GRADE: XI PHYSICS BRIEF NOTES

CHAPTER 01- UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Physical quantity: A measurable quantity is called a physical quantity. Ex: Length, mass, time, area, volume etc.
Fundamental quantities: The physical quantities which are independent of each other are called fundamental
quantities.
There are SEVEN fundamental quantities.
They are, Length, Mass, Time, Electric current, Thermodynamic temperature, Amount of substance and Luminous
Intensity

Derived quantities: The physical quantities which can be expressed in the form of a product or quotient of the
fundamental quantities are called derived units. Ex: Area, Volume, Force, momentum, speed etc.

Unit: The basic, arbitrary chosen, internationally accepted standard of reference which is used to express a physical
quantity is called a unit.
S I System: The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the system of
International (S I) and it was developed by General conference on weights and measures in 1971.
The earlier systems of units are FPS, CGS and MKS system.
Fundamental units: The units used to express fundamental quantities are called Fundamental units. The table gives
the list of fundamental quantities and their units in SI.
Derived units: The units which can be expressed as combination of base units are called derived units.
Ex: ms-1, ms-2, kgms-1, m2, m3 etc.
General guidelines for using symbols and units:
 Symbols for units are written in lower case starting with small letters.
 The unit names are never capitalised, however the unit symbols are capitalised only if the symbol for
a unit is derived from a proper name of scientist.
 Symbols for units do not contain any punctual marks and remain unaltered in the plural.
Advantages of SI units:
 It is a rational system: It uses only one unit for a given quantity.
 It is a coherent system: Every unit can be derived from seven fundamental and two supplementary
units.
 It is a metric system: Multiple and sub multiples of unit can be expressed as the powers of TEN.
 It is internationally accepted.
Measurement of length:
Length of various objects or distances between the objects differ widely ranging from the radius of proton of
about 10-15m to the average size of the universe with a radius of about 1026m.
Some of the simple measurement of length involves the use of
a) A metre scale for lengths from 10-3m to 102m.
b) Vernier callipers for lengths to accuracy of about 10-4m.
c) A screw gauge or spherometer to measure lengths of the order of 10-5m.
In order to measure lengths beyond these ranges some special indirect methods are adopted. One of them is
the parallax method.

Parallax: It is the change in the position of an object to its background, when the object is seen from two
different positions. The distance between the two different points of observation is called the Basis.

Measurement of mass: Mass is the basic property of matter. It is expressed in kg, but for atomic and sub
atomic particles, we use unified atomic mass unit (u).
unified atomic mass unit (u): One unified atomic mass unit is equal to ( 1/12 th ) of the mass of an atom of
carbon-12 isotope including the mass of electrons. 1u = 1.66×10-27kg
The mass of various objects differ widely ranging from the mass of an electron about to the mass of
universe with about .
Masses of commonly available objects are measured using a common balance. Inertial mass of an object is
measured using an inertial balance.
Masses of microscopic objects are determined by spectroscopic method, using a mass spectroscope.
Masses of astronomical objects are estimated using Newton’s law of gravitation.
Masses of binary stars are estimated using Kepler’s law of time periods.

Measurement of time: Time measurements are done using a clock.

Now we use an atomic standard of time which is based on the periodic vibrations produced in a cesium-133
atom. Cesium atomic clocks are very accurate.
Measurement of time intervals ranging from 10-16s to 10-24s is estimated using photographic emulsions
involved in the decay of elementary particles.
Radioactive dating is used to estimate time intervals in the range of several hundred years to millions of
years.

Note: A Cesium atomic clock is used at the National physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi to maintain the
Indian standard of time.

Accuracy, precision of instrument and errors in measurements

Accuracy: The accuracy is the measure of how much close the measured value is to the true value of the
quantity.
Precision: It indicates, to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.
Least count of the instrument: The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is
called least count.
Ex: least count of meter scale = 0.1 cm = 1 mm, least count of vernier callipers = 0.01 cm

Error: The uncertainty in the measurement is called error.

Errors are due to lack of accuracy and insufficient precision. The errors in measurement are classified into
two types based on cause, (i) Systematic error
(ii) Random error
Systematic error: Systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or
negative and affect each measurement by same amount. these errors are due to known cause.
Sources of systematic error (types of systematic errors)
a) Instrumental error: These errors occur due to faulty instrument or imperfect design of the measuring
instrument.
b) Imperfection in experimental procedure: These errors arise due to false procedure or limitations of
experimental arrangements.
c) Personal errors: These arise due to individual’s bias, lack of attentiveness or bad sights.

Methods of reducing systematic errors:

Systematic errors can be minimised by,
a) Selecting better instruments
b) Improving experimental techniques.
c) Removing personal bias.
Random errors: The random errors are those errors which occur irregularly due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions. Random errors appear due to unknown reasons.
Ex: Reading of physical balance may change due to settling of dust, change in temperature, pressure etc.

Minimising random errors: Random errors can be minimised by repeating the measurements and taking
the arithmetic mean of all measurements.
Least count error: This error is associated with the resolution or the precision of the instrument.
Minimising least count error:
Least count error can be minimised by
a) using instruments of higher precision
b) improving experimental techniques
c) taking mean of all observations.

Significant figures: In a measured value the reliable digits and the first uncertain digit are known as
significant figures.
Importance of significant figures:
Significant figures indicate the precision of the instrument.
Number of significant figure does not change if we measure a physical quantity in different units.

Rules for determining the significant figures:

 All non-zero digits are significant.
Ex: 2341 m → has 4 significant figures.
14.3m → has 3 significant figures
 All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.
Ex: 308 m → has 3 significant figures.
23.08 m → has 4 significant figures.
 In a number without decimal point trailing or terminal zeros are NOT significant.
Ex: 12300 m → has 3 significant figures.
104000 m → has 3 significant figures.
 In number with decimal point, trailing or terminal zeros are significant.
Ex: 4.700 m → has 4 significant figures.
23.04000 m → has 7 significant figures.
 If the number is less than 1, then zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left of the first non-
zero digit are NOT significant.
Ex: 0.067 m → has 2 significant figures.
0.0003080 m → has 4 significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities: Dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the
base quantities are raised to represent the physical quantity.

Note: Dimensions of a physical quantity explain its relationship with fundamental quantities. All the
derived physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combination of seven fundamental
quantities.
Dimensions of a physical quantity are denoted with square bracket
.
Limitations of dimensional analysis:

1) Dimensionally correct equation need not be actually correct.

2) Correctness of the constants appearing in an equation cannot be verified.
3) Equations involving trigonometric and exponential functions cannot be verified.
4) An equation can be derived only if it is of product type.
5) While deriving en equation the value of constant of proportionality cannot be obtained.
6) This method works only if there are as many equations available as there are unknowns.

Regards,
Shreya.S.B.
Physics department.