 14.3 6 12.5 14 10.9 14.1
Lubumbashi 390 14.3 8 16.7 15 11.7 14.2
Rwashi 390 14.3 6 12.5 17 13.3 14.2
Level of education None 437 16.0 10 20.8 24 18.8 16.2
Primary 951 34.8 6 12.5 20 15.6 33.6
Class
Vocational 167 6.1 10 20.8 12 9.4 6.5
Secondary 1047 38.4 21 43.8 66 51.6 39.0
Age
University 128 4.7 1 2.1 6 4.7 4.6
By experience, we mean the number of years the target population has been using medicinal plants to treat their illnesses.

a proven knowledge of wound care, and it is likely that the Te study also shows there are common plants between
two taxa not yet studied are probably active. traditional practitioners and households, whereas there are
Tis result also shows that traditional medical practi- none between herbalists and the general population (Fig-
tioners strongly infuence the region’s ethnomedical ure 2). Tis lack of intersection between the two categories
knowledge, which is also available to the general population. may refect the need for more collaboration between
It should be remembered that 15 taxa are known only to herbalists and households regarding knowledge sharing.
households. Tis suggests that traditional medicine pro- Tis could be justifed by the fact that herbalists would lose
fessionals hold specifc knowledge in Lubumbashi. Tere are out if the general population came to know their recipes,
two possible reasons for this: on the one hand, it must be especially as this population is the herbalists’ target group.
recognized that in this region, medical knowledge is ac- In this context, commercial interests would take pre-
quired through several channels, including dreams and cedence over human interaction. Moreover, the cross-
family [19, 35, 39, 54, 113, 125–127], which the families of fertilization of knowledge between TPs and households
professional healers do not monopolize; on the other hand, may be because, in most cases in the study region, the
today’s globalization has given free access to written in- acquisition of TP knowledge emanates from ancestors
formation from diferent cultures, which may constitute [35, 54, 128]. As a result, ethnomedical knowledge con-
another source of knowledge that does not fall within the stitutes a family heritage that can be shared between
monopoly of the practice of traditional medicine. However, members of the same family without these members
the fact that many taxa—68 or 41% (Figure 2)—were found practicing traditional medicine as their professional ac-
only among traditional healers shows that they remain tivity. As a result, they would be more open to sharing their
masters of their art, possessing necessary knowledge not knowledge with friends, and knowledge could easily pass
shared with any other category. from one family to another.
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Te Scientifc World Journal 23

Tis study shows that more than a third of the plants are Te literature review on the 166 taxa inventoried during
shrubs or trees (Figure 4), endemic to intertropical Africa this study shows that 17 taxa are reported among the 53
(Figure 4), belonging to several families with a pre- recently mentioned as healing plants in DRC [77]. Analysis
dominance of Fabaceae. Tese results are in line with the of the data collected during our research about the literature
literature. Indeed, the Fabaceae is the most crucial tree available on these 166 taxa inventoried enables us to group
family in African tropical and dry forests [129]. Tis im- these plants into 3 classes: A, B, and C (Table 2).
portance of the Fabaceae is observed both in the plant
Class A would comprise the 45 taxa for which the
kingdom [130] and in the category of African medicinal
literature contains pharmacological evidence of healing
plants [131]. Te numerical predominance of Fabaceae in
activity. Te most widely accepted taxa in this class are
sub-Saharan Africa has been attributed to their ability to
Securidaca longepedunculata, Musa × paradisiaca,
capture atmospheric nitrogen, enabling them to grow in
Manihot esculenta, Jatropha curcas, and Tetradenia
nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor soils [131]. In our envi-
riparia, with a TCI >0.3 (Table 2).
ronment, no accessible study has addressed the question of
the preponderance of one botanical family over all the taxa Class B would comprise taxa reported in the literature
used in traditional medicine in the region. to be used as healing plants in nonconventional
However, analysis of accessible ethnobotanical studies in medicine without any pharmacological studies vali-
Katanga to inventory medicinal plants shows that the dating this use. Tis class would comprise 48 taxa,
Fabaceae family is the most frequently mentioned. Except which can also be subdivided into three subclasses: (iia)
for a survey carried out by the OCU (Observatoire de subclass B1 includes 22 taxa reported as healing plants
Changement Urbain) equal to observatory of urban changes, in other Congolese ethnobotanical studies. In this
under the auspices of the University Cooperation for De- subclass, we fnd Uapaca nitida, Acalypha homblei,
velopment (UCD) [19] about healers and medicinal plants in Aframomum angustifolium, Baphia capparidifolia,
Lubumbashi, which inventoried 132 taxa for which Faba- Dysphania ambrosioides, Bridelia duvigneaudii, Cala-
ceae, with 14 taxa, occupies frst place, the other studies dium bicolor, Combretum racemosum, Albizia gum-
targeted a specifc ethnomedical use. Tese include the study mifera, Khaya nyasica, Uapaca kirkiana, Memecylon
of plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in Kamina favovirens, Hymenocardia acida, Imperata cylindrica,
and Kanyama: n � 10 taxa, Fabaceae � 2 taxa [132]; the Euphorbia hypericifolia, Penianthus longifolius, Eu-
survey of anticariogenic plants in Lubumbashi: n � 14 taxa, phorbia tirucalli, Shirakiopsis elliptica, Euphorbia
Fabaceae � 3 taxa [113]; the study of antimalarial plants in inaequilatera, Maprounea africana, Uapaca sansibar-
the commune of Kenya (Lubumbashi): n � 13, Fabaceae: 6 ica, Uapaca pilosa, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum; (iib)
taxa [126], from the whole city of Lubumbashi: n � 19, subclass B2 comprises 6 taxa reported in both tradi-
Fabaceae: 11 taxa [127], and from Lubumbashi and its tional Congolese and non-Congolese medicine. In this
surroundings: n � 96, Fabaceae � 22 taxa [54]; the study on subclass, we fnd the taxa Annona senegalensis,
antidiabetic plants from Lubumbashi and its environs: n � 45 Crossopteryx febrifuga, Bridelia atroviridis, Capsicum
taxa, Fabaceae � 11 taxa; the survey of plants used against frutescens, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, and
urogenital schistosomiasis: n � 61, Fabaceae � 17 taxa; the Gymnanthemum amygdalinum; and (iic) fnally, sub-
study on plants used in the management of sexual dys- class B3 is made up of 20 taxa that are only reported as
functions in the Kampemba commune (Lubumbashi): healing plants outside the DRC. In this subclass, we fnd
n � 21, Fabaceae � 7 taxa [47]; the study on plants used in Cassia abbreviata, Celosia trigyna, Commelina difusa,
Lubumbashi and surrounding areas to treat gastritis: n � 14, Acalypha ornata, Vachellia karroo, Dichrostachys cin-
Fabaceae � 3 taxa [133]; and the survey of plants used in erea, Croton mubango, Entada africana, Carduus
Lubumbashi to treat typhoid fever: n � 54, Fabaceae � 20 nyassanus, Albizia adianthifolia, Combretum molle,
taxa [35]. Ageratum conyzoides, Parinari curatellifolia, Eleusine
It should be noted, however, that ethnomedical studies indica, Flueggea virosa, Ochna schweinfurthiana,
targeting healing plants in other regions place other families, Psorospermum febrifugum, Syzygium guineense, Xylo-
notably the Asteraceae, frst. Tis is the case of the survey on pia aethiopica, and Ziziphus mucronata (Table 2).
Iranian healing plants: n � 20, Asteraceae � 3 taxa [134]. Tis Class C would include 70 taxa for which no previous
was also the case for a study that inventoried African healing ethnopharmacological or ethnomedical data relating to
plants: n � 61 taxa, Asteraceae � 5 taxa [135], most of which wound healing have been reported. Tese 70 taxa are,
were drawn from West African pharmacopeias. Te same
therefore, reported for the frst time as healing plants.
applies to the study that reported 14 of the most widely used
Tus, this class refects the specifcity of the population
healing plants in the Northern Hemisphere: Asteraceae � 5
of Lubumbashi in the management of wounds in
taxa [28]. Tis disparity can be justifed because each region
nonconventional medicine. Based on literature data,
has its foristic characteristics. Te Fabaceae family pre-
the taxa in this class can be subdivided into the fol-
dominates among woody taxa in our study region, where the
lowing 4 subclasses:
Miombo clear forest is predominant [136, 137]. It would
nevertheless be desirable to carry out a generalized ethno- (iiia) Subclass C1 includes 28 taxa that are reported as
medicinal study to determine unequivocally the dominant medicinal plants in the region in previous research. In
family in the category of medicinal plants in the region. this subclass, we fnd Anisophyllea boehmii,
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24 Te Scientifc World Journal

Antidesma venosum, Cucumis sativus, Dalbergia (iiid) Subclass C4 contains taxa not reported in any
boehmii, Droogmansia munamensis, Diplorhynchus previously accessible scientifc literature on medicinal
condylocarpon, Entada abyssinica, Mucuna poggei, use. In this group, we fnd the taxa Agelanthus zizy-
and Terminalia mollis, cited in the cohort of antidi- phifolius, Cleistanthus polystachyus, Eriosema glomer-
abetic plants in the region [128]; Acalypha chirindica, atum, Erigeron sumatrensis, Euphorbia terracina, Ficus
Acalypha cupricola, Acalypha paniculata, Acalypha ampelos, Gardenia imperialis, Monotes africanus, Pol-
psilostachya, Antidesma membranaceum, Bridelia hillides velutina, Vernonia excelsa, Uapaca acuminata,
scleroneura, Oldfeldia dactylophylla, and Phyllanthus and Uapaca robynsii. Te ethnobotanical information in
parvulus, cited in the area in antimitotic plant’s cohort this study for these taxa represents their frst reported
[39, 138]; Dalbergia nitidula, Justicia insularis [54], ethnobotanical uses. Tese taxa aligned with the list of
Ekebergia benguelensis, and Landolphia congolensis medicinal taxa specifc to the region.
[127] cited in the region’s antimalarial plant; Afra- Te fact that 45 taxa (27%) inventoried in this study have
momum alboviolaceum, Garcinia huillensis, and pharmacological evidence as healing plants (class A) lends
Monotes katangensis, cited in the cohort of plants used credibility to the information gathered from the study’s
against urogenital schistosomiasis [125]; Senna resource persons and suggests a high probability of fnding
petersiana [139], cited as a plant used against erectile taxa with proven healing activity among class C plants
dysfunction; Bobgunnia madagascariensis, cited in the [35, 161].
cohort of anticariogenic plants [113]; Albizia antu- Te existence of class B taxa, i.e., those with the same
nesiana [35], reported in the cohort of antityphoidal wound-healing use in our study environment as elsewhere,
plants; and Aloe buettneri, registered in the cohort of according to the available literature, may constitute another
plants used against gastrointestinal disorders in cattle factor of credibility for the information gathered from re-
[140]. source persons during this study, especially signifcant as this
(iiib) Subclass C2 comprises 14 taxa reported as fact reinforces the consensus around the use of these taxa as
medicinal plants in other regions of the DRC outside healing plants. Te existence of class B may also refect
Katanga. In this subclass, we fnd Sterculia quinque- cultural interference with traditional medicine from
loba, registered in the cohort of antisickle cell anemia Lubumbashi. Tis interference may be justifed not only by
plants [141]; Heinsia crinita [142], Chenopodium the migratory movements experienced by the city as the
opulifolium, Crassocephalum montuosum, Hypoestes country’s economic province but also by the evolution of
trifora, Jacobaea maritima, Psorospermum cor- new information technologies, which facilitate access to
ymbiferum [143], Albertisia villosa, Anonidium knowledge from a distant region without the physical cul-
mannii [144], Cyanthillium cinereum, Kalaharia tural cross-fertilization necessarily having been observed.
uncinata, Steganotaenia araliacea, and Zanha afri- Te existence of class C taxa shows that, despite the
cana [145], reported as antimalarial plants in DRC; cultural interference to which the traditional medicine of
and Mitragyna stipulosa [52], reported in the coun- Lubumbashi is subject, it nonetheless has several distinctive
try’s antidiabetic plant cohort. Tis study shows that features. Class C taxa are critical targets for further biological
these plants are also known and used in traditional screening to validate the healing uses of plant resources
medicine in Lubumbashi, as in other regions of the specifc to the region. Together with the taxa in class B, they
country. Tis refects the cultural diversity of con- represent a possible extension of this ethnomedical study
ventional medicine of Lubumbashi and can be into ethnopharmacological studies. Tis work is in progress
compared with the disparity observed in the languages in our laboratory.
used to name the plants (Figure 3(b)), where we fnd Although taxa in class C and particularly in subclass C4
the languages of ethnic groups not native to the re- are not reported in the literature as healing plants or, even
gion, which also shows the cultural mixing of better, as medicinal plants, some taxa in the same genera are
knowledge. reported as healing plants. For example, in the genus Age-
(iiic) Subclass C3 comprises 16 taxa reported as lanthus, the methanolic extract of the leaves of Agelanthus
medicinal plants in several African countries outside dodoneifolius (DC) Polhill and Wiens from Nigeria is re-
the DRC. Tese include Acalypha petiolaris reported ported to have antiulcer activity at 800 and 1600 mg/kg body
in Zimbabwe [50]; Bidens grantii in Kenya [146] and weight on the Rattus norvegicus L. model when administered
Uganda [147]; Plectranthus esculentus [syn Coleus orally [162]. In the Cleistanthus genus, Cleistanthus collinus
esculentus] [148], Smilax anceps [149], Senna siamea (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f. is reported to be a healing plant
[150], Triumfetta rhomboidea [151], Uapaca acumi- used in India [163]. In the genus Eriosema, three taxa,
nata [152] in Nigeria, and Hibiscus surattensis [153] in Eriosema chinense Vogel (seed), Eriosema cordatum E. Mey.
Rwanda; Distephanus biafrae [syn Vernonia biafrae] (roots), Eriosema montanum Baker f. (leaves), and Eriosema
[154], Nicandra physalodes [155], and Phyllanthus psoraloides (Lam.) G. Don (leaves and roots), are reported as
ovalifolius in Ethiopia [156]; Khaya anthotheca in healing plants in various African countries [164].
Cameroon [157]; Lufa aegyptiaca in Egypt [158]; and In the genus Erigeron, Erigeron foribundus (Kunth) Sch.
Markhamia lutea [159] and Senna singueana in Bip. (leaves, roots, and fowers) [165] is reported as a healing
Tanzania [160]. plant. In the Euphorbia genus, the aerial parts of 5 taxa,
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Te Scientifc World Journal 25

Euphorbia characias L., Euphorbia helioscopia L., Euphorbia herbalists, Tetradenia riparia (10 uses) for taxa originating
macroclada Boiss., Euphorbia seguieriana Neck, and Eu- from households, Euphorbia hirta (9 uses) for taxa from
phorbia virgata Waldst and Kit, have been reported to have herbalists, traditional practitioners, and families, Curcuma
healing activity on the Rattus norvegicus L. model when longa (7 uses) for taxa from herbalists, and Vachellia karroo
administered orally [166]. In the genus Ficus, ten taxa, in- (6 uses) for taxa from TP and households, are the plants
cluding the leaves of Ficus benghalensis L., Ficus microcarpa most used by the population surveyed in the treatment of
L. f., Ficus hispida L. f., Ficus religiosa L. [167], Ficus various diseases. Within this group of 6 taxa, Lantana
amplissima Sm. [168], Ficus exasperata Vahl [169], Ficus camara, Euphorbia hirta, Vachellia karroo, and Tetradenia
deltoidea Jack [170], and Ficus thonningii Blume [92] and the riparia are the most frequently mentioned in ethnobotanical
stem barks of Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. [171] and studies of the region [35, 125, 128, 138, 139], unlike Xylopia
Ficus racemosa L. [172], have been reported for their healing aethiopica and Curcuma longa.
activity. In the Gardenia genus, the stem barks of Gardenia Numerous pathologies are treated by plants inventoried
gummifera L. f. [173] and those of Gardenia ternifolia during this study. Fever, malaria, DTIs, diabetes, and STIs,
Schumach. and Tonn [93] are reported as healing plants. In with a RCF ≥50%, are the most frequently cited pathologies
the Vernonia genus, six taxa with healing properties are (Table S1). However, the fve pathologies in descending
reported. Tese include Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham [syn order of their CMI are diabetes, IGT, malaria, STI, diarrhea,
Strobocalyx arborea (Buch.-Ham.) Sch. Bip.] [174]; Vernonia and fever (MCI >0, 11). Tis ethnobotanical index expresses
auriculifera Hiern [syn Gymnanthemum auriculiferum another facet of the ethnomedicinal characteristics of the
(Hiern) Isawumi] [175]; Vernonia amygdalina Delile (syn region, indirectly translating the specifcity of a given region
Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile) Sch. Bip.] [176]; about the therapeutic management of pathologies. As
Vernonia conferta Benth. in Niger Fl. [Monosis conferta malaria, tuberculosis, lower respiratory tract infections,
(Benth.) C. Jefrey] [177]; Vernonia leopoldii Vatke [Orbi- neonatal disorders, and diarrheal diseases [95] constitute the
vestus leopoldii (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) H. Rob.] [178]; and top 5 most deadly pathologies in the DRC, the results of our
Vernonia zeylanica Less [syn Jefreycia zeylanica (L.) H. Rob, study show that the target population has a subsequent
S. C. Keeley & Skvarla] [179]. phytotherapeutic arsenal to manage two (malaria and di-
Te fact that some taxa in the same genus as the taxa frst arrhea) of these fve pathologies. Te population’s tendency
reported in this study have been reported as healing plants to resort to nonconventional medicine signifcantly con-
suggests that there is a likelihood that these previously tributes to the country’s healthcare system.
unstudied taxa may also carry healing activity. Tis review of
the literature at the genus level also highlights the taxa
4.3. Wound-Healing Recipes. Te healing recipes reported in
Monotes africanus and Polhillides velutina, for which no this study are topical. Te leaf is the most frequently used
taxon in the genus has been reported as a healing plant, and organ, and the poultice is the most convenient form of use.
raises the need to determine as soon as possible whether Tese characteristics are not expected in ethnobotanical
these two taxa would be the frst in their genus to have studies in the region [35, 54, 128], where the leaf is the most
healing properties. widely used organ, decoction is the predominant form, and
the oral route is the most common. In a previous study of the
country’s healing plants [34, 77] and other ethnobotanical
4.2. Highlighted Plants. According to their TCIs, Securidaca
reports on wound care [80, 180–184], the leaf was the most
longepedunculata (0.689) for the study as a whole and the
commonly used organ, as in the present study. However, the
category of taxa from households alone; Allium sativum
use of leaves is not unequivocal. Similar studies show
(0.086) for taxa from all three sources (households, tradi-
a preferential use of bark [26, 185, 186].
tional practitioners, and herbalists); Acalypha cupricola
Similarly, the forms of taxa used with healing potential
(0.081) for taxa from herbalists alone; Moringa oleifera
also vary. In some studies, powder [183, 187], maceration
(0.043) for taxa derived from conventional practitioners
[26], or decoction [77, 188] is predominant, whereas, in our
alone; Sterculia quinqueloba (0.024) for taxa derived from
study, poultice is dominant. Te latter has the advantage of
traditional practitioners and herbalists; and Acalypha chir-
reducing infammation, soothing pain, and thoroughly
indica (0.047) for taxa derived from conventional practi-
cleansing the skin of toxins and infectious agents. Most of the
tioners and households are the most consensual taxa in this
healing recipes in this study are used externally for wounds;
study, each in its category. Having the highest therapeutic
the poultice form and local application are the most suitable.
consensus index puts these taxa in a solid and infuential
position regarding their importance in nonconventional
wound care in Lubumbashi. None of these 12 original taxa 4.4. Characteristics of the Interviewed Population. Unlike
(class C4) are among the abovementioned plants. Tis previous ethnobotanical studies in Lubumbashi, this study
implies that widespread taxa do not necessarily contain interviewed more women than men [35, 54, 128, 139]. Tis
a region’s originality in healing. discrepancy can be explained by the fact that, unlike the
According to their medicinal usual values, Lantana present study, the studies above were carried out among
camara (13 uses) for the study as a whole and the group of practitioners of traditional medicine, predominantly men. In
plants originating from traditional practitioners, Xylopia contrast, the present study account felt the general pop-
aethiopica (10 uses) for taxa originating from TP and ulation, which, like the national population in the 40–60 age
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26 Te Scientifc World Journal

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Bashige Et Al - 2024-Wound Healing Plant-The Wolrd Scientific Journal

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Bashige Et Al - 2024-Wound Healing Plant-The Wolrd Scientific Journal

Uploaded by

Wiley

The Scientific World Journal

Bashige Chiribagula Valentin ,1 Okusa Ndjolo Philippe ,1 Manya Mboni Henry ,1

Correspondence should be addressed to Bashige Chiribagula Valentin; [email protected]

Received 24 May 2024; Accepted 16 July 2024

Academic Editor: Neeraj S. Takur

1. Introduction wounds, abrasions, contusions, ulcers, and burns, can be

Figure 1: Map of the city of Lubumbashi in Haut-Katanga, DRC.

Table 1: Household sample size.

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

TCI UP Medicinal uses MUI

Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Wound, diabetes,

NA-TA-SA-MA 1 Perennial Annual

Table 3: Characteristics of herbal healing recipes used in blends.

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0

Table 4: Sociodemographic characteristics of people consulted.

range, is predominantly female. Te fact that most of the References

[183] Z. Siddique, G. M. Shah, H. M. Ahmed et al., “Ethno-

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